PGTRB Physics - Unit 5 Study Maetrials - English Medium PDF Download

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Introduction
t t etet etet etet
The
l i.ente which describes
ail.antheory l ail.an i.ente
physical phenomena ail.ani.n to the interaction
related
l l ail.ani.n stationary electric
between l ail.ani.n
s
ada as aas as s
ada as s as s as
.wp.apda charges or charge .apdad
.wpdistributions .wp.apdastationary boundariesis aada
.wp.apdcalled .w
aa
p.apdad
w w in space w
with w electrostatics. w The forces
ww ww ww ww ww w
on all stationary charges are purely electrical. Charge is the fundamental characteristic property of the
t t t t t
l a i .ani.ente particle that constitutes
elementary
l l a il.ani.ente matter. The fundamental l a il.ani.ente law for electrostatic l a il.ani.enteforces is Coulomb‟s l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
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w law. The basicwconcepts w and other lawswof w electrostatic can be derived w from it. w
ww ww ww
Coulomb’s Law
w w
SRIMAAN w
t t ntet of attraction orail.arepulsion ni.entet ni.entet point chargeslaisil.ani.entet

a l il.ani.ene to Coulomb,althe
According
a a il.ani.eforce a l between two a l a il.aelectric
adsas adsas adsas adsas adsaas
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p.apda p .apda p.apda p.apda p.apda
w.w directly proportional w.w to the product of magnitude w.w of two charges w w.winversely proportional
and wto.wthe square
ww ww ww w ww w
of the distance between them. The direction of force is always along the line joining the two charges.
For il.athe et
ni.entcharges of oppositelaisign,
t
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il.ani.ewhile
t
i.ente it is repulsive. lail.ani.ente
il.ansign,
t
asl a as l asl a asl a as
adsa adsa daadsa adsa adsa
w .wp.apda Consider w .wp.apdapoint charges q and
two w .wp.apQ separated by a .wp.apda r
distance
w w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
Mathematically the force F of interaction between two point charges is given by
etet etet etet etet etet
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww w
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
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w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
qQ
F 2
t t t t r n.entet t t t t
il.ani.ene il.ani.ene i.ai il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
a
adsas
l a a
adsas
l a
adsas l q Q
a l a a
adsas
la a
adsas
l a
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda aa d
w.wp.p F  K 2 w .wp.apda w.wp.apda
ww ww ww r ww ww w
where eK t is
t known as proportionality t t constant and is equal t tto 1/4πε0, hence we.niwrite t t t t
a l a il.ani.ne a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a ila .ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s s
daadsa1 q Q asa s asa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wpF.ap r̂ w .
w p.apdad w .
w p.apdad
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ww
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s
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The equation
asl ail.ani.ente
t
tet
1.1 is known as Coulomb‟s
ww
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s
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t
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tet
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law of force in
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electrostatics.
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t
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w Statement: w wwforce of attraction orwrepulsion
The ww between any two w w
ww ww point charges is directly ww proportional w
to the product of magnitude of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene them.
between
a a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas apdaada
ss ss
apdaada apdaada
ss ss
apdaada
.wp.apda The constant . p. . p. . p . . p.
ww ε0is called the permittivity
w w w w w of free space.wIn w w
w MKS units, the force, w w
ww ww wwdistance and w
charge are measured in Newton, metre and Coulomb respectively. Thus ε0=
t t t t t t t t t t
a 8.85
l a il.ani.en×e10-12 C2-N-1-m-2a. lail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda The Electric w .wp.apdastrength
field w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
The region surrounding any electric charge or group of point charges, in which the effect of its
etet ni.entet i.ente
t etet etet
sa sl ail.ani.n
electrostatic force can abe
s sl ail.aexperienced is calledalan
s s ail.anelectric field. The strength
s asl ail.ani.n of electric fieldsasi.e. l ail.ani.n
ada ada daada aa ada
w .wp.apda electric field strength w .wp.apda (E) is defined aswthe .wp.apforce experienced by
w .wa pdad positive test charge
p.aunit w .wp.apdaplaced
ww ww ww ww ww w
at that.
t tet t t t
l a il.ani.ente Consider some point l a il.ani.encharges q1, q2, q3, …….q l a il.ani.entneat distances r1, r2l,…….r a i l.ani.enten from the test lail.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada charge Q as shown. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp apdaada
. .wp.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
According to the principle of superposition, the total force acting on a test charge due to all other
t t t t t t t t t t
a a il.ani.ene is
charges
l a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
Padasalai
ww
w
ww
w wF1  F1  F          ww
Fw w w
ww
w
w
1 q1Q 1 q Q
t t
il.ani.ene i . ni.enteFt   i.ani.ente2t2          t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsa sl a a
adsa sla l a 4  0 r
2
1 adsa a4
sl 
a l 0 r2 adsaasl a a
adsasl a
ww ww ww1  q Q q Q ww  ww w
F  2  2         
1 2
4   r1 r2 t 
etet .ani.ente
t 0
.ani.ente etet etet
s aslail.ani.n s asl a il s asl a i
l s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda wQ.wp.apdaq1 q 2 w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww Fw w       w
 w  ww w
4 0  r12 r2 2 
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente Q n
ql a i
l .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
apda
sas sas F adsaas 2i sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada 4 
.wp. .wp.apdaada .
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w w w 0 i1 ri w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
F  QE
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas dads1as
n
qi ss
apdaada adsas
ww
w.wp.apda
ww
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ww
Ep.apa 
4 0 i1 ri 2 ww
w .wp.
ww
w.wp.apda
w
 1 n q i etet
a sl a
t t
il.ani.ene a sl a
t t
il.ani.ene E
4
 a slaril.anr̂ n
2 ii.
a sl a
t t
il.ani.ene a sl a
t t
il.ani.ene
adsa adsa a
adad
s
a  adsa adsa
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda
0 i 1 i
w w w.wp.p w w
ww ww w w ww ww w
ww
w _____________
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s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet
ww
w.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet
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l ail.ani e
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w w w w w
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is called the electric field strength. The electric field varies from point to point. The electric field
t t tet per unit charge and tet measured in Newton/Coulomb. t t t t
a l il.ani.ene can be defined as
intensity
a a l a il.ani.enforce
the
a l a il.ani.enis a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda Charge distributions w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
The forces and electric fields due to point charges are only considered so far. But
t t ni.entet charges, there laisil.ania.entepossibility
t ni.entet t t
a l a il.ani.ene in addition atolail.apoint
practically
a
for the i.aexistence
a l a l
of
a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asa s adsa s asa s asa s
w .wp.apda continuous charge w .apdad
.wpdistributions .wp.apdaon a surface or in w
along a wline, a .wp.apdad Thus there arew.four
volume. wp.apdad
ww ww ww ww ww w
types of charge distributions, which are
a. Point t
etecharge etet etet etet etet
sa sl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda b. Line charge w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
c.Surface charge and
t t t t t
d. Volume
l a il.ani.ente charge l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente la i l.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaadaa. Point charge distribution
.wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
If the dimension of a surface carrying charge is very small compared to the region surrounding
t t t t ni.entet t
i.ente a point charge.lail.ani.ente
t
a l a il.ani.enethe surface can be
it, then
a l a il.ani.ene as a point and athe
treated
l a il.acorresponding charge isi.ncalled
a l a l a a
adsas asas adsasa dimension as shown adsas adsas
Padasalai
w .wp.apda The point charge w .apdaad definite positionw.but
.wphas wp.apdanot w .wp.apda in Figure 1.2a. wThe .wp.apdapoint
ww ww ww ww ww w
charge can be either positive or negative.
t t t t t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsb.s
a Line charge distribution adsa s adsas adsa s adsas
ww ww
It is possible that the charge may ww be extended along a line. ww Such a uniform ww w
distribution t of charge along anline tis called a line charge. This

