Handbook of Spring Design

Handbook
ol Spring
esign
1 1 1 SMI11 larnu,
Ins
tit tecturers
Copyright © 2002 by Spring Manufacturera Instiute, Inc. Spring Manufacturers Institute, Inc.
This publication contains advisory information only, and SMI
2001 Midwest Road , Suite 106
disclaims any and all liability of any kind for the use, applicaion or
adaptation of material published in this publication. Oak Brook, IL 60523-1335 USA
Phone: (630) 495-8588
Printed in te llnited States of America rey. 2003
Fax: (630) 495-8595
ISBN 0-9604120-5-0 Web site: www.smihq.org
Table of Contents
o
A Fundamentals
How to Use this Handbook
D 1
0
Introduction
Helical Extension Springs
77
1911
Selecting Spring Configurations 3 Initial Tension 78
Glossary of Spring Terminology 10 Types of Ends 79
Bibliographical References 12 Extension Spring Dimensions 81
Reference Information 13 Design Equations 81
Choice of Operating Stress - Static 82
B Spring Materia ls Choice of Operating Stress - Cyclic 82
Clearances 83
Chemical and Physical Characteristics 15 Tolerances 83
Elastic Modulus 17 How to Specify 84
Magnetic Characteristics 17 Extension Spring Design Example 84
Heat Treatment of Springs 17 Final Design Specifications 86
Environmental Considerations 19
Stress Relaxation 20 Torsion Springs
Corrosion 20
Spring Wire 25 Introduction 87
Cost and Availability 26 Number of Turns 87
Spring Strip 27 Mean Diameter 87
Other Spring Materials 31 Length 88
Specifying Hardness 32 Spring Rate 88
Glossary of Spring Wire Terms 35 Stress 89
End Configurations 89
C Compression Spi rings Choice of Operating Stress - Static
Choice of Operating Stress - Cyclic
90
91
Introduction 49 Double Torsion Springs 91
Helical Compression Spring Terminology 49 Rectangular Wire 92
Spring Diameter 50 Tolerances 93
Spring Index 50 How to Specify 93
Free Length 50 Design Example 93
Types of Ends 50 Final Design Specifications 95
Number of Coils 51 Symbols for Spring Terms 96
Solid Height 52
Direction of Coiling 52 Tolerancing Guidelines
Squareness and Parallelism 52 I
Hysteresis 53 Introduction 97
Spring Rate 53 Warning 97
Stress 54 Compression Spring Load Tolerances 98
Loads 55 Quality Grades for Load Tolerances 100
Buckling of Compression Springs 56 Compression Spring Free Length Tolerances 100
Choice of Operating Stress - Static Conditi ns 57 Extension Spring Load Tolerances 100
Choice of Operating Stress - Cyclic Applic tions 61 Quality Grades for Extension Spring Load Tolerances 102
Fatigue Life Estimation Example 61 Extension Spring Free Length Tolerances 102
Dynamic Loading - Impact 63 Torsion Spring Load Tolerances (Torque) 104
Dynamic Loading - Resonance 64 Quality Grades for Torsion Spring Load Tolerances 105
Special Springs 66 Tolerances for Hot Coiled Springs 107
Rectangular Wire 66
Stranded Wire Springs 69
Variable Diameter Springs 70
Variable Pitch 72
Nested Compression Springs 72
Commercial Tolerances 72
Acceptable Quality Leve¡ (AQL) 73
Packaging 73
How to Specify 73 Symbols for Spring Terms inside back cover
Compression Spring Design Example 74
Final Design Specifications 76
SMI Handbook of Spring Design, iii

Figure Name Page
1 Design Sequence 2
2 Relaxation vs. Initial Stress for Spring Materials 21
3 Relaxation vs. Temperature for Spring Materials 21
4 Minimum Tensile Strengths for Spring Wire 25
5 Minimum Transverse Bending Radii for Various Tempers and Thicknesses
of Tempered Spring Steel 28
6 Orientation of Bend Axis to Rolling Direction for Transverse and
Longitudinal Bends 28
7 Tensile Strength vs. Hardness of Quenched and Tempered Spring Steel 29
8 Edges Available on Steel Strip 30
9 Minimum Safe Thinknesses for Hardness Testing Hard Materials 33
10 Minimum Safe Thinknesses for Hardness Testing Soft Materials 33
11 Dimensional Terminology for Helical Compression Springs 49
12 Types of Ends for Helical Compression Springs 51
13 Direction of Coiling Helical Compression Springs 52
14 Typical Load Deflection Curve for Helical Compression Springs 53
15 Wahl Stress Correction Factors for Round Wire Helical Compression
and Extension Springs 54
16 Load Deflection Curve for a Variable Rate Spring 55
17 Critica) Buckling Condition Curves 56
18 End Conditions Used to Determine Critica) Buckling 57
19 Spring Load-Carrying Ability vs. Amount of Set Removed 58
20 Spring Relaxation Data for Various Materials 60
21 Modified Goodman Diagram for Estimating Fatigue Life 63
22 Velocity of an Object Propelled by a Compression Spring 65
23 Transmissibility of Spring Mounting 66
24 Wire Cross Section Before and After Coiling 67
25 Rectangular Wire Compression Spring Wound on Flat or Edge 68
26 Constants for Rectangular Wire in Torsion 68
27 Stress Correction Factors for Rectangular Wire Compression
Springs Wound on Flat 69
28 Stress Correction Factors for Rectangular Wire Compression
Springs Wound on Edge 69
29 Conical, Barre) and Hourgiass Springs, Respectively 71
30 Typical Load Deflection Curve for Variable Diameter Springs (Solid Line) 71
31 Typical Variable Pitch Helical Compression Spring 72
32 Tangled Springs and Special Spring Packaging 73
33 Drawbar Spring Provides a Solid Stop 77
34 Load Deflection Curve for a Helical Extension Spring with Initial Tension 78
35 Torsional Stress Due to Initial Tension as a Function of Index
in Helical Extension Springs 79
36 Common End Configurations for Helical Extension Springs 80
37 Location of Maximum Bending and Torsion Stresses in Twist Loops 81
38 Typical Extension Spring Dimensions 81
39 Specifying Load and Deflection Requirements for Torsion Springs 88
40 Common Helical Torsion Spring End Configurations 90
41 Preferred Winding for Double-Bodied Torsion Springs 92
42 Keystoned Cross Sections of Springs Wound on Edge and Flat 93
43 Compression Spring 99
44 Extension Spring 102
45 Torsion Spring 104
a
iv, SMI Handbook of Spring Design
Tables
Table Name Page
1 Spring Configurations 4-7
2 Energy Storage Capacity (ESC) of Various Spring Configurations 9
3 Conversion Factors 13
4 Common Abbreviation 13
5 Common Symbols 14
6 Approximate Conversi ns for Carbon Steel Between Hardness
Scales and Tensile Str ngths
7 Typical Properties of C mmon Spring Materials
8 Magnetic Characteristi s of Some Materials
9 Typical Heat Treatmen s for Springs After Forming
10 Guide for Selecting Mi imum Thicknesses for Zinc and Cadmium Coatings
11 Order of Nobility
12 Salt Spray Resistance f Common Barrier Finishes
13 Preferred Diameters fo Spring Steel Wire
14 Ranking of Relative Co ts of Common Spring Wires
15 Standard Tolerances f r Spring Wire
16 Formability of Anneale Spring Steels
17 Typical High-Carbon S rip Thickness Tolerances
18 Typical Properties of S ring Temper Alloy Strip
19 Recommended Hardn s Scales for Hard and Soft Spring Alloys
20 Properties of Spring M terials
21 Minimum Tensile Stren th of Wire Spring Materials-Ferrous
22 Minimum Tensile Stren th of Wire Spring Materials-Stainless Steels
23 Wire Size Tolerance C arts
24 Guidelines for Dimensi al Characteristics of Compression Springs
25 Maximum Allowable T rsional Stresses for Helical Compression
Springs in Static Applic tions 58
26 Maximum Allowable T sional Stresses for Round Wire Helical
Compression Springs i Cyclic Applications 62
27 Maximum Allowable Stresses for Helical Extension Springs
in Static Applications 82
28 Maximum Allowable Strfesses for ASTM A228 and Type 302 Stainless
Steel Helical Springs in Cyclic Applications 83
29 Maximum Recommend d Bending Stresses for Helical Torsion
Springs in Static Applic tions 91
30 Maximum Recommend d Bending Stresses for Helical Torsion
Springs in Cyclic Appli tions 91
31 Free Length Tolerance, Metric 103
32 Free Length Tolerance, English 103
33 End Position Tolerance 103
34 Body Diameter Toleran es for Compression, Extension and Torsion Springs 106
35 Permissible Variations i Outside Diameter of Spring 107
36 Permissible Variations olid Height 108
37 Permissible Deviations, Springs with Ground Ends 109
38 Permissible Squarenes Deviation, Springs with Ground Ends 110
39 Permissible Squarenes Deviation, Springs with Unground Ends 110
SMI Handbook of Spring Design, v