t is shown in
.ani.ente .ai.ente .ani.ente etet etet
a sla il asl a i
l asl a i
l asl ail.ani.n asl ail.ani.n
s
ada The line charge sa
addensity is denoted byaλdaaand s
da is defined as charge s
a unit length.
adper s
ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
Ch arg e
 Coulomb / metre
t t Unit length t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sc.asSurface charge distribution sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada . wp.apdaada
w ww is distributed uniformly w over a two dimensional w surface then it is called w
ww If the wcharge ww ww ww a sheet w
of charge or a surface charge. The surface charge is shown in Figure 1.2c. The surface charge density
t t t t t t t t t t
l a il.ani.ene l ail.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
asdenoted by σ and aisdadefined
a
adsis a
adsas as charge per aunit a
adsasurface
s area. a
adsas a
adsas
w.wp.apda w .wp.p w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww wwarg e
Ch ww ww w
 Coulomb / metre2
Unit area
te t te t t t t t t t
d.
a l a il.ani.en charge distribution
Volume a l a il.ani.en a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
ww w
If thewcharge is distributed uniformly ww in a volume then wwit is called volume ofwcharge. w The w
ww
w _____________
.wp.apda
s
ada
volume charge is shown in Figure 1.2d. The volume charge density is denoted by ρ and is defined
as
asl
t t
il.ani.ene per unit volume.
acharge
tet
ww
w .wp.apda
s
ada asl ail.ani.n
etet
tet
ww
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s
ada asl ail.ani.n
tet
etet
ww
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s
adaa sl ail.ani.n
etet
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s
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etet
t
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l a i
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la i
l.ani e
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l .ani.ente
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w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww wwarg e
Ch ww ww w
 Coulomb / metre 3
Unit volume
t t t t t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
adsaField due to continuous adsascharge distributions adsas adsas adsas
ww ww
The definition of the electricwfield w i.e. equation assumes ww that the source charge ww is a set of w
discrete point t charges qi. However,t we may consider these charges t as the continuous charge t distribution
te te te te t t
a l a n
il.ai e
.n
a l a n
il.ai.e
n
a la n
il.ai e
. n
a l a n
il.ai e
. n
a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s
over some region (i.e. s
distributed
adsa continuously over
adsa s some region). adsa s adsa s
ww wwcase, we can divide thewtotal
In each w charge into several w w
infinitesimal parts, each ofww which can be w
considered as a point charge. We thus represent the total charge as a continuous collection of point
etet ni.entet entet t t
il.ani.ene etet
sasl ail.ani.n and obtain the field
charges s asl ail.aintensity at any points a l
due
s ail.ani.to the total charge s a
assl athe vector superposition s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww
of the field intensities due to individual ww point charges. However, ww now we have to evaluate ww integrals w
instead of summation of a few terms since the distribution of charges is continuous as a substitute of
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente la i
l .ani.ente
as
sbeing discrete. Hence a insaequation
s the summation samay
s be replaced by an as
sintegral i.e. sas
.
wp.apdaada .
wp.apdada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
1 dq
a i
l .
ani e
. ntet
a i
l .
ani e
. nte tE
4   r 2
r̂
a
t t
il.ani.ene a
t t
il.ani.ene a
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l 0
a l a l a l
Padasalai
w.wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww w
Electric fieldwdue to line charge w
w ww ww w
n entConsider
et a line chargeentdistribution
n et having a linear
n entet charge density λi.anas shown.
ente t The charge entet
saasl ail.ai .
s
a asla i
l .
a i.
s
a asl a i
l .
a i .
saasl a l i .
s
aaslail.ani.
adad dq on the differential
a adalength
a
d dl is λdl. a
adad a
adad a
adad
w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w w.wp.p
w w the electric field dE at w
Hence a point P due to dq is given w by w w
etet t t dq dl t t etet etet

a lail.ani.n a l il.ani.ene
adE r̂  alail.an2i.enr̂e a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n
s
ada s s
ada s 4 0 r 2
ad4a 0 r
s s s
ada s s
ada s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww field at a point P due
The total electric ww to line charge can bewobtained
w by integratingweqn.w w
over the tetlength of the charge.ni.entet t t t
l a i
l .
ani e
. n
l a i
l a l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
apdaada apdaada 1 apdaar̂dadl apdaada apdaada
ww0  r 2
w .
wp. w .
w p. E  .
w p . w .
w p. w .
w p.
ww ww 4w Line ww ww w
t t i.ente
t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.enefield due to surface
Electric
a a l ail.ancharge a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas adsas adsas asas
w.wp.apda Consider wa .apdad charge distribution
.wpsurface w .wp.apdahaving a surface charge w .wp.apdadensity σ as shownwin pdad
.wp.aFigure
ww ww ww ww ww w
1.3b. The charge dq on the differential surface area ds is σds.
tet tet at a point P due to .dq tet given by t t t t
a l a il.ani.enHence the electric field
a l a il.ani.endE a l a ilani.enis a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s asa s asa s asa s
.wp.apda .wp.apda .apdad
.wpdq .wp.apdad .wp.apdad
ww
w
ww
w w w ds ww w
ww
w
dEw r̂  r̂ w
4 0 r 4 0 r
_____________
2 2

s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n sa sl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww w
. ni e
. ntet . ni e
.ntet
TET/PG-TRB/TRB-POLYTECHNIC/PGTRB-COM.INS/TRB-BEO/TNEB/TNPSC/TNUSRB/RRB/SSC/UGC-NET . ni e
. ntet . ni e
. ntet AVAILABLE-8072230063. .ani.ente
t
l a i
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l a l ail a la i
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. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
The total electric field E at a point P due to surface charge can be obtained by integrating equation
et
.ani.entsurface
ilthe il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
over
a l a area is a l a a l a a l a a l a
adsas adsas adsas asas asas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .1wp.apda w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad
ww ww Ew
w

r̂
dsww ww w
4 0 Surface r 2
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s daadsa s adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda Electric field due w .wp.apvolume
to charge w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
Consider a volume charge distribution having a volume charge density ρ as shown. The charge dq
on the tet
edifferential volume dτi.ais tet
eρdτ.Hence the electrici.anfield etet dE at a point P due etedq
to t is given by etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl al ni.n s asl al i.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww w
dq d
dE r̂  r̂
t t t t 4  r 2
4  t r 2
t t t
l a il.ani.en e
l a il.ani. en e 0
l a il.ani. en0e
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas as
daadsabe sas
.wp.apdaada The total p.apdaada field at a point .wpP.apddue
electric
.w
aada to surface charge .wp.apcan obtained by .wp.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
integrating eqn. 1.11 over the volume in which charge is accumulated.
t t t t t t t t t t
il.ani.ene il.ani.ene E  1 ilr̂.ani.ened il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
aada r 2
a l a a l a a l a a l a a l a
adsas adsas ss adsas adsas
Padasalai
.wp.apda .wp.apda 4.p0 .apdVolume .wp.apda .wp.apda
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
Thus all type of charge distribution is possible. Therefore the total electric field at
tet ni.entet ni.entet tet t t
a il.ani.enis
aaslpoint the vector sumasof l a il.aindividual electric field a l a il.a
intensities produced aby l a .ani.encharges
ilall at a l a il.ani.ene
adsa adsa asa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apdad w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
  
ww a point. Hence ww wwTotal
E E P E L E S
wwV
E
ww w
Lines oft force t and flux
e n e etet etet etet etet
s asl .
aila ni .
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada of force is a convenient ada way to express the ada ada is
w.wp.apda w w .apdalines
The concept.pof
w .wp.apda w.wp.apdaelectric fieldE. A linew pdafore
.wp.aof
ww ww ww ww ww w
an imaginary line or curve drawn in such a way that its direction at any point gives the direction of the
electric t at that point. The
field t number of lines per
total t cross sectional area
unit t called as the fluxn.entet
is
i .ani.ente i .ani.ente i .ani.ente i .ani.ente .i
ad aasl a
sdensityl
a
dsaasl a l
a
d s
a asl a l
a
d s
a asl a l
a
d s
a aslaila
aad d
and is proportional
.p.apa to the magnitude d
.p.apaof the electric field .pE. d
.apaThe number of flux d
.plines
.apa also
w.wp.p ww w ww w ww w ww w
ww w w w
depends on the magnitude of the charge. The flux density is stronger in the region where the field lines w w
are very t close

t and is weaker in ethe t t region where the field t lines
t are far apart. t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ne a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
The properties of the filed lines are summarized as follows.
t t t t tet at a negative point t t t t
1. aThey
a l il.ani.eneemanate from aalapositive il.ani.ene point charge a l a il.ani.enend
an
a l a il.ani.ene charge a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asa s asa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda symmetrically inwall pdad
.wp.apossible directions w.wp.apdad w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
2. They originate on positive charges and terminate on negative charges
ww
w _____________
.wp.apda
s
ada asl ail.ani.n
etet
tet
ww
w .wp.apda
s
ada asl ail.ani.n
etet
tet
ww
w .wp.apda
s
ada asl ail.ani.n
tet
etet
ww
w .wp.apda
s
adaa sl ail.ani.n
etet
ww
w .wp.apda
s
ada asl ail.ani.n
etet
t
w
l a i
l .
a ni e
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l a i
l .
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l ail.ani e
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la i
l.ani e
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l .ani.ente
sas a
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sas
adsaas
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la l
l.ani.ente
t
w
.wp.apdaada 3. They can never .wp.ap

cross .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
4. There is more number of lines if electric field is stronger.
t t medium in whichncharges t t are placed. ail.ani.entet t t
l .ani.entelines are independent
5.ailThe
l a .entethe
il.aniof l a il.ai.ene l l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas a
ss a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas
.wp.apda 6. The lines always aada or leave the charged
.wp.apdenter .wp.apda surface normally.w.wp.apda .wp.apda
w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
Gauss law and its applications
t t t t tet Coulomb‟s law, one t t t t
a l a il.ani.eneGauss law is the a l
inverse
a il.ani.ene of Coulomb‟sallaw. a il.ani.enBy a l a il.ani.enecan calculate thealail.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s s
daadsa law enables us sa s adsa s
w .wp.apda electric field Ewfor .wp.apadagiven charge. But wthe .wp.apGauss‟s w todaaddetermine charge wonly
.wp.ap .wp.apdaif E
ww ww ww ww ww w
is known.
t
eteGauss‟s tet
law gives i.ani.enrelation between thei.nflux etet over any closed surface, etet called etet
sasl ail.ani.n s asl ala s asl alai.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada aa ada ada ada
w .wp.apda Gaussian surface w .apdadthe total charge enclosed
.wpand w .wp.apda within the surface. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
Statement: “The total electric flux over any closed surface is equal to (1/ε0) times the total charge
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente within the surface”.
enclosed
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente la i
l .ani.ente
sas saas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada Proof: As the electric .
wp.apdaadfield .w .apdaada to the number.wpof
strength is proportional
p . aada per unit cross sectional
apdlines .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
area (i.e. area perpendicular to the direction of lines of force), the flux of E(i.e. ʃ E·da) through
anynsurface t t is proportional .to t t number of field lines
the t
tpassing through that surface. t t t t
a l a il.ai.ene a la ilani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas ss adsas asas asas
Padasalai
.wp.apda Now let .us aada
p.apdconsider .wp.apdaplaced in the origin,
a point charge .apdadthen the flux of wE.wp.apdad
.wpand
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
through a sphere of radius r is
t t t t t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s adsas adsa s adsas
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda1  q  .wp.apda .wp.apda
w w w  r̂   ds ww w w
ww ww  w 
E  ds w
4   2 
0 r
ww w
Surface Surface 
.entet ni.entet ds  r 2sasin ni.endtet d r̂  , hence lail.ani.entet etet
aslail.aniAccording to spherical a sl ail.acoordinates, sl ail.a a a l ail.ani.n
. p.ap
s
daada . p a
. p
s
daada . p a
. pdaada . p.apdaadsas .wp.apda
s
ada s
ww ww ww ww w
ww ww ww1  q  2 ww ww
 4 0  r 2 r̂   r sin  d d r̂ 
w
 