V
vi, SMI Handbook of Spring Design
Fundamentals
This handbook iswritti ,n for design engineers, as a practica) guide to those responsible
for designing springs. Springs are flexible members that store energy. Design considerations
for members that exp, rience large deflections are quite different from those used for rigid
structures. A sufficien amount of detail has been included so that those designers without
access to a computer zed program can generate an optimum solution to a spring design
problem.
Many designs do not erform well in service due to incomplete or unclear definition. The
assumption is made t iroughout Chis handbookthat the designer knows the functional
requirements of a spr ng, its space limitations, the environment in which it operates, its
service requirements nd any special considerations. Functional requirements are usually
expressed as a load t a test position and/or a spring rate. Space limitations are defined by
describing the envelo e in which a spring is expected to operate. Environment can be
characterized by the perating temperature and a description of substances in contact with a
spring. Service requir ments are the expected life, frequency of loading, rate of loading and
permissible relaxatio . Special considerations might involve, for example, restrictions due to
assembly, electrical c nductivity or magnetic requirements. To make a cost-effective design,
it is essential to have he design problem clearly defined.
This handbook follow the design sequence illustrated in Figure 1, page 2. Selecting
Spring Configurations reviews the methodology for choosing the best type of spring
configuration to perfo m an intended function. Frequently, the choice of configuration is
obvious to experienc d designers. The inexperienced, and occasionally the experienced,
designer (in critica) sit ations) should first review spring configuration to be sure that the most
cosí-effective configu ation has been selected. The second major design decision is choice of
material . Spring Mate lals gives information required to select one or two candidate materials
for the design. Reman ing portions of this book discuss each type of spring configuration in detail.
These sections enabl a designer, having chosen the configuration and material, to select a
stress leve), design a pring and then specify the spring to a springmaker. In many cases,
examples are include 1 to demonstrate the design process. In most sections,
recommendations are made on stress levels for both fatigue and static service.
a
SMI Handbook of Spring Design, 1
Define
Design Problem
Select Spring
Configuration
Select
Material
Select
Stress Level
Design to
Optimize
Check Design
Specify
Figure 1 . Design Sequence
Material recommendations and design methods discussed here are the result of many years
of experience and have proven to be reliable. Spring design is a very complex subject.
Frequently the state of stress is not accurately known. Geometrical configurations are often
difficult to describe mathematically. Simplifying assumptions have been made which, in some
cases, may lead to inaccuracies. When parts are made to a design, fabrication
considerations are occasionally encountered that alter performance. Materials do not always
behave as predicted. Although the best judgment has been used in writing this handbook,
resulting designs will not always be optimum. For critica) springs it is advisable to cal) on the
experience of SMI member company engineering staff, and to have samples made and
tested prior to committing a design to production.
Many designers have computers to support their design efforts. SMI has software available to
support design efforts that conform to material in this handbook. You may contactan SMI member
companydirectly about the availability of this material. Nevertheless, notes on how to specify a spring,
manufacturing tips and other information dedicated to a specific spring configuration should
be reviewed. This information is not generally available in design programs and yet frequently
is necessary to achieve the most cost-effective design.
2, SMI Handbook of Spring Design

Selecting Spring Corfigurations
It is essential that a design er select the optimum spring configuration to perform an intended function.
A three-step procedure ha; been developed for this task. The first step is to define the primary spring
function in terms of push, F ull, twist or energy storage. The second step is to review various alternative
configurations and select c ne or two best candidates. The third step is to review candidate configurations
with respect to cost and sp e cial considerations.
Having defined primary sp ing function as either push, pul¡ or twist, the next step is to review al¡ possible
spring configurations that erform Chis function and select the one that meets space requirements most
economically. Various spri g configurations are listed on page 4 in Table 1 with helpful comments to aid in
selecting one or two candi ates. Helical compression springs, spring washers, volute springs and beam
springs all perform a push unction. For larga deflections, helical compression springs are most commonly
chosen; for small deflectio s, spring washers are most common. Volute springs have high damping
capacity and good resista ce to buckling, but are not common because of relatively high manufacturing
costs. Beam springs are p oduced in a wide variety of shapes and can push or pull. Frequently, beam
springs are required for fu ctions in addition to the spring function, and sometimes are an integral
element of a larger part.
Helical torsion and spiral s :)ring configurations perform the twist function. Helical torsion springs are often
used as a counterbalance or doors, lids or other mechanisms that rotate on a shaft. Spiral hair springs
have a low hysteresis and are used in instruments and watches. Brush springs received their name
from their primary applicat¡ n of holding brushes against commutators in electric motors. Power springs
are often callad clock or m tor springs and are used to store energy for clocks, toys and other devices.
Prestressed power spring are a special type of power spring that has a very high energy storage
capacity and ¡s most com only used on refractors for seat belts. Constant force springs provide an
essentially constant torquE over many revolutions.
The pul¡ function is pertor ed by extension springs, drawbar spring assemblies and constant force
springs, with helical exten ion springs being most common. Drawbar spring assemblies are useful when
a fixed stop is required. C nstant force springs are similar to power springs; however, they are loaded by
pul¡ rather than twist.
Retaining rings and garter springs were especially developed to perform either push or pull. Retaining
rings retain or locate parís in bearings and on shafts. Garter springs are used primarily in oil seals.
Often a spring design func ion is expressed in terms of energy storage capacity. In machines, springs
are frequently used to stor kinetic energy from moving components during deceleration and release Chis
energy during acceleratior to reduce peak loads. Spring motors are used to power clocks, toys and many
other mechanical devices. Torsion springs are used in window shades and garage doors, primarily for
their ability to store energ .
a
TYPE CONFIGURATION ACTION
Helical Compression
Push - wide load and

deflection range -
constant rate.
} Push - wide load and

Round and Conical Barre) deflection range.
Rectangular Conical spring can be
Wire made with minimum
solid height and with
constant or increasing
Constant Pitch rate. Barre ), hourglass,
and variable-pitch
springs used to
minimize resonant
surging and vibration.
} }
Hourglass Variable Pitch
Spring Washer
Push - high loads, low
deflections - choice of
Belleville rates (constant,
increasing, or
decreasing).
Push - light loads, low

Wave deflection-uses limited
radial space.
Push - higher
Slotted deflections than
bellevilles.
Finger Push - for axial loading

of bearings.
Curved Push - used to absorb

axial end play.
Table 1. Spring Conggurations.
0
Volute
Push - may have

inherently high friction
damping.
T
Beam
p
Cantilever, Push or pul¡ - wide
Rectangular range of loads, low
Section deflection range.
Cantilever,
Trapezoidal
Section
Simple Beam
Helical Torsion
Round or
Rectangular + Twist - constant rate.
W ire
Spiral
Hairspring Twist
Brush Twist or Push.
Table 1(continued). Spring C nfigurations.

Power, Motor or Clock
Twist - exerts torque

over many turns.
Supplied in retainer.
Removed from
retainer.
Prestressed Power
Twist - exerts torque

over many turns.
Supplied in retainer.
Removed from
retainer.
Constant Force Spring Motor
Twist - exerts Glose-to-

Level Torque O constant torque over
many turns.
Table 1 (continued). Spring Con figurations.
a
Helical Extension
Pull - wide load and

- deflection range -
constant rate.
Drawbar
Pul¡ - extension to a
solid stop.
Constant Force
Pul¡ - very long

deflection at constant
O load or low rate.
Retaining Rings
Round or
Rectangular + - -
Wire axial loads.
Garter
Extension Pul¡ with radial pressure.
Compression Push with radial

pressure.
Table 1 (continued). Spring onfigurations.
c
Energy storage capacity (ESC) is defined as the amount of work done by a spring or the energy stored
per unit volume of active spring material. Energy storage capacity is proportional to the square of the
maximum operating stress leve), divided by the modulus of elasticity, multiplied by a constant. Theoretical
capacities are shown for various spring configurations in Table 2, page 9. Space efficiency, another
measure of spring design efficiency, is the volume of active spring material divided by the volume of the
envelope occupied by the spring when fully deflected. The product of ESC and space efficiency is the
amount of energy a spring configuration can store per unit volume of the envelope it occupies. Typical
ranges of energy storage capacity per unit volume of envelope for some spring geometries are also listed
in Table 2, page 9. These values are approximate, and refer to springs in fully deflected positions without
regard to inactive material or stress correction factors. The space efficiency concept is not meaningful for
some spring configurations, such as cantilevers and extension springs. Prestressed power springs, power
springs and helical compression spring designs are most suitable for energy storage applications.
ESC divided by the product of the density and cost per pound gives energy storage ability per unit cost.
This is a convenient method for making rough comparisons of various spring materials.
The final step in the selection process is to consider other restrictions imposed by design criteria. Cost is
always a restriction. Although specific comments on cost cannot be addressed until a spring is designed,
some useful generalizations can be considered here. Custom designed springs from wire are generally
less costly than springs from strip. This is because there is very little scrap from wire. Many fíat springs
are blanked from strip with a concomitant loss of material. Springs made from prehardened material tend
to be less costly than springs hardened after forming. Sharp bends tend to increase manufacturing costs
and cause stress concentrations that can result in early failure.
Compression springs and severa) other types of common springs are made on universal tooling. Most
fíat springs and special wire forms require special tooling. The ability to maintain tolerances varíes
considerably for different spring configurations. In general, tolerances controlled by metal forming
processes are substantially greater than tolerances controlled by metal cutting.

En rgy (1) Typical Amounta of Energy Stored In
a go Sace (2) Spring Space Envelope
Type of Spring C acity Efflciency Notes JImma ft-Ibgln3
Compression or Extension S2 7rC

(round wire ) (3) 1.5 - 15 X 10 1.8 - 18
4G (C
Compression or Extension s2 4C -0
(square wire ) . (3) 1.0 - 10 X 10 1.2 - 12
SG (C
Rectangular Cantilever & S2
Simply Supported Beam
8E - -
Cantilever Beam - S2
Triangular Plan
6E
s2 7rc
Helical Torsion Spring <
(round wire ) - 1 . 0 - 5 X 10 1 .2 - 6
gE (C+1)2
Helical Torsion Spring

s2 4C
(square wire) - 1 . 5 - 8 X 10 1 . 13-91 . 7
1E
-- (C+1)2
Spiral Torsion( round wire)

S2 - - - -
8E
S2
Belleville Washer 10 to 0E 0.6-0.9 (4) 0.5 - 5 X 10- 4 0.6 - 6
22
Power Spring - 0.4 - 0.6 (5) 10 - 17 X 104 12 - 20
Prestressed Power Spring - 0.4 - 0.6 (5) 25 - 30 X 10' 30 - 35
Typical Lead Acid Battery - - 2,500 - 3,300 X 104 3,000 - 4,000
(1) Energy storage capacity = V
f kf df, where V = volume of active spring material. Note that stress correction factors due to spring
geometry have been omitted.

(2) Space efficiency is defined as volume f active spring material V divided by the space envelope ofthe spring at maximum deflection.
(3) Space efiiciency does not apply to ext sion springs.
(4) Ratio of O.D. to I.D. of 2 is preferred r most designs.
(5) For most efficient design, the amount f space occupied by spring material equals half of the space occupied by the spring in the free
position. Because of friction, difficulty in estimating the amount of active material and number of toros in the free position, determine
the ESC by estimating or measuring th arca under the torque revolution curve.
Table 2. Energy Storage Cap city (ESC) of Various Spring Configurations.

Glossary of Spring Terminology
Na Active Colis Those coils which are free to deflect under load.
Angular Relationship of Ends Relative position of hooks or loops of an extension spring (or
ends of a torsion spring) to each other.
Baking Heating of electroplated springs to relieve hydrogen embrittlement.
Block See Solid Height.
Buckling Bowing or lateral displacement of a compression spring. This effect is related to

slenderness ratio UD.
Close Wound Adjacent coils are touching.
Closed and Ground Ends Same as Closed Ends, except the first and last coils are ground
to provide a fiat bearing surface.
Closed Ends Compression spring ends with coil pitch angle reduced so they are square with
the spring axis and touch the adjacent coils.
Ls Closed Length See Solid Height.
p Coils Per Inch See Pitch.
F Deflection Motion imparted to a spring by application or removal of en externa) load.
Elastic Limit Maximum stress to which a material may be subjected without permanent set.
Endurance Limit Maximum stress, at a given stress ratio, at which material will operate in a
given environment for a stated number of cycles without failure.
Fixture Tempering Restraining parts during tempering to improve dimensional control.
Of Free Angle Angular relationship between arms of a helical torsion spring which is not under
load.
Lf Free Length Overall length of a spring which is not under load.
Gradient See Rate.
Heat Setting A process to prerelax a spring in order to improve stress relaxation resistance
in service.
Helical Springs Springs made of bar stock or wire coiled into a helical form. This category
includes compression, extension and torsion springs.
Hooks Open loops or ends of extension springs.
Hysteresis Mechanical energy loss occurring during loading and unloading of a spring within
the elastic range. It is illustrated by the area between load-deflection curves.
Initial Tension A force that tends to keep coils of a closewound extension spring closed and
which must be overcome before the coils start to open.