 E  ds  Surface
t Surface
t   t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
apdaada apdaada apdaad1a qr̂    sin  d d.wp.apr̂daada apdaada
ww
w .
wp.
ww
w .
w p.  wwwSurface
E
Surface
 ds  .
w 4 0
p .
ww
w
ww
w .
w p.
w
il.ani.esin
ntet  d d r̂r̂ 
t t t t q t t t t
l a il.ani.ene l ail.ani.ene E  ds   l a l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas a
adsas 4s
a
Surfaceadsa 0
a
adsas a
adsas
Surface
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
 4 0   sin  d d 
q
 E  ds  Surface
t t t t
Surface t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s s s s s adsa s
.wp.apda .wp.apda apdqaada  sin  d d.wp.apdaada .wp.apda
ww
w
ww
w  ww 4 
E
Surface
 ds
w 
.wp.
0 Surface
ww
w
ww
w
w
ww
w _____________
.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet
ww
w.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet
ww
w .wp.apda
s
ada asl
tet
etet
ail.ani.n
ww
w .wp.apda
s
adaasl
etet
ail.ani.n
ww
w .wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
t
w
l a i
l .
a ni e
. n
l a i
l .
a ni e
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l ail.ani e
. n
la i
l.ani e
. n
l a i
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w w w w wqw w  ww w  w w
ww ww
 E  ds  w 4    sin  dw d   4 ww w
Surface
4 0  Surface 
t t t t t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene q a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas adsasE  ds  asas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda Surface  w .
w p.apdad w .wp.apda
ww ww ww 0
ww ww w
1
a l a n
il.ai e
.nte t
a l a n
il.ai.e
nte t  E 
a
ds
la
n . t t q
il.ai ne0 
e
a l a
t t
il.ani.ene a l a
t t
il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s adsa
Surface s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww w
Fromwequation 1.16 we note that ww the radius of the sphere ww cancels out, i.e. the wsame w number w
of field lines passes through any sphere centred at the origin regardless of its size and shape. Hence
t t ni.entet t t etet etet
the
a l il.ani.enethrough any surface
aflux a l ail.aenclosing the charge is
a l il.ani.ene to (q/ε ).
aequal a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n
s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s 0 s
ada s s
ada s
ww wware number of chargeswat
If there w the origin instead ofwawsingle charge, then according ww to the w
principle of superposition the total electric field is the sum of all the individual fields. Thus
t t t t t
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente la i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww n
ww ww
E   Ei
w
i
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
as the flux through
adsThen adsassurface enclosing aall sas fields is adsas adsas
Padasalai
any adthe
w.wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww n  ww  ww w
 E  ds   
i Surface
 t 
E i  ds
te t te t t t t t t
il.ani.en il.ani.en il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
Surface
a sl a a sl a asl a asl a asl a
adsa adsa asa asa adsa
.wp.apda .wp.apda p.apdad n  1  w.wp.apdad .wp.apda
  ds  i   0 q i ww
w w w .E
w w
ww ww ww ww w
Surface
tet shown in Figure 1.5,

eAs eteat charge outside thei.ansurface
etet would not contribute etet anything to the i.ani.entet
s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl al i.n s asl ail.ani.n saaslal
a da a
adtotal a daadalines enter in one aside daadaand emerge out theadother
aada side. Therefore for a daaany
d
w.wp.p flux, since its field
w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p
ww ww ww ww ww w
closed surface, the total flux is
t t  1 ail.ani.entet t t
i .ani.ente i .ani.ente i .ani.ente i .ani.ente
p.
sas
apdaada
l a l
p.
sas
apdaada
l a l
 E  ds p.apdaads0aaQs Enclosed 
l
p.
sas
apdaada
l a l
p.
sas
apdaada
l a l
w .
w w .w Surface
w .w w .
w w .
w
ww ww ww ww ww w
This is Gauss‟s law.
a l a n e
il.ai.
Differential
n
form of Gauss’s
a l a n en
il.ai.law a l ail.ani.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda
ww A differential
ww form of Gauss‟s wwlaw for continuous charge ww distribution is obtained ww by w
applying the divergence theorem to equation
t t t t t t t t t t
adsa s adsa s s s adsa s adsa s
.wp.apda .wp.apda apdaada .wp.apda .wp.apda
 Eww ds     E  d
w w w .
w p. w w
ww ww ww ww w
_____________
Surface Volume

s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n sasl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww w
. ni e
. ntet . ni e
.ntet
. ntet . ni e
t
l a i
l a l a i
l a l ail a la i
l a l a i
l
sas a
.
.
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w w w w w
ww
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ada saslal
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l .ani.ente
t
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l .ani.ente
t
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sasl
ada
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ww
a i
l
saslal
.ani.ente
t
ww
sasl a i
l
a
w.wp.p
daadsaas
.ani.ente
la l
t
w
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww enclosed within theww
The charge surface S can be expressed ww in terms of the charge ww density w
ρas etet t t t t t t t t
a lail.ani.
n
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s s adsas ss ss adsas
adaad a
.wp.apda aada     d .p.apdaada
.apdEnclosed
.wpQ .wp.apda
w w.wp.p w w w w w
w ww ww Volume ww ww w
Now the Gauss‟s law becomes
t t t t t t t t t t
l a il.ani.ene l ail.ani.ene la il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsa s a
adsa s a
adsa s  1  dadsa as a
adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apEda ds    w .w pd.apa w .wp.apda
ww ww w
w Surface Volume  w
 0 w  ww w
Comparingt equations we get
ete etet etet etet etet
s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s  1  s
ada s s
ada s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda   wE.wp .apdad      wd.w p.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww
Volume
 w
Volume  0 w  ww w
The
tet equation is hold good tetfor any integral and.ni.hence tet the integrands must tebe
t equal. t
l ail.ani e
.n
l a i
l .
an i e
. n
l a il a en
l a il.ani.en
l a il.ani.ente
saas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaadTherefore .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww  1  ww ww w
  E    
entet entet   0 etet t t t t
a l a i
l .
ani .
a l a i
l .
a ni .
a l a il.ani.n a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
sas s of Gauss‟s law.Itdastates
adsaform dsas that the divergence asthe electric field intensity
adsof adsas
Padasalai
adrepresents the differential
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apa w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww w
at any pointwis equal to (1/ε ) times wwthe volume charge density ww at that point. ThiswiswMaxwell‟s w
0
divergence entet form of electric field, enteE.