Loops Formed end$ with minimal gaps at the ends of extension springs.
D Mean Diameter ThEaverage diameter of the mass of spring material, equal to one-half the
sum of the outside a d inside diameters. In a helical spring, this is the equivalent to the
outside diameter mi us one wire diameter.
G Modulus in Shear Or Torsion (Modulus of Rigidity G) Coefficient of stiffness used for

compression and ex ension springs.
E Modulus in Tensiofi or Bending (Young's Modulus E) Coefficient of stiffness used for

torsion or fiat spring .
M Moment A product Of the distance from the spring axis to the point of load application, and
the force componen normal to the distance fine.
n Natural Frequency Lowest inherent rate of free vibration of a spring vibrating between its
own ends.
Patenting The proc ss of heating carbon steel aboye its critica) temperature and cooling at a
controlled rate to ac leve a fine pearlitic microstructure.
p Pitch Distance from center to center of wire in adjacent coils in en open-wound spring.
Plain Ends End coi) of a helical spring having a constant pitch and ends not squared.
Plain Ends , Groun Same as Plain Ends, except wire ends are ground square with the axis.
R Rate Spring gradien , or change in load per unit of deflection.
Residual Stress St ess mechanically induced by such means as set removal, shot-peening,
cold working, or forr iing. It may be beneficia) or not, depending on the spring application.
Set Permanent cha ge of length, height or position alter a spring is stressed beyond
material's elastic lim t.
Set Point Stress at hich some arbitrarily chosen amount of set (usually 2%) occurs. Set
percentage is the s divided by the deflection which produced it.
Set Removal An op ration which causes a permanent loss of length or height dueto spring
deflection.
Shot- Peening Blas ng the surfaces of spring material with steel or glass pellets to induce
compressive stress os that improve fatigue life.
Slenderness Ratio ¡Ratio of spring length to mean diameter L/D in helical springs.
Ls Solid Height Lengtf)of a compression spring when deflected under sufflcient load to bring al¡
adjacent coils into c ntact - no additional deflection is possible.
Spiral Springs Spri gs formed from fíat strip or wire wound in the form of a spiral, loaded by
torque about an axi normal to the plena of the spiral.
C Spring Index Ratio f mean diameter to wire diameter.
Squared and Grou d Ends See Closed and Ground Ends.
Squared Ends See Closed Ends.
a
Squareness Angular deviation, between the axis of a compression spring in a free state and
a line normal to the end planes.
Stress Range Difference in operating stresses at minimum and maximum loads.
Stress Ratio Minimum stress divided by maximum stress.
Stress Relief A low temperatura heat treatment given springs to relieve residual stresses
produced by prior cold forming.
M Torque Sea Moment
N Total Number of Coils The sum of the number of active and inactive coils in a spring body.
Bibliographical References
Johnson, Leonard, G., The Statistical Treatment of Fatigue Experiments. New York: Elsevier
Publishing Co., 1964.
Little, R. E. and E. H. Jebe., Statistical Design of Fatigue Experiments. New York: John Wiley
& Sons, 1975.
Wahl, A. M., Mechanical Springs, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963.
Berry, W. R., Spring Design: A Practica¡ Treatment. London: Emmot & Co., 1961.
Almen, J. 0. and A. Laszlo., 'The Uniform Section Disc Spring:" A.S.M.E Transactions, vol.
58, no. 4, (May 1936), pp. 305 - 314.
Blake, A., Design of Curvad Members for Machines. New York: Industrial Press, 1966.
Bisshopp, K. E. and D. C. Drucker., "Large Deflections of Cantilever Beams ," Quarterly of

Applied Mathematics, vol. 3, no. 3, (1945), p. 272.
Maker, J. H., "Steel Springs:" Metals Handbook. 9th ed. Metals Park: ASM, vol. 1, (1978), pp.
283-313.
Design and Manufacture of Voluta Springs. New York: SAE, 1945.
Peterson, R. E., Stress Concentration Factors. New York: John Wiley & Sons, (1974), p. 231.
Maier, Karl, W., "Dynamic Loading of Compression Springs,"Product Engineering, (January

1954), pp. 162-167. "Dynamic Loading of Compression Springs," (March 1955), pp. 162-72.
"Surge Waves in Compression Springs:" (August 1957), pp. 167-174.
a
Reference Ii formation
onversion Factors , Metric and English Units

To Convert Multiply By To Obtain
Area in' 645.2 mm2
Density Ib/in3 27.68 g/cm3
Force Ibf 4.448 N
ozf 0.278 N
Ibf 0.4536 kgf
Freque cy c/s 1.000 Hz
Length in. 25.4 mm
ft. 304.8 mm
Mass Ib 0 .4536 kg
Moduli E and G) psi 0.006895 MPa
Pressu e psi 6.895 kPa
Spring ate Ib/in. 0.1751 N/mm
Ib/in. 0.01785 Kg/mm
Stress psi 0.006895 MPa
Torque lbf-in. 112.9 N•mm
Ibf-ft 1355 N•mm
ozf-in. 7.062 N•mm
Tempe ature °F =(°F - 32) + 1.8 °C
°C =1.8°C + 32° °F
Tensile Strength psi 0.006895 MPa
Volum in3 16,387 mm3
Work ft-Ibf 1.365 J
Table 3. Conversion Factors.
Abbreviations
HRC hardness, Rockwell C scale
Hz hertz
in. inch
J joule
kg kilogram
Ibf pound force
m meter
mm millimeter
N newton
ozf ounce force
Pa pascal
Table 4, Common Abbreviations.
a
Symbols
M mega 1,000,000
k kilo 1,000
h hecto 100
c centi 0.01
m Milli 0.001
micro 0.000001
Ii .
L
Table 5. Common Symbols.
3000 Tensile Strength,

10kg 5009 kg roximate
C A 15N 30N 45N DPH Vickers Knoop Brinell Ma 10 i B 15T 30T 45T
66 84.5 92.5 83 73 854 860 870
64 83.5 92 81 71 789 800 822
62 82.5 91 79 69 739 740 776
60 81 90 77.5 66.5 695 697 732 614
58 80 89.5 75.5 64 655 655 690 587
56 79 88.5 74 62 617 615 650 560
54 78 87.5 72 59.5 580 579 612 534 2020 293
52 77 86.5 70.5 57.5 545 547 576 509 1889 274
50 76 85.5 68.5 55 513 516 542 484 1765 256
48 74.5 84.5 66.5 52.5 485 482 510 460 1641 238
46 73.5 83.5 65 50 458 458 480 437 1538 223
44 72.5 82.5 63 48 435 435 452 415 1441 209
42 71.5 81.5 61.5 45.5 413 410 426 393 1331 193
40 70.5 80.5 59.5 43 393 396 402 372 1248 181
38 69.5 79.5 57.5 41 373 372 380 352 1179 171
36 68.5 78.5 56 38.5 353 350 360 332 1110 161
34 67.5 77 54 36 334 336 342 313 1048 152
32 66.5 76 52 33.5 317 319 326 297 1007 146
30 65.5 75 50.5 31.5 301 301 311 283 952 138
28 64.5 74 48.5 29 285 285 297 270 903 131
26 63.5 72.5 47 26.5 271 272 284 260 862 125
24 62.5 71.5 45 24 257 260 272 250 827 120
22 61.5 70.5 43 22 244 247 256 240 786 114 100 93 82 72
20 60.5 69.5 41.5 19.5 228 241 241 230 758 110 98 92.5 81 70
59 216 231 215 703 102 96 92 80 68
57.5 205 221 205 676 98 94 91.5 78.5 66
56.5 195 211 198 648 94 92 90.5 77.5 64.5
55.5 185 201 185 614 89 90 90 76 62.5
54 176 192 176 586 85 88 89.5 75 60.5
53 169 184 169 558 81 86 88.5 74 58.5
52 162 176 156 517 75 84 88 73 57
50.5 156 170 151 503 73 82 87.5 71.5 55
49.5 150 164 150 496 72 80 86.5 70 53
48.5 144 158 483 70 78 86 69 51
47 139 152 469 68 76 85.5 67.5 49
46 135 147 448 65 74 85 66 47.5
Table 6. Approximate Conversions for Carbon Steel Between Hardness Scales and Tensile
Strengths.
a
Spring Materials
Chemical and Physical C aracteristics

While certain mate ials have come to be regarded as spring materials, they are not specially
designed alloys. S ring materials are high strength alloys which often exhibit the greatest
strength in the ello system. For example : In steels, medium and high-carbon steels are
regarded as spring materials . Beryllium copper is frequently specified when a copper base
alloy is required. F r titanium, cold - worked and aged Ti-13V-11 Cr- 3A1 is used. The energy
storage capacity o a spring is proportional to the square of the maximum operating stress
leve) divided by th modulus . An ideal spring material has high strength , a high elastic limit
and a low modulus Because springs are resilient structures designed lo undergo large
deflections, spring aterials must have an extensive elastic range . Other factors such as
fatigue strength, c st, availability, formability, corrosion resistance , magnetic permeability and
electrical conducti ity can also be important and must be considered in light of cost /benefit.
Consequently, car fui selections must be made to obtain the best compromise.
Table7, page 16, li ts some commonly used alloys along with data for material selection
purposes . Data on mechanical properties are presented in the Spring Wire and Spring Strip
subsections (Page 25 and 27 respectively). Specifications have been written by many
national and intern tional organizations . These specifications are cross- referenced in
SMI's Encyclopedi of Spring Design . However, correlation between the specifications is only
approximate. Thes specifications were developed exclusively for high quality material for
spring application and are generally more detailed and stringent than other specifications.
Surface quality ha a major influence on fatigue strength and is often not clearly delineated
on national specifi ations . It is important to use only those materials with the best surface
integrity for fatigue applications , particularly those in the high cycle region.
In steel alloys, for ich processing costs are a large fraction of product cost , surface quality
can vary over an preciable range. Depth of surface imperfections , such as seams , pits and
die marks, can be p to 3.5% of diameter for commercial spring wire grades (ASTM A-227
and A-229). Vario s intermediate qualities can be obtained . Highest levels are represented
by music and vals spring quality grades which are virtually free of surface imperfections.
Decarburization, hich can also adversely affect fatigue performance, follows a similar
pattern . Surface q ality of spring materials is a function of the care exercised in their
production and pr cesses employed . Materials produced with a high leve ) of surface integrity
are more costly th n commercial grades.

Younte Modtiue d Sizes Namelly Avellable Meximren Servks
ENetrlal Typkal
Modulus E (1) O7 Dsnstty (1) Conduct- Suffsce Tampafatun (4)
Common Neme Mpa (poi) Mps (ps) apn' Ivity (1) Min. Mea. Gu 3)Ily
10' 10° 10' 10° IWin % IACS mm n. mm In.
8
Carbon Steel Wires:
Music ( 5) 207 ( 30) 79 . 3 (11.5) 7 . 86 (0.284 ) 7 0.10 ( 0.004 ) 6.35 (0 . 250) a 120 250
Harci Drawn ( 5) 207 (30) 79 . 3 (11.5 ) 7.86 (0 . 284) 7 0.13 (0 . 005) 16 (0.625) c 150 250
Oil Tempered 207 (30) 79.3 (11 . 5) 7.86 (0.284 ) 7 0.50 (0.020 ) 16 (0.625 ) c 150 300
Valva S rin 207 30 79 . 3 11.5 7.86 0 . 284 7 1 . 3 0.050 6 . 35 0.250 a 150 300
Allo Steel Wires:
Chrome Vanadium 207 (30 ) 79.3 (11. 5) 7.86 ( 0.289 ) 7 0.50 ( 0 . 020 ) 11 (0.435 ) a,b 220 425
Chrome Silicon 207 30 79 . 3 (11.5) 7 . 88 0.284 5 0 . 50 0 .020 9 . 5 0.375 a,b 245 475
Stainless Steel Wires:
Type 302 193 28 69.0 10 7 . 92 0.286 2 0 . 13 0.005 9 . 5 0.375 b 260 500
arden
H ing 17-7 PH 203 (29 . 5) 75.8 ( 11) 7.81 ( 0.282 ) 2 0.08 ( 0.002 ) 12.5 (0 . 500) b 315 600
ardenin 1
NiCr A286 200 (291 1 71 . 7 10.4 6.03 0 . 290 2 0.40 0.016 5 0 . 200 b 510 950
Copper Base Alloy Wires:
Phos hor Bronze A 103 15 43 . 4 63 6 . 88 0.320 15 0.10 0.009 12.5 0. 500 b 95 200
Silicon Bronze (A) 103 15 38. 6 5.6 8 . 53 0.308 7 0. 10 0.004 12 . 5 0.500 b 95 200
Silicon Bronze B 117 17 44.1 6.4 8.75 0.316 12 0 . 10 0.004 12 . 5 0.500 b 95 200
Be Ilium Co r 128 18.5 48 . 3 7.0 8 . 26 0.298 21 0.08 0 . 003 12 . 5 0.500 b 205 400
S rin Brass CA260 110 16 42 . 0 6.0 8 . 53 0.308 17 0.10 0 . 004 12 . 5 0.500 b 95 200
Nickel Base Allo :
Alloy 600 214 (31) 75 . 8 (11) 8.43 ( 0 . 304 ) 1 1 .5 0.10 0.004 12.5 0.500 b 320 700
Inconel Alto X750 214 (31) 79 . 3 (11.5) 8.25 0.298 1 0 . 10 0.004 12 . 5 0.500 b 595 1100
Ni-S n-C ® 186 (27 ) 62.9 (9 .7) 8.14 ( 0.294 1 .6 0.10 (0.004 ) 12.5 0.500 ) b 95 200
Monel e Alloy 400 179 (26 ) 66.2 (9.6) 8.83 (0.319 ) 3.5 0.05 (0 . 002) 9 . 5 (0.375) b 230 450
Monel Alloy K500 179 26 66 . 2 9.6 8 . 46 0.306 3 0 . 05 0.002 9 . 5 0.375 b 260 500
Carbon Steel Stri :
AISI 1050 207 30 79 . 3 11.5 7.86 0. 284 7 0.25 0 . 010 3 0. 125 b 95 200
1065 207 (30) 79.3 11 . 5 7.86 0 . 284 7 0.08 0 . 003 3 0. 125 b 95 200
1074 , 1075 1 207 30 79 . 3 11.5 7.86 0.284 7 0 . 08 ( 0.003) 3 0 . 125 b 120 250
1095 207 30 79.3 11 . 5 7.86 0 . 284 7 0.08 0.003 3 0 . 125 b 120 250
Bartex® 207 30 79.3 11 . 5 7.86 0 . 284 7 0. 10 ( 0.004 ) 1 1 0 . 040 a 95 200
Stainless Steel Stn :
Austen itie Types
193 10 ) 7.92 (0 . 286) 2 0.08 (0 . 003) 1 . 5 (0.063 ) b 315 600
301,302
Harde ing 17-7 PH
203 (29 . 5) 75.8 ( 11) 7.81 (0 . 282) 2 0 . 08 (0.003 ) 3(0.125 ) b 370 700
Hardenin 1
Co r Base Allo Stri :
Phos hor Bronze A 103 15 43 (6 . 3) 8.86 (0.320) 1 15 0.08 0.003 510 , 188) b 95 200
Be Ilium Co ppe r 128 18 . 5 48 7 . 0 8.26 0 .298 21 0 . 08 0.003 9 . 5 0.375 b 205 400
(1) Elasli moduli , densay and electrleal condudivily can vary wfth cold work hect tremment (4) Meximum servicem mpmtum ere guidelim3 and maY varY dase m aperming vress m,a
aM operming ttres Thae vuietbrtt are usuelly miwr but shoukl be aniderd ifore or slbweble relexnion.
more oftheae properties is critical. (5) Music and hud drawn ore commercial tenia br patemed ud aN-0mwn arbon real spring
(2) Dbmesen for wire; thickneases for serr,. whe,
(3) Typial surface qualky mtings. (Fornnm raterialR special procesas can be spceifed to
upgrade typial valuuJ INCONEL . MONEL m,i NI-SPAN- C are regidemd C~1. of lmenmtionel Nickel Company,
Meximum defect depth: 0 to 0.5%ofd or t. Inc. BARTEX is a registered trademark ofTheis ofAneria, Inc.
b. Maximum defect depth : 1.0 % ofd or t.
C. Defrct : leas Nan 3.5%ofd or t.
Table7. Typical Properties of Common Spring Materials.