t t t t t t t
a l ail. ani .
a la il. ani.
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
ww ww ww ww ww w
Applications of Gauss law
Gauss‟s etet law can be used tet
etocalculate the electric ete t
field Efor symmetrical et
etcharge distribution, i.ani.entet
a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n lal
a da
s
ada s
a da
s
ada s
a da
s
ada s
a da
s
ada s
a daadsaas
w.wp.p such as point charge, w.wp.pan infinite line charge, w.wp.pan infinite sheet ofww .wp.p and a spherical distribution
charge w.wp.p
ww ww ww w ww w
of charge.The symmetry is crucial for the application of Gauss‟s law in its integral form. There
are onlyi et kinds of symmetry.
.ani.entthree i
t
.ani.enteThey are i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
sas l a l sas l a l sas l a l sas l a l sas l a l
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada symmetry,
(i) spherical .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
(ii) cylindrical symmetry and
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene (iii) plane symmetry.
a l ail.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas adsassphere or due to adsas adsas
w.wp.apda (a) Electric field w .apdadto a uniformly wcharged
.wpdue .wp.apda w .wp.apdaspherical chargew.wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
distribution
t t t t t t t t t t
adsa s Consider a uniform s
asa spherical charge a s
distribution
asa of radius R. Let s
sq be the total charge on athe
sa s
.wp.apda sphere and ρbe the .apdad charge density.
.wpvolume .wp.pdadour aim is to findwthe aada
.wp.apdelectric .apdaad
.wpat
w w w Now filed w
intensity
ww ww ww ww ww w
point P (i) outside the sphere, (ii) on the sphere and (iii) inside the sphere.
ww
w _____________
.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet
ww
w.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet
ww
w .wp.apda
s
ada asl
tet
etet
ail.ani.n
ww
w .wp.apda
s
adaasl
etet
ail.ani.n
ww
w .wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet AVAILABLE-8072230063. t
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l a i
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a ni e
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l a i
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a ni e
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l ail.ani e
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la i
l.ani e
. n
l a i
l .ani.ente
sas a
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w w w w w
ww
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i
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w
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wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w ww wwsuch thatr > R. To find w
ww wwconsider a point P at a w
Let us distance r from the centrewO, wwthe electric w
field at a point P, imagine a Gaussian spherical surface of radius r as illustrated in Figure 1.6a. By
t t ntet t t .ani.ente
t t t
a l ail.ani.ene the E at all points
symmetry a l a il.ani.eon the Gaussian l a
surface
a il.ani.enise equal and normal a l a ilto the surface.The flux
a l a il.ani.ene
ww through the w w
surface is given by ww ww ww w
t t t
te  Eds (angle between t t t t t t
a
adsa sl a il.ani.ene 
adsa
Ela ids
as l.ani.en
a
adsa sla il.ani.eneE and ds is zero) a
adsa sl a il.ani.ene a
adsa sl a il.ani.ene
Surface Surface
w w w w w
ww Since E is constant ww over the Gaussianwsurface, w
then ww ww w
 ds aslEail.an4i.entret
2
etet etet E etet etet
sasl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada
Surface
ada ada
ww ww ww q ww ww w
By Gauss‟s law E  4r 2 
0
t t t t t
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente la i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas 1 q sas sas
.wp.apdaada or .wp.apdaada . wp.apdaadEa . wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w 4 0 r www 2 w
ww ww ww ww w
 1 q t t
or i.ni.entet i .ni e
. nte t E  r̂ e
2i.ani.en
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a a la l a 4  a l
r a l a l a a l a
adsas adsas adsa0 s adsas adsas
Padasalai
ww ww field at any point w
Thus the electric w
outside the charged sphere wwis the same as if the charge ww on the w
sphere concentrated at the centre.
t t t t t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
adsa Case (ii) At a point on s
adsathe surface of the asphere adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww Here r = R, w w
(Figure 1.6b) hence ww ww ww w
1 q
t t E 
a i
l.ani.ente a i
l .ani.ente 4 0 R 2 ail.ani.entet ail.ani.n
etet
ail.ani.n
etet
ada ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda ~ w1.wp.apdaq w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww E ww r̂ ww ww w
4 0 R 2
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l ai l.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaadaCase (iii)At apoint .wp. aadathe surface of the.psphere
apdon w .apdaada .wp.apdaada . wp.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
Let the point P be inside the sphere at a distance r from the centre O. Construct a
t t tet t
.ani.ente P as shown. Then t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene sphere with radius
Gaussian
a l ail.anir.enpassing through the ipoint
a l a l a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas adsas q adsas adsas
w.wp.apda according to Gauss‟s w .wp.apdalaw, w .wp.apda  E  ds  w .wp.apda w.wp.apda
ww ww ww Surface
 0 ww ww w
q
i .
a ni entet In this case, the volume
. i .ani entet charge density  i.ani.entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsa sl a l a
adsa sl a l a
adsa sl a l  4  a
adsa sl a a
adsa sl a
  R
3
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda  3  w .wp.apda w .wp.apda

ww ww ww ww ww w
ww
w _____________
.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet
ww
w.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet
ww
Surface
a
w.wp.p
daadsaasa
0
1 4
 E  ds  lail.ani.en3tet r
tet
3
ww
w .wp.apda
s
adaasl
etet
ail.ani.n
ww
w
.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
t
w
l a i
l .
a ni e
. n
l a i
l .
a ni e
.n
l ail.ani e
. n
la i
l.ani e
. n
l a i
l .ani.ente
sas a
.
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w p.apdaada
w w w w w
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t
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wp.apdaada But .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
1  4  3t
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene E  ds    i.ni.entre t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
s0asla3l 
a l a a l a a a a l a a l a
adsas adsas Surface a
d adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda d
aa
w.wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww 2 1  4  3 ww ww w
E  4r    r
0  3 
t t t t t t t t t t
adsa s adsa s 1 a1sa  4 
s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda E w.wp.ap2dad   r 3 w.wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww 4r  0  3  ww ww w
Substituting t the value of ρ, we thave etet etet etet

l a il.ani.ente l ai l.ani.ente l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
s
adaa s s
ada as s as s as s as
.wp.apda .wp.apda 1 .p1.apdaadaq 4 3 aa
p.apdad
aa
p.apdad
w w E  w w    r w .w w .w
ww ww w4wr 2  0  4  3  3  ww ww w
 R
3
t t t t t t t
l a il.ani.en e
l a il.ani.e n e
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas 1 1 dadsqaas  4  sas sas
. p.apdaada . p.apdaada E . p .apa   r . p.apdaada . p.apdaada
ww
w w
ww
w w
ww 4w  0  4  3  3  www
w w
ww
w w
 R w
3
t t t t t t t t t t
l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene 1 q l a il.ani.e4ne l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas a
adsas E adsas   r
a asasa asasa
Padasalai
.wp.apda .wp.apda 4w da4  3  3 
.wp0 .ap .wp.apdad .wp.apdad
ww
w
ww
w
ww  R ww
w
ww
w
w
3
1 qr qr
i .ani entet
. i .ani entet E 
.  ail.ani.ente3 t t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
asl a l asl a l 4  R 3
asl
4  R asl a asl a
0 0
w w w w w
ww ww ~ w qr
E w r̂ ww ww w
4 0 R 3
etet entet etet ni.entr.etIt is maximum lail.ani.entet

asl ail.ani.nThus the electricsafield sl ail.ani.intensity at appoint as ail.ani.n the sphere depends
inside
l asl ail.aon a
. p.ap
s
daada . p.apdaada . p .apdaadas
. p.ap
s
daada . p.apdaadsas
ww atr=R. ww ww ww ww
ww ww ww ww ww w
(b) Electric field due to a uniformly charged cylinder
t t t t t
l a il.ani.ente Consider a l a il.ani.ente of a uniformlylacharged
portion il.ani.ente infinitely longlailcylinder .ani.ente with radius l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
. p.apdaada . p.apdaada . p .apdaada . p.apdaada . p.apdaada
ww
w w aand surfaceww w w
charge density σ. Nowwwe w
wwwish to find the electric w w
ww field at a point P which
w w
ww is at a w
distance r from the axis of the cylinder. For this construct a Gaussian surface in the form of a
cylinder of length l with radius r and coaxial with the charged cylinder. t t
i .ani entet
. i .ani entet
. i .a ni entet
. il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l a l a l a l a a l a
adsasThe flux through the dsas
acylindrical Gaussian surface adsas is adsas adsas
ww ww ww ww ww w
 E
Surface
 ds  E  ds  E 2  rl
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene to Gauss‟s law,
According
a a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda 1  w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww w ds   Q ww ww

wE
   enclosed
w
_____________
Surface  0
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww w
. ni e
. ntet . ni e
.ntet
. ntet . ni e
t
l a i
l a l a i
l a l ail a la i
l a l a i
l
sas a
.
.
wp.apYour p
w apdaEmail
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w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww
a
w.wp.p
da
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lal
ww
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ada saslal
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ww
ww
a
w.wp.p
daadsaas
lal
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
.p.apda
ada
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ww
ww
sasl a i
l
saslal
.ani.ente
t
ww
a
w.wp.p
daadsaas
la l
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
w
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww1 ww ww ww w
 E
Surface
 ds 
0
[Total charge enclosed within the Gaussian surface]
l a ni.entet
il.aThe l a ntet
il.ani.e l a
t t
il.ani.eisnegiven by l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas total charge a
enclosed
adsas by the Gaussian a
surface
adsas a
adsas a
adsas
ww ww Charge = volume ww × volume densitywof w charge ww w
2
Hence the charge enclosed in Gaussian surface = πr lρ
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ene a1la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s s s s
 pds sa r 2l
daad adsa adsa
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .E
p.a
w 0 w.wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww
Surface ww ww w
etet etet 1 ete2 t etet etet

asl ail.ani.n asl ail.ani.n E  ds  asl ail.ani.nr l asl ail.ani.n asl ail.ani.n
s
ada s
ada a a 0
s s
ada s
ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w p.apdad
.w
Surface
ww ww ww ww ww w
1
E  2rl   r l
2
t t  0 tet t t
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.en l a i
l.ani.ente la i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaadaor .
wp.apdaada . p
w
E apdaadra
. . wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww 2 0 ww ww w
t t t ~ r t t t t t
orlail.ani.ente la il.ani.ene E l r̂il.ani.ente
a l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas a
adsas 2sas0
a a
adsas a
adsas
Padasalai
ad
ww Thus the electricww field E inside a charged ww cylinder is directlywproportional w ww of the
to the distance w
point from the axis of the cylinder.

i .n
ai entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
asl a l asla asl a a sl a asl a
adsa(c) Electric field due dsaan infinite planepof
ato adsa
charge adsa adsa
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda
ww ww
Consider a portion w
of an infinite thinwnon-conducting ww of charge as shownwinw Figure 1.8.
plane sheet w
To findt the t electric field E nnear t it, construct a Gaussian t surface of cross-sectional t area A in the n.entet
i.ani.ene i .ai.ente i.ani.ente i .ani.ente .i
ads
a la
aform
s l
of a pill-box sa
extending
ad
l a l
as equal distances above adsa l a l
as and below the planeas adsa l a l
asshown in Figure 1.8.adThe s
a aslaila
ada ada ada ada ada
ww w w w w w w
direction of the electric field E is normal to the end faces andaway from the plane. No lines of force w w w
pierce through
tet the curved surface tet of the pill box, therefore tet the curved surface.nidoes tet not contribute to .ni.entet
i .ni e
. n i .ni e
. n i . ni.en i e
. n ia
dad slalaflux.i.e.
saathe d a
dsaaslal
a
d a
d saaslal
a
d a
d saaslal
a
d a
d saaslal
aa .p.apa .p.apa .p.apa .p.apa
w.wp.p ww w ww w ww w ww w
ww
 E  da  0.Hence the total flux is equal to the sum of the contribution from the two
Surface
w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t
l
enda il.ani.ente Thus
faces. l ail.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas
ww ww ww 1 ww ww w

Surface
E  ds  
 
 0
 Q Enclosed
t t t t t t t t t t
a il.ani.ene a n
il.ai e
. n e
a il.ani.ene a il.ani.ene a il.ani.ene
a
adsa sl a
adsa sl as
l  asl a sl
daadsa  1  Q Enclosed .p.apdaadsa adsa
ww
w .wp.apda
ww
w .wp.apda 
Surface
E  ds  EA.wp.apEA
ww
w  
 0 ww
ww
ww
w .wp.apda
w
ww
w _____________
.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet
ww
w.wp.apda
s asl ail
ada Surface
t
tet
ww
w .wp.apda
s
1 t t
.ani.ente E  ds  2EA   lail.aniQ

ada 0 
as
tet
e
.enEnclosed
ww
w .wp.apda
s
adaasl
etet
ail.ani.n
ww
w
.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
t
w
l a i
l .
a ni e
. n
l a i
l .
a ni e
.n
l ail.ani e
. n
la i
l.ani e
. n
l a i
l .ani.ente
sas a
.
.
wp.apYour p
w apdaEmail
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww
a
w.wp.p
da
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adsaas
lal
ww
.p.apda
ada saslal
www.Padasalai.Net
ww
ww
a
w.wp.p
daadsaas
lal
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
.p.apda
ada
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ww
ww
sas
saslal
l a i
l.ani.ente
t
ww
a
w.wp.p
daadsaas
la l
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
w
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w The total charge w w w w
ww ww enclosed by the cylinder ww is σA. ww ww w
Hence
t t t t t t t t t t
l ail.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas a
adsas a
asas 1 a
asas a
adsas
ww
w .wp.apda
ww
w .wp.apda ww
Surface
E
w .apdad2EA   Aw.wp.apdad
.wpds
  0 ww ww
w .wp.apda
w
A t t A
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene 2EA  i.ani.eor ne E  t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsa sl a a
adsa sl a asl
adsa 0
a l 2 A 0 adsaasl a a
adsa sl a
ww ww ww  ww ww w
or E
2 0
etet etet n.entet etet etet
sasl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n  asaaslail.ai s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada aa ada
.wp.apda or .wp.apda E
.wp.apdad n̂ .wp.apdad .wp.apda
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w 2 0 ww
w
ww
w
w
In equation 1.30, n̂is a unit vector pointing awayt from the surface. Heretwe note that the
. ni e
.ntet .ni e
. ntet .ani.ente .ani.ente .ani.ente
t
l aila l a i
l a l a i
l l a i
l la i
l
saselectric field is independent sas of the distance dof as point from the sheet.
sthe sasSo E is the same for sas
all
.
wp.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .wp.apaada .wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww points on each ww side of the sheet. ww ww ww w
The
a ntet
potential
il.ani.e function i.ni.entet
a l a a il.ani.ene
t t
a
t t
il.ani.ene a
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l a l
adsas ss daadsas asas asas
Padasalai
.wp.apda The electric aada around a charged
.wp.apdfield .wp.apbody can be described .apdadonly by the electric
.wpnot .apdad
.wpfield
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
intensity E but also by a scalar quantity called the electric potential V.
tet ni.entet i.ente
t ntet t t
a l a
Theil.ani.en
electric potential a
at l a
a il.apoint in an electric a l
fielda il.anis defined as the a
amountl ail.ani.eof work done by a
an l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s adsa s adsa s adsas
ww external agent wwin moving a unit positive ww charge from infinity to ww that point against the electrical ww force w
t
of theentfield. If W is the amount t work done in bringing
of t a positive test charge Qt from infinity to etet
la i
l.ani. e l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l ail.ani.n
s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as
w.wp.apda a point in the electricw .wp.apdafield, then the potential w .wp.apdaat that point is w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
t t W .ni.entet t t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente V  l a i
l a l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas saas sas sas
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaadQ .wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
If W is measured in joules, Q in Coulombs, then the potential V is in volts. Hence
t t t t 1 Joulen.entet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene 1 Volt  a l ail.ai a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas adsas
1 Coulomb adsas adsas
ww Since both W wwand Q are scalar quantities, ww the potential V also ww
a scalar. ww w
Thenpotential t t difference n.entet t t t t t t

a l a il.ai.ene a l ail.ai a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s adsa s asa s adsa s
w .wp.apda Consider w .wp.apdapoints
two .wp.apda by a distance r was.wpshown.
A and B separated
w .apdad The potentialwdifference .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
_____________
between two points is numerically equal to the work done in moving a unit positive test charge (q)
entet entet etet etet etet
s asl
fromail.ani.one point (a) to s asl
another ail.ani.point (b). s asl ail.ani.n sa sl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww w
. ni e
. ntet . ni e
.ntet
. ntet . ni e
t
l a i
l a l a i
l a l ail a la i
l a l a i
l
sas a
.
.
wp.apYour p
w apdaEmail
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww
a
w.wp.p
da
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lal
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ada saslal
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ww
a
w.wp.p
daadsaas
lal
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l .ani.ente
t
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
.p.apda
ada
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ww
ww
sas
saslal
l a i
l.ani.ente
t
ww
a
w.wp.p
daadsaas
la l
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
w
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
Thus the t
t potential difference between t t two points a and.nib.entis t defined as t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a ila e a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas ss
aada Wab .p.apdaadsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w p.ap(db
.w
V )  V ( a )  ww w .wp.apda
ww ww ww qww ww w
where,a nteabt is the work done

il.ani.eW ail.aby et external agent in imoving
ni.entan a l
t
.ani.ente a positive test lcharge
a
t t t t
il.ani.ene q from a to b. alail.ani.ene
a sl a sl a sl a s s
ww Relation between ww V and E ww ww ww w
tet
eConsider two points ai.and etebt in an electric fieldi.anas et
etshown .Let the charge eqteist moved from a to bi.ani.entet
a l ail.ani.n a l alani.n a l al i.n a l ail.ani.n lal
a d
a
s
ada s
a da
s
ada s
a d
a
s
ada s
a d
a
s
ada s
a daadsaas
w.wp.p along the path as w.wp.p w.wp.pThe electric forcewexerted
w.wp.p on q by Q is qE.ww .wp.p
ww ww shown by the external wwagent. w w The external w
agent would t supply an equal and opposite

t force F on theetcharge t in order to moveetit. t Hence the force is n.entet
il.ani.ente i
l .ani.ente i
l .ani.ne i
l.ani.ne i.ai
d a
d saasl a
d a
d saasl a
d a
d saasl a
d a
dsaasl a
d a
d saaslal
aa aa aa aa aa
ww ww ww F  qE ww ww w
The charge t t moves a small distance t t dl along the closed t by the application
t path toft above force. t t
adsas ss adsas adsas adsas
Padasalai
.wp.apda Therefore the work apdaada
.wp.done .wp.apdais .wp.apda .wp.apda
w w by the external w
agent w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
dW  F  dl
a l a il.ani.en a l a il.ani.en a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
adsThe
a total work done s
adsamoving the chargeadfrom
in s
adsa a to b is obtained s
dsa integrating the p.apdaadsa
aby s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pa w .wp.apda w.w
ww ww ww ww ww w
equation 1.35.
etet etet t tb
il.ani.ene etet etet
ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
.wp.apda
s
ada asl
.wp.apda
s
ada asl
 ada ab a
dW
.wp.apda
s 
asl aW  F  dl
.wp.apda
s
ada asl
.wp.apda
s
ada asl
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
Substituting equation 1.34 in 1.36, we have
t t t t t
i .ani.ente i .ani.ente b
i .ani.ente i .ani.ente i .ani.ente
aada qE   dl
sas l a l sas l a l sas l a l sas l a l sas l a l
apdaada apdaada Wabad apdaada apdaada
w .wp. w .wp. w. wp. p w .wp. w . wp.
ww ww ww a
ww ww w
b
t t t t Wab  q  Eentedl t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ene a l a ila.ani. a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
ww ww ww Wab ww ww
b
w
   E  dl
q a
entet
il.ani.But
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a by definition a sl a asl a asl a a sl a
ww ww ww W ww ww w
V(b)  V(a )  ab
ww
w _____________
.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet
ww
w.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet
ww
w .wp.apda
s
ada asl ail.ani.n
tet
e te
q
t
ww
w .wp.apda
s
adaa sl ail.ani.n
etet
ww
w
.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
t
w
l a i
l .
a ni e
. n
l a i
l .
a ni e
.n
l ail.ani e
. n
la i
l.ani e
. n
l a i
l .ani.ente
sas a
.
.
wp.apYour p
w apdaEmail
. .
w p.apdaada .
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w w w w w
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a
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ada saslal
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t
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ada
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t
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sasl
la l
a il.ani.ente
t
w
.wp.apdaada .wp . apdaada .