Elastic Modulus
The modulus of el, isticity in tension and shear is vital to spring design. Table 7, page 16,
lists recommende( values for commonly used spring alloys. For most steels and age-
hardenable alloys, the modulus varíes as a function of chemical composition, cold work and
degree of aging. L sually variations are small and can be compensated for by adjustment of
reference paramel :rs of the spring design, (e.g. number of active coils, and coil diameter).
For most materials , moduli are temperature-dependent and vary inversely with temperature
by approximately, % per 55°C (100°F). Since nonambient temperature testing is costly,
design criteria sho uld be specified at room temperature after having made appropriate
compensation for he application temperature. Certain nickel-chromium-iron alloys are
designed to have: constant modulus over the temperature range from -5° to 65°C (-50° to
150°F) and are ex :eptions to the aboye rule.
For true isotropic materials, the elastic moduli in tension (E) and shear (G) are related
through Poisson's ratio by the expression:
E
2G
so that, for comm¢n spring materials, any one of the parameters may be approximated using
the othertwo.
Magnetic Characteristic
For most applicati ns, the question of "magnetic or not" is adequately answered with the use
of a permanent m gnet. For some applications, even very low levels of magnetic behavior
can be detrimenta . Then, it is desirable to know the magnetic permeability of candidate
materials and rea h agreement between parties on a maximum allowable value. Table 8,
page 18, lists appr ximate values for a number of low-permeability materials along with other
frequently used al oys.
Since permeabilit can be altered by cold work, some variation can be expected. In general,
low-permeability aterials are more expensive, so designers should specify low levels only
when absolutely n cessary. Often, nitrogen-strengthened manganese stainless steels are
good choices bec use they have good strength at moderate cost.
Heat Treatment of Sprin s

Heat treating tem eratures for springs can be divided into two ranges. Low-temperature heat
treatments in the 75° to 510°C (347° to 950°F) range are applied to springs after forming to
reduce residual st esses and stabilize parts dimensionally. For carbon steels, stainless steels
and some age-ha denable alloys, low-temperature heat treatments are used to increase or
restore the set po nt. Electroplated carbon steel parts are heat treated at low temperatures
prior to plating, a baked afterward to reduce the susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement.
Most low tempera ure stress relieving and age hardening of springs are done in air, and a
moderate amount of oxide may be formed on the part. No detrimental effects of this oxide
have been noted.
a
Permeability at 200 Oersted,
Materlais Room TAmperature
Air 1
Brasses , Bronzes Nonmagnetic
Carbon Steels > 500
Elgiloy® 1.000035
Inconel Alloys:
600 1.01
625 1.0006
X-750 1.0035
Stainless Steels:
Type 301, spring temper > 30
Type 302, spring temper > 12
631 (17-7 PH) > 40
XM-28: Nitronic® 32* 1.011
Nitronic 50* 1.004
Titanium Alloys Nonmagnetic
"Nitrogen-strengthened manganese stainless Steels.
ELGILOY is a registered trademark of Katy Industries, Inc.
NIfRONIC is a registered trademark of Arco., Inc.
Table 8. Magnetic Characterlstlcs of Some Materials.
High-temperature heat treatments are used to strengthen annealed material after spring
forming. High-carbon steels are strengthened by austenitizing in the temperature range 760'
to 900'C (1480' to 1652'F), quenching to forra martensite and then tempering. Some nickel-
based alloys are strengthened by high temperature aging treatments. Because substantial
oxidation occurs at these elevated temperatures, It is advisable to prevent excessive
oxidation by using an approprlate protective atmosphere.
Heat treatments suitable for many commonly used materials are listed in Tabla 9, paga 19.
Selection of a temperatura within a given range can only be made after considering the
material, size, strength leve¡, application conditions and desired characteristics. Unless
otherwise noted, 20 to 30 minutes exposure at the specified temperature range is sufficient to
obtain the bulk of the stress-relleving effect.
Many spring-11ke parts Involve forma that preclude the use of prehardened material. In
these cases, soft or annealed material must be used and heat treated to attain spring
properties after forming. Thin high-carbon and alloy steel parts become distorted when
hardened by quenching. Distortlon may be reduced by fixture tempering; however, this
process ls costly and should be avolded If at al¡ possible by using pretempered materials.
Tempering Is en effectlve stress-relieving treatment and results in negligible levels of residual

stress. Some spring materials, such as berylllum copper and 17-7 PH, are strengthened after
forming by age hardening. This provides a good stress relief, but may also cause distortion
unless special technlques are used.