w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
This is true for any points a and b, therefore the integrands must be equal. Therefore
t t bt t t t t t t t
il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
b
.ap.apdVaadsa dls  a E  dl .p.apdEaadsasV

a l a a l a a l a a l a a l a
adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w w w w w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
Thus the electric field is the gradient of a scalar potential.
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene due to a pointacharge
Potential
a l ail.ani.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s s
asa point charge Q.aThe adsa s adsa s sa s
.wp.apda pdad
Consider .awp.a
positive .wp.pda electric field ofwQ.wpis.apdaradially outwards .wp.apdaad
w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
Let a test charge q be moved along a radial line from a to b to calculate the
potential etet difference betweeni.anthem. etet etet etet etet
sasl ail.ani.n s asl al i.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
ww From equation wwwe have ww ww ww w
b
.ani.enteV(b)  V(a )  laiE

t t tet t t
l l.ani.endl l a i
l.ani.ente la i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada a .wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
As E points in the right direction and test charge q is moved towards left i.e. b, E and dl
t t t
.ente‒E.dl. ni.entetbecomes t t t t
are
a l a il.ani.eneapart. ThereforeaE.dl
180° la il.ani= Thus the eqn. a l a il.a1.37 a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
Padasalai
w.wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda b
ww ww wV w
(b)  V(a )   E  dl w
w ww w
a
Sincea ntet distance r is measured

il.ani.ethe a
t t
il.ani.enefrom charge Q i.e. a ilright
t
.ani.ente and dl is measured a i.ente
il.antowards
t
left a
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a sl asl asl asl
adsa asa s
apdaada
s
apdaada
s
apdaada
w .wp.apda i.e. b, then dl = –dr. w pdad
.wp.aHence w .
wp. w .
w p. w .
w p.
ww ww the equation ww1.30 becomes as ww ww w
b
t Vt (b)  V(a )    En.endr tet etet etet

la i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l aa il.ai l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
The electric field of a point charge is (From equation 1.5)
t t 1 nqi.entet t t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente E  l a i
l .a 2 r̂ l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas saas0 r sas sas
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apda4ad .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
Substituting in equation 1.40, we have
t t t t ni.entet t t t t
l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene rb
l ail.qa la il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
Vb   Vap.apdaadsas
a
adsas a
adsas a a
asas a
adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w 4  r 2
r̂dr
w .
w p.apdad w.wp.apda
ww ww ww ra 0
ww ww w
r
il.ani.enVb   Va    4

q b 1t t
il.anir.e2ndr
t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a
e
a l a
e r̂
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s s
adsa 0 ra adsa s adsa s
ww ww ww q 1 1 w
w ww w
Vb   Va      
ww
w _____________
.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet
ww
w.wp.apda
s
ada asl .
aila ni e
. ntet
tet
ww
w
4
.wp.apda

s
ada a
0
sl
 rb eterta 
ail.ani.n
tet
ww
w .wp.apda
s
adaa sl ail.ani.n
etet
ww
w .wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
w
l a i
l .
a ni e
. n
l a i
l .
a ni e
.n
l ail.ani e
. n
la i
l.ani e
. n
l a i
l .ani.ente
sas a
.
.
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w apdaEmail
. .
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w w w w w
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l .ani.ente
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ada
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daadsaas
la l
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
w
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
If the point t t a is situated at an.ninfinity, t t then r = ∞. Hence t tV(a) = 0. Thus r b =.nir, t then
t the t t
a l ail.ani.ene a l a ilai.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a ila .ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas by V. adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda potential at b is represented
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
q 1
V   t
n
il.ai e
.nte t n
il.ai.e
nt e t 4  0 il.arni.ente t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a a sl a asl a asl a asl a
ww ww ww q ww ww w
V
4 0 r
e te t e te t etet etet etet
sa sl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda Poisson’s and Laplace w .wp.apdaequation w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
The
tet electric field E can.nibe tewritten
t as the gradient of tet a scalar potential .ni.entet t
i .
a ni e
.n i a e
. n i . ni e
. n ia i .ani.ente
saaslal saaslal E   aslala
saV saaslal sasla l
aad a
d aad a
d aad a
d aad a
d apdaada
w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w .
w p.
ww Taking divergence ww on both sides of equation ww 1.39, we get ww ww w
  E    Vt t
n entet n entet ene t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
as
i
lal .
a i .
as
i
lal .
a i .
aslail2.ani. a l a a l a
s s s adsas adsas
Padasalai
adaad a adaad a   aEdaa
d  V
a
.wp.apda .wp.apda
w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w w
w w w ww ww w
i.e. the divergence of E is the Lapalacian of V The
differential t t form of Gauss law.nis t t t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a la ilai.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s s
dadsa 1  adsa s adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda Epa   
.wp .a
w w .wp.apda w.wp.apda
ww ww ww  0  ww ww w
Comparing eqns. 1.43 and 1.21, we have
etet etet tet
ani.en  etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s aslail.1 s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada pV 2 ada   
 ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w.apda   0  w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
This is known as Poisson‟s equation.
t t t t t
l a il.ani.ente coordinate system
For Cartesian
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada   .V
wp .apdaada  V     .wp
V.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w   V  www      www w
ww ww   ww
x  x  y  y  z  z 
w
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ene2 a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas   V   adsaVs   V 
2 2
adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda   V   2w.wp.apda 2    2  w.wp.apda w.wp.apda
ww ww wxw   y   z  ww ww w
Poisson‟steequation for Cartesian tcoordinate system can betewritten as

i .
a ni en t
. i .ani enet
. i.ani en t
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a l asl a l asl a l a sl a a sl a
adsa ad2sa   2 V    2 V adaadsa 2 V   1  p.apdaadsa adsa
 V      w .wp.p      ww.w w .wp.apda
ww ww  x 2  wwy 2   z 2   w ww w
       0
ww
w _____________
.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet
ww
w.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet
ww
w .wp.apda
s
ada asl
tet
etet
ail.ani.n
ww
w .wp.apda
s
adaasl
etet
ail.ani.n
ww
w .wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
t
w
l a i
l .
a ni e
. n
l a i
l .
a ni e
.n
l ail.ani e
. n
la i
l.ani e
. n
l a i
l .ani.ente
sas a
.
.
wp.apYour p
w apdaEmail
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww
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ada saslal
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ada
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sasl a i
l
saslal
.ani.ente
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i
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aadsaas
la l
.ani.ente
t
w
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
If there are no charges in the region, i.e. for free space ρ=0. Hence equation becomes
t t t t  0  lail.ani.ente
t t t t t
ail.ani.ene a il.ani.ene 2   a il.ani.ene a il.ani.ene
a
adsas
l a
adsas
l  V   adsa as0 a
adsas
l a
adsas
l
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda0  w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
This
t is known as Laplacian t equationand is valid only
t in the region of free charges.
t
te te te te t t
a l a n
il.ai e
.n
a l a n
il.ai.e
n
a la n
il.ai e
. n
a l a n
il.ai e
. n
a l a il.ani.ene
a s
adsFrom equation 1.45, weadsa s
have adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww w
  2wV    2 V    2 V w
w ww w
 2 V   2    2    2   0
t t x   y  nentezt  etet etet
l a i
l .ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l ail.ai. l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
s
adaas s
aa as s as s as s as
.wp.apda This second pdad partial differential
.wp.aorder daada
.wp.apequation relating the rate ada
.wp.apdaof change of potential
ada
pdain
.wp.aV
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
three space must be satisfied for any charge free region
t of equation 1.47nis.ent·E t = 0. t t t
.ani.ente .ani.ente .ani.ente .ani.ente
An alternate
l ail l a i
l .ai e l a i
l l a i
l la i
l
sas sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada It means that
.
wp. aadanumber of lines .of
apdthe p
w . aada
apdelectric w apdaada
field strength.pemerging
. from a unit .p.apdaada
w
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
volume is zero or lines of electric field strength are continuous.
t t t t t t t t t t
adsas Poisson‟s equationadsas is a differential equation adsas which relates the potential
adsas at a point adsas
Padasalai
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
to the volume charge density at that point. If the volume charge density in a region is zero, then
t t et
ni.entLaplace‟s tet tet t t
a l a il.ani.ene equation reduces
Poisson‟s
a l a il.ato equation.
a l a ani.en
il.Laplace‟s equation states
a l ail.ani.enthat the Laplacian lail.ani.ene
a
adsa s asa s adsas asa s adsas
w .wp.apda of the electrostatic w .apdad
.wppotential in a region .wp.apda of charges is equal
devoid
w w pdad
.wp.ato w.wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
zero, etet etet etet etet etet

s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada aada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda If we w
take p.apdcurl
.the
w of E, then w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
i.e. the curl of gradient is zero. The curl law is used only to show that the electric field E
t t t t t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
. p.apdaadcould aadagradient of a scalar.
be expressed.wpas.apdthe . p.apdaada . p.apdaada . p.apdaada
w w w w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
Equipotential surface
t t t t t t t t t t
adsas ss
aada there are many.p.apoints asas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda .wp.apdfield,
In an electric
w w w pdad at which the welectric .wp.apda potential is thewsame. .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
There can be number of points which can be located at the same distance from the charge.
tet locus of the points, tet of which have the .same t t tet an t t
a l a il.ani.enThe a l ail.ani.enall a l a ilani.ene electric potential, a l a il.ais
ni.encalled
a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s sa s adsa s s
asa surface in an electric adsa s
.wp.apda equipotential surface. aadother
.wp.apdIn .wp.apda
words, an equipotential surface is an .wp.apdad
imaginary .wp.apda
w w w w w
ww field of a given wwcharge distribution, in wwhich w all the points on the wwsurface are at the same wwelectric w
_____________
potential.
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww w
. ni e
. ntet . ni e
.ntet
. ntet . ni e
t
l a i
l a l a i
l a l ail a la i
l a l a i
l
sas a
.
.
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ada
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sas l a
saslal
il.ani.ente
t
ww
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sas l a
la l
il.ani.ente
t
w

w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
The potential difference between any two points on the equipotential surface is always zero. It means
t t t
i.ente from one point ntet t t t t
a il.ani.ene done to move aatest
thelawork l a il.ancharge a l a .ani.eanother
ilto in an equipotential
a l a il.ani.ene surface is zero. aFor l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas asas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda a particular charge w .apdad
.wpdistribution, there canwbe pdad equipotential surfaces
.wp.amany w .wp.apda existing in an electric w .wp.apdafield.
ww ww ww ww ww w
Consider a point charge sited at the origin of the sphere. The potential at any point which is at
t t tet charge is given by t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene r from the origin
a distance
a a l a il.ani.enpoint
i.e.
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
ww ww ww Q ww ww w
V
tet tet 4 0 r t t
e n en ee etet etet
s asl aila. ni .
s asl aila. ni.
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada
Therefore theapdpotential is the same atapdalladapoints which are ataadaadistance da r from Q and ada
the
w .wp.apda w .wp. a w .wp. a w .wp.p w .wp.apda
ww surface joining wwall such points in the field ww is called an equipotential ww surface. ww w
There
t exists other equipotential t surfaces in the field t of a point charge at r=rt 1, r=r2, ….. in the etet
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente lail.ani.n
s as sas s as s as s as
adaadform
a of concentric spheres
adaada adaada adaada adaada
w w.wp.p ww.wp.p w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w w.wp.p
w It can wbenoted that the potential w V is inversely proportional w to the distance r. As w a result V1 at w
r1 is thetemaximum and it goes on decreasing with the increase of r. Thus V1>V2t>V > ……However, tet
n en t n entet n entet n enet 3 en
s as
i
lal .
a i .
s as
i
lal .
a i .
s as
i
lal .
a i .
s aslali .
a i .
s aslail.ani.
Padasalai
adaad a
the potential of adaad a
equipotential surfaces goes on
adaada
increasing as one move a
from
adaad infinity to the position
adaad a of
w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w w.wp.p ww.wp.p w w.wp.p
w the charge i.e.wagainst the direction ofwelectric field. w w w
In the case of uniform field, the equipotential surfaces are perpendicular ttot E and are
i .n
ai entet
. i .ani.entet i .
a ni entet
. il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
asl a l a sla l asl a l asl a asl a
adsequispaced
a adsa
for fixed increment of voltages. daadsa adsa adsa
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.ap w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
The work done to move a charge along a circular path of radius r1 in the direction of dl as
showni.ani.eis t
tezero. This is because eEtetand dl are perpendicular etet to each other. Thus tet electric field and .ni.entet
ethe
a l al n a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n laila
a da
s
ada s
a da
s
ada s
a d
a
s
ada s
a da
s
ada s
a daadsaas
w.wp.p equipotential surfaces w.wp.pare mutually perpendicular. w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p
ww ww ww ww ww w
However, in the case of non uniform field the field lines tend to diverge in the direction of
t t t t t
l a i
l
decreasing.ani.ente E. Hence equipotential
l a i
l .ani.ente surfaces are still l ail.ani.ente
perpendicular to the a i
l .ani.ente of E but are not
direction
l l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w equispaced forwfixed ww amount of increment w w w
ww ww voltages ww ww w
Energy associated to an electrostatic field
a ntet
il.ani.eElectrostatic energy maya
entet
il.ani.be considered as the a
energy
t t
il.ani.eneobligatory to launch a .entet charge distribution
ila.anigiven a
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l a l
adsas adsas daadsas ss
apdaada apdaada
ss
w.wp.apdain space. Let us calculate w .wp.apda the amount of work w .wp.aprequired to assemble w .wp. w .wp.
ww ww ww ww of point charges. Forww simplicity here w
we consider only three charges placed in free space
t tet tet etet t t
Firstl a .ani.ente
ilconsider the charge qa1sl.aNo il.ani.enwork has to be done l a .ani.en
ilto bring the first charge l a il.aqn1i.nat P1, since there is l no
a il.ani.ene
a
adsa s adsa adsaas adsaas adsaas
w .wp.apdafield initially to oppose w .wp.apdathe motion of charge w .wp.aqpd1a. However, work iswneeded .wp.apda to bring the charge w .wp.apqda2 nearer
ww ww ww ww ww w
_____________
to q1 at P2. The work required to place the charge q2 at P2 is
s
ada s s
ada s Wad s s
a q 2 V1 (P2 ) s
ada s s
ada s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda2 w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
. ni e
. ntet . ni e
.ntet
. ntet . ni e
t
l a i
l a l a i
l a l ail a la i
l a l a i
l
sas a
.
.
wp.apYour p
w apdaEmail
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww
a
w.wp.p
da
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lal
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ada saslal
www.Padasalai.Net
ww
ww
a
w.wp.p
daadsaas
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
sasl a i
l
lal
.ani.ente
t
.p.apda
ada
www.CBSEtips.in
ww
ww
sasl
saslal
a i
l.ani.ente
t
ww
a
w.wp.p
daadsaas
la l
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
w
.
wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w ww w w
ww But the potential wwat any point in space iswgiven by ww ww w
t t t t q
l ail.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene V  lail.ani.entet l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas a
adsas adsas 4 0 r
a a
adsas a
adsas
ww Therefore ww ww ww ww w
q
i.ani entet
. i .ani.entet V1 (Pa )il.an
i entet 1
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a l a sl a l a sl 2
4  r a sl a a sl a
0 12
w w w w w
ww w
where r12 is thewdistance between q1 andwqw2, when they are at P1 and ww P2 respectively. ww w
Substituting tet equation 1.48 in 1.49, tewe
t have
e n en etet etet etet
sasl .
aila ni .
s asl .
aila ni.
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada q1 ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
W 2  q2 w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww 4w0 rw12 ww w
1  q1 
or ail.ani.entet a i
l .ani.ente
t W2 ailq.ani2.entet   a i
l.ani.ente
t
a i
l .ani.ente
t
sasl sasl sasl 4 0  r12  adsaasl sasl
apdaada apdaada apdaada ada apdaada
w .
wp.
ww
.
wp. w.wp. w.wp.p w .
w p.
ww Then the work w required to bring q3 is w w w w ww w
entet entet W3  q 3eV te1t , 2 (P3 ) t t t t

a l a i
l .
ani .
a la i
l .
ani .
a l a i
l .
a ni .n
adsas adsas asas adsas adsas
Padasalai
w.wp.apdaWhere V1,2 is the potential
w.wp.apda due to charges qw1 .w p.apdaqd2 at P3
and
ww ww ww ww ww w
Therefore
t t t t t t t t t t
l ail.ani.ene la il.ani.ene V (P )  al1 a il.ani.ene q1    q 2 alail.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsa s a
adsa s adsa s    daadsa s a
adsas
.wp.apda 4 0  r13  w.wpr.a23
1, 2 3
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w p  w.wp.apda

ww ww ww ww ww w
1  q1   q 2 
tet tet W  q .entret  r   etet etet

3 3
e n en
s asla il. ani .
s asl a i
l .ani . 4
s a sl a .
0 ilan
i 13   23  
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada apdaada ada ada
w.wp.apdaTherefore the totalwwork .wp.apdadone to assemble the w .wp.three charges is w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
W = W1+W2+W3
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas a
1p.apdaadqsa1 s 1  q1 p.apdaaqdsa
as sas
apdaada apdaada apdaada
.p. . p.  .    ww   
 .   . p.
2
w w W q w q w w
4 0  r12 
w w 2 w w
ww ww 2
ww 3
4 0 w
 r13   r23  ww w
a
t t
il.ani.ene ail.aniW.entet 1  q1q 2   lail1.ani.enteqt 1q 3   1  q 2qla3il.ani.entet a
t t
il.ani.ene
4 0  r12 adsaas4 0  r13  4a0daadsara23 s 
a l a l a l
adsas adsas 2
 adsas
w.wp.apda w .w p.apda
w .wp.apda
w .wp.p w.wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
1  q1q 2   q1q 3   q 2q 3 
W2     
te t te t 4 0  r12  n.enrt13 e t   r23  t t t t
a l a n e
. n
il.aIni general a l a n
il.ai .en
a l a il.ai a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
ww ww ww 1 n n  q i q j w w ww w
W    
ww
w _____________
.wp.apda
s
ada asl ail.ani.n
etet
tet
ww
w .wp.apda
s
ada asl ail.ani.n
etet
tet
ww
4 0 i1 j1  rij 
w .wp.apda
ada s a
ji
sl
tet
etet
ail.ani.n
ww
w .wp.apda
s
adaa sl ail.ani.n
etet
ww
w .wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
t
w
l a i
l .
a ni e
. n
l a i
l .
a ni e
.n
l ail.ani e
. n
la i
l.ani e
. n
l a i
l .ani.ente
sas a
.
.
wp.apYour p
w apdaEmail
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww
a
w.wp.p
da
_____________
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lal
ww
.p.apda
ada saslal
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ww
ww
a
w.wp.p
daadsaas
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
sasl a i
l
lal
.ani.ente
t
.p.apda
sasl a i
l
ada
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ww
ww
.ani.ente
t
saslal
ww
a
w.wp.p
daadsaas
la l
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
w
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w ww w w
ww In equation 1.56, ww j>I indicates that not w to count the same pair twice. ww ww w
An alternate entet way to accomplish this