Heat Treatment
M riais "C "F
Patented and Col -Drawn Steel Wire 190 - 230 375 - 450
Tempered Steel ¡re:
Carbon 260 - 400 500 - 750
Alloy 315 - 425 600 - 800
Austenitic Stainle Steel Wire 230 - 510 450 - 950
Precipitation Hard ning Stainless Wire
(17-7 PH):
Condition C 480 11 hour 900 11 hour
Condition A to TH 1050 760 11 hour cool to 1400 11 hour, cool
15°C followed by 5651 to 60°F followed by
1 hour 1050 11 hour
Monel:
Alloy 400 300 - 315 575 - 600
Alloy K500, Sp ing Temper 525 14 hours 980 14 hours
Inconel:
Alloy 600 400 - 510 750 - 950
Alloy X-750:
#1 Temper 730 / 16 hours 1350 116 hours
Spring Te per 650 14 hours 120014 hours
Copper Base , Col Worked (Brass,
Phosphor Bronze, etc.)
Beryllium Copper: 175 - 205 350 - 400
Pretempered (¡ A¡¡¡ Hardened ) 205 400
Solution Anne led, Temper Rolled or 315 12 - 3 hours 600 12 - 3 hours
Drawn
Annealed Steels:
Carbon (AISI 1 50 to 1095) 800 - 830* 1475 - 1525*
Alloy (AISI 516 )H 6150, 9254) 830 - 885* 1525 - 1625*
*Time depends on hea ng equipment and section size. Parts are austenized then quenched and temperad to the
desired hardness.
Table 9. Typicar Heat Treatments for Springs After Forming
Environmental Considerátions
Frequently , operat ng environment is the single most important consideration for proper
spring material sel ction . For successful application , material must be compatible with the
environment and N ithstand effects of temperature and corrosion without en excessive loss in
spring performanc Corrosion and elevated temperaturas decrease spring reliability. The
effect of temperati re on spring materials is predictable and discussed in the upcoming
subsection. Comp dibility of spring materials and spring coating systems with
corrosiva environr ents will be discussed in general terms.
a
Stress Relaxation
The primary concern for elevated-temperature applications of springs is stress relaxation.
Stress relaxation is the loss of load or available deflection that occurs when a spring is held
or cycled under load. Temperature also affects modulus, tensile and fatigue strength. For a
given spring, variables that affect stress relaxation are: stress, time and temperature, with
increases in any parameter tending to increase the amount of relaxation. Stress and
temperature are related exponentially to relaxation. Curves of relaxation vs. these
parameters are concave upward, as is shown in Figures 2 and 3, page 21. Other
controllable factors affecting relaxation include:
1. Alloy Type - more highly alloyed materials are generally more resistant ata given
temperature or can be used at higher temperatures.
2. Residual Stress - residual stresses remaining from forming operations are detrimental to
relaxation resistance. Therefore, use of the highest practica) stress-relief temperatures is
beneficia). Shot peening is also detrimental to stress relaxation resistance.
3. Heat Setting - various procedures can be employed to expose springs to stress and heat
for varying times to prepare for subsequent exposures. Depending on the method used,
the effect is to remove a usually larga first-stage relaxation and/or to establish a residual
stress system, which will lessen relaxation influences. In some cases, the latter approach
can be so effective that, in application, compression springs may "grow" or exhibit
negative relaxation. Increase in free length does not usually exceed one to two percent.
4. Grain Size - coarse grain size promotes relaxation resistance. This phenomenon is used
only in very high temperature applications.
Because so many variables are involved, it is impossible to cite comprehensive data in a

publication of this type, but Tabla 7, page 16, does show approximate maximum service
temperatures for many commonly used materials. It should be remembered that, if a material
is used at its maximum temperature, a substantial reduction must be made in applied stress
from that used at room temperature.
Corrosion
The effect of a corrosiva environment on spring performance is difficult to predict with
certainty. General corrosion , galvanic corrosion , stress corrosion and corrosion fatigue
reduce the life and load-carrying ability of springs . The two most common methods employed to
combat effects of corrosion are to spec ify materials that are inert to the environment and to
use protective coatings . Use of inert materials affords the most reliable protection against
deleterious effects of al¡ types of corrosion; however, this is often costly and sometimes
impractical. Protective coatings are often the most cost-effective method to prolong spring life
in corrosiva environments. In special situations, shot peening can be used to prevent stress
corrosion, and cathodic protection systems can be used to prevent general corrosion.

Exposure temperatura (°F)
250 300 350 400
8 18
11
Carbon Chrome 1
16 16 Steel silicon
Carbon Plain springs
Steel silicon
Shot - peened
14
Plain springs - - - I, Shot - peened
Shot - peened - - - 14 and Heat set
Shot - peened - - - Ii Exposure of 100 hours at 690 MPa
and Heat set (100,000 ps) filial stress calculat.d
12
/I 12
At room temperatura 1
Exposure of 100 hours at 149°C ( 300° ) • I
Stresses calculated at room tempemtu i
♦ I
1
2 2
-1 1 1 1
200 400 600 800 1000 120 140 160 180 200
Inicial stress (MP ) Exposure temperatura (°C)
Figure 2. Relaxation vs.lniti ¡Stress Figure 3. Relaxation vs. Temperature

for Spring Materials for Spring Materials
Coatings may be lassified as galvanically sacrificial or simple barrier coatings . Sacrificial

coatings for high rbon steel substrates include zinc, cadmium (and alloys thereof) and, lo a
lesser degree, al minum . Due to its toxicity , cadmium coating should only be specified when
absolutely neces ary. Because sacrificial coatings are chemically less noble than steel, the
substrate is prote ted in two ways . First, the coating acts as a barrier between substrate and
environment. Sec nd, galvanic action between coating and substrate cathodically protects
the substrate. Thi characteristic allows sacrificial coatings to continue their protective role
even after the co ting is scratched, nicked or cracked. The amount of damage a sacrificial
coating can susto n and still protect the substrate is a function of the size of the damaged
area and the effic ency of the electrolyte involved. The salt spray life criteria for three
thicknesses of sa rificial coatings are shown in Table 10, page 22. Use of conversion
coatings , such as chromates, lengthens the time of protection by protecting sacrificial
coatings. Salt spray (fog) is an accelerated test and results may, or may not, correlate with
corrosive activity n the actual environment. The test is useful as a control to ensure the
coating was appli d properly.
o
Zinc on Iron and Steel dmiumon # ron and Steel
Parta per QQ-Z-325 (1) wy ±¿: Fans per QQ P-416 (2)
Salt Spray
Minimum Test, SaltHours
Sprayto Test,
Recommended Corrosion Minimum Hours to
Thickness Finish White Red Thickness Finish Whlte
mm (in.) Type mm (in.) Type Corrosion
A 192
0.025 0.013 B
B 96 96
(0.0010) C 192 (0.00050)
A
0.013 0.006
B 96 B 96
(0.00050) (0.00030)
C
A 36
0.005 0.005
B 96 B 96
(0.00020) (0.00020)
C 36
(1) Requirements for zinc coating (electrodeposited).
(2) Requirements for cadmium plating (electrodeposited).
Finish Type:
A. Without supplementary chromate or phosphate treatment.
B. With supplementary chromate treatment.
C. With supplementary phosphate treatment.
Table 10. Guide for Selecting Minimum Thicknesses for Zinc