tet is, count each pair.ntwice entet and divide then by e2.
ai l.ani . a il.ani en
. a il a i . a il.ani . ntet a
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l a l
adsas adsas sas
1.wp.apdanad n  q i q j  w.wp.apdaad
sas ss
apdaada
.wp.apda .wp.apda
ww
w
ww
w Ww w w   
8 0 i1 j1  rij w

w ww
w .wp.
w
ji
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene   a l a il.ani.ene   a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s s s s s asa s
.wp.apda .wp.apda 1 n.p.apdaad an 1 q i q j .p.apdaada p.apdad
w2w i  
w w W  w w q 
w w w .w
ww ww i 1  j1 4 0 rwijw  ww w
 ji 
t t etet etet ni.enqtei tdue to all etet
Thea l il.ani.enewithin the parenthesis
aterm a l ail.ani.nrepresents the potential a l ail.ani.nat Pi, i.e. the position a l ail.aof a l ail.ani.n
adas s s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s
w .wp.apda charges.Thus w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
n
1
t t t t W   q i tV et(Pi ) t t
l a il.ani .en e
l a il.ani e
. n e 2 i 
l1a il.ani e
. n
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
.wp.apdaadThe equation 1.58 .wp.apdaada the amount of .w
represents p.apdaada stored in the configuration.
energy .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
For a continuous charge distribution, we have for a volume v. Therefore the total charge
canlabe .entet
il.anirepresented by l a il.ani.ene
t t
l a il.ani.ene
t t
l a il.ani.ene
t t
l a
t t
il.ani.ene
adsasa a
adsas a
ss a
ss a
ss
Padasalai
.wp.apda .wp.apda p.apdaada p.apdaada p.apdaada
ww q    d
w w w .w w .w w .w
ww ww ww ww w
Volume
If V is t t potential at the potential

the t t at the point occupied t tby the charge ρdτ, .the t electric
t potential .ni.entet
il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene ilani.ene ia
adsaasl a asl
adsa is
a
adsaasl a
ad a
sa sl a
adsaaslal
w .wp.apda energy of such a distribution
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda a
w.wp.p
da a
w.wp.p
da
ww ww ww ww ww w
1
t t
W
2 Volume Vt dt 
e te e te ee etet etet
ada ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda From differential w .wp.apdaof Gauss law, we have
form
w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
 1 
  E    
i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t i.ni.e0ntet i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
l a l l a l l a la l a l l a l
d adsaas d adsaas d adsaas sas
apdaada
sas
apdaada
w.wp.   0   E 
ap a ap a ap a
w.wp. or w.wp. w .
w p. w .
w p.
ww ww ww ww ww w
Putting equation 1.62 in equation 1.60
t t t t t t t t t t
l a il.ai.ene
n l ail.ani.ene l ail.ani.ene la il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
W  apdaadsas0   E  V d
a a 1 a a a
adsas adsas adsas adsas
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp2. Volume w .wp.apda w.wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
0
te t te t W   .ente tE  V d t t t t
a l a i
l .
a ni en
.
a l ail.ani en
. 2
a l a i
l.ani
adsa s asa s asa s Volume
asa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .
w p.apdad w .
w p.apdad w .
w p.apdad w .wp.apda
ww From the wwvector product rule, wewhave w   (EV)  V( wEw)  E  (V) ww w
ww
w _____________
.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet
ww
w.wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
tet
ww
w
(  E)V 
.wp.apda
s
ada asl a
tet
i
l
t  (EV)  E  (V)
.ani.ente
ww
w .wp.apda
s
adaasl
etet
ail.ani.n
ww
w .wp.apda
s
ada asl
etet
ail.ani.n
t
w
l a i
l .
a ni e
. n
l a i
l .
a ni e
.n
l ail.ani e
. n
la i
l.ani e
. n
l a i
l .ani.ente
sas a
.
.
wp.apYour p
w apdaEmail
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww
a
w.wp.p
d
_____________
aadsaas
lal
ww
.p.apda
ada saslal
www.Padasalai.Net
ww
ww
a
w.wp.p
daadsaas
lal
sasl a il.ani.ente
t
sasl a il.ani.ente
t
sasl a il.ani.ente
t
.p.apda
ada
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ww
ww
sas
saslal
l a il.ani.ente
t
ww
a
w.wp.p
daadsaas
la l
sasl a i
l .ani.ente
t
w
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .

w p.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
But E=-V, hence
t t t t entet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene(  E)V    (aEV l a il.a)ni. E  ( E) a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
ww ww (  E
w)wV    (EV)  E ww
2
ww w
Putting equation 1.64 in 1.63, we obtain
i.ani entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
l a l l a la l a l a

 
a
adsa s a
adsa s as
adsa (EV )  E 2 d adaadsa as a
adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda W  0w.wp.apda w.wp.p w .wp.apda
ww ww ww2 Volume ww ww w
t t  tet E 2 d etet etet

l a i
l .ani.ente l ail i.ente 0     (EVla)ild.ani.en
.anW   l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
s
adaas s
ada as 2 Volume s
ada as  ada s as s
ada as
Volume
w w w w w
ww w
By applying thewdivergence theorem to w
w
the first integral, we get w
w ww w
SRIMAAN
.ani.ente    (EV ) d lail.ani.entEV
et   ds
t t t t
l l a i
l.ani.ente la i
l .ani.ente
.
wp.
sas
apdaada .
wp.
sas
apdaada
Volume
.
w p.
sas Volume
apdaada .wp.
sas
apdaada SRIMAAN .
w p.
sas
apdaada
w w w w w
ww Thus the total work ww done is ww ww ww w
entet t   0  (EV )  ds et E 2 d

 t t t t
a
adsas
l a i
l .
an i .
a
adsas
la il.an i enteW
.  
2 Volumeadsas a l a il.ani ent
.   adsas a l a il.ani.ene a
adsas
l a il.ani.ene
Padasalai
Volume
w w w w w
ww ww 1 ww 1 ww ww w
Since the potential V  , field E  2 and surface ds  r , then the product 2
r r
i .
a ni entet
. i .
a ni.entet t t
il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a l asl a l asl a asl a asl a
adsa 1 1 2 1daadsa adsa asa adsa
w .wp.apdaEV.ds =  2  rw.w
p.ap . Thus if we pick larger w .wp.apdaand larger volumes, w p.apdadthe surface integral
then
.w w.wp.apda
ww r r ww r ww ww
CONTINUATION OF w
w
THE BOOK... w
 (EV )  ds
.ni.ente
t etet etet etet SRIMAAN etet
laila
Volume
STUDY l ail.ani.n MATERIAL l ail.ani.nAVAILABLE l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
a daadsaas s
daada
as
becomes vanishingly
a
saas
small (becausedaradbecomes
a
s as s
daada the first term in equation
larger). Therefore a daada
as
a
ww ww ww ww ww w
IF YOU NEED : PG-TRB: PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL WITH
1.65 can be neglected and in particular the integration is taken over all
t t t t t
QUESTION
space.
QUESTION
l a il.ani.ente
Therefore BANK
BANK AVAILABLE.
AVAILABLE.
l a il.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada 2 .wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
ww
w EDUCATIONAL w
ww PSYCHOLOGYwW
w 0 MATERIAL
STUDY
w
 E d wwWITH
2 AllSpace
w QUESTION w
wwBANK w
AVAILABLE
AVAILABLE. t t t t t t t t t t
w .wp.apdaGK WITH CURRENT w .wp.apda AFFAIRS STUDY w .wp.apda MATERIAL AVAILABLE. w .wp.apda w.wp.apda
ww ww ww ww ww w
TET / PG-TRB / TRB-POLYTECHNIC LECTURER / TNEB / TRB-BEO
te t t t t t t t t t
l a il.ani.en l ail.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
PGTRB-COMPUTER
a
adsa s adsa INSTRUCTORa/daTNPSC-GIV-VAO
as a
adsa s / TNUSRB
a
adsa s / RRB / daadsa
a s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.p w .wp.apda a
w.wp.p
ww ww ww ww ww w
SSC EXAM / UGC-NET AVAILABLE.
ww
w _____________
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n n n n n

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SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRICHY-PG-TRB-PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL-TO CONTACT:8072230063.

SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRICHY-PG-TRB-PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL-TO CONTACT:8072230063.

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SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRICHY-PG-TRB-PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL-TO CONTACT:8072230063.

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SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRICHY-PG-TRB-PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL-TO CONTACT:8072230063.

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SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRICHY-PG-TRB-PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL-TO CONTACT:8072230063.

where,a nteabt is the work done

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SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRICHY-PG-TRB-PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL-TO CONTACT:8072230063.

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SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRICHY-PG-TRB-PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL-TO CONTACT:8072230063.

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