and Cadmium Coatings.
Metallic coatings are normally applied by electroplating. Since most high-hardness steels are
inherently very susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement, plating must be carried out with great
care to minimize embrittlement and subsequent fatigue failure. A baking operation alter
plating is also essential. The designar should observe these points during design and
specification:
1. Minimize sharp corners and similar stress-concentration points in design.
2. Keep hardness as low as possible.
3. Keep operating stress down, in accordance with lowered hardness value.
4. Specify plating thickness, depending upon requirements.
5. Specify that parts be baked alter plating.
6. Consider use of HEPTM strips to monitor the plating operation.
7. Residual stress from forming operations must be reduced by stress relief at the highest
practical temperature. Otherwise the combined effect of residual tension and hydrogen
absorbed during plating can induce cracking even before plating is completed.
Similar cautions apply if acid cleaning procedures are contemplated.
o
Mechanical plating provi es an effective means of zinc or cadmium protection with minimum
hydrogen embrittlement. t is particularly recommended where parts have high residual
stress, have been harde ed aboye HRC48 and are used with high static loads. The process
can only be applied to pa s that do not tangle and have a clean, fully accessible surface.
Hydrogen embrittlement, although unlikely, is still possible if parts are cleaned by pickling.
When appropriate, coatí gs of zinc, tin, cadmium, oran alloy of cadmium can be applied by
mechanical plating proceses.
Cadmium, zinc or, more ommonly, alloys of the two can be applied to steel spring wire
during its production and under some circumstances, this alternative is highly desirable. It is
best suited to small-diam ter wire and, in general, for the production of springs not requiring
grinding.
Springs are almost alwa in contact with other metal parts. In a corrosive environment, it is
important that the spring aterial be more noble than components in contact with it. Table
11, below, shows a partí 1 list of alloys in increasing order of nobility. When any two alloys
are placed in contact in t he presence of an electrolyte, the less noble alloy (higher on the list)
will be attacked. The atta k will be significantly more vigorous than that of the electrolyte
acting by itself.
Galvanic Series with

lectrolyte such as seawater
Magnesiu
Zinc
Aluminum
Cadmium
Steel or Ir n
Cast ¡ron
Stainless teel, series
300 (a tive)
Hastelloy C
Nickel(ac¡ve)
Inconel (a tive)
Hastelloy
Brasses , 1 ronzes
Monel
Nickei (pa sive)
Inconel (p ssive)
Stainless teel, series
300 (p ssive)
Titanium
Table 11 . IOrder of Nobility.

The list of coatings that protect the base material by acting as a barrier to the environment
is extensive and increases as new finishes and techniques are developed. Tabla 12,
below, shows protection available from some of the common barrier finishes. This information
is not for selection purposes; it simply shows the range of protection afforded. In fact, the
hours of salt spray protection may only be valid for the specimen and test conditions
employed in this series of tests. The tests were conducted on springs that had undergone four
million cycles in a fatigue test prior to salt spray exposure.
Protective Standard Salt Spray

Material Test Resistance, hours Description
Paints:
Japan 15 - 20 Dark colored, usually dipped, cured by
baking.
Lacquer 30 - 100 Usually applied by spraying. Air dried.
Enamel 50 - 400 Hard finish; applied by spray, brush or
dip; cured by air or baking.
Paint 25 - 300
Oils, waxes 1 - 300 Lubricating, rust-inhibiting, hard drying
and nondrying oils.
Phosphates with 24 - 600 Chemical treatment converting steel
supplemental surface to ¡ron phosphate crystalline
oils, waxes, etc. surface. Affords a bond for oils and
paints.
Cadmium, zinc 24 - 100 Electroplated or mechanically plated.
This information is based on laboratory-controlled applications and test. The protective material selected,
cleanliness of parts, m ethod of application, subsequent operations and part usage affect performance. The
choice of a spring fmish must also consider shipping, assembly, end use and total cost.
Table 12. Salt Spray Resistente of Common Barrier Finishes.
While coatings frequently increase in effectiveness as their thicknesses are increased,

cautions are in order. Tendencias to crack increase as coating thickness increases, and the
coating increases the size of the spring. For example, coatings increase the solid height and
diametral clearances required for compression springs. Brittle coatings, such as epoxy, can
chip under impact, leaving unprotected spots. Tough coatings, such as vinyl, resist chipping,
but bruises, tears or abrasions can expose the base material and trap corrosive agents. This
allows corrosion to continua after exposure and, in these circumstances, coated springs
occasionally exhibit shorter lives than uncoated springs.
Frequently, oils, waxes or greases provide adequate protection. Effectiveness of these

coatings is often dependent on the nature of the surface to be protected. In general, lustrous
or smooth parts will not retain oils, and waxes , paraffin-based oils or greases are
recommended. Steels can be phosphate-coated by a conversion process. Phosphate
coatings have a high retention for oils, greases or paints. The combination of a phosphate
and oil coating becomes a corrosion inhibitor more effective than either of the components. A
similar effect is obtained by retaining or deliberately forming oxides on metal surfaces to hold
corrosion inhibitors or lubricants. Oil-tempered spring wire is a notable example of this
technique.

Specifications mentioned in this book and in detall in the Encyclopedia are:
UNS Unified Nu bering System is a joint publication of the American Society for
Testing an 1 Materials (ASTM) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).
"A UNS de ignation is not, in itself, a specification, since it establishes no
requireme ts for form, condition, property or quality. It is a unified identifier of a
metal or al y for which controlling limits have been established in
specificati ns published elsewhere." For additional details, see ASTM
E527/SAE 1086, "Recommended Practice for Numbering Metals and Alloys."
ASTM ASTM stardards are issued by:

Americanjociety for Testing and Materials
1916 Ragc Street
Philadelphja, Pennsylvania 19103-1187 USA
AISI Stands foríAmerican ¡ron and Steel Institute . AISI and SAE developed a
system of ¢lesignation for standard steels . For a description, see SAE J403.
AMS SAE/Aerolpace Materials Standards are issued by the Society of Automotive

Engineers see below).
SAE SAE stand 3rds have been issued by the Society of Automotive Engineers.
Although rio longer available, the SAE standards are provided to
reflect not tions on existing documents and blueprints.
Federal , Mil. Federal arfa Military Specifications are issued by the United States
Sp. Governme t and are available from:
Standards ation Documents Order Desk

Bldg. 4 Se tion D
700 Robbi s Avenue
Philadelph a, Pennsylvania 19111-5094
Attn: NPO ) S
JIS JIS standards are issued by the Japanese Standards Association.
DIN DIN stand rds are issued by the Deutsches Institut für Normunge e. V.
English tra slations can be obtained from:
Global En ineering Documents

15 Invern ss Way
Englewoo CO 80112 USA
(800) 854-179
BS British standards are issued by the British Standards Institute (BSI).

Tensile Bend Factorttl Modulus of
Strength MP Rockwell Elongationltl (2r/t trans. elasticity Poisson's
Material (103 Psi) Hardness Percent bends) 104 Mpa ( 106 psi) Ratio
Steel, spring temper 1700 (246) C50 2 5 20.7 (30) 0.30
Stainless 301 1300 (189) C40 8 3 19.3(28) 0.31
Stainless 302 1300 (189) C40 5 4 19.3 (28) 0.31
Monel 400 690( 100) B95 2 5 17.9 (26) 0.32
Monel K500 1200 (174) C34 40 5 17.9 (26) 0.29
Incone1600 1040(151) C30 2 2 21.4 (31) 0.29
Inconel X-750 1050 (152) C35 20 3 21.4 (31) 0.29
Copper-Beryllium 1300 (189) C40 2 5 12.8 (18.5) 0.33
Ni-Span-C 1400 (203) C42 6 2 18.6 (27) -
Brass CA 260 620 (90) B90 3 3 11 (16) 0.33
Phosphor Bronze 690 (100) B90 3 2.5 103(15) 0.20
17-7 PH RH950 1450 (210) C44 6 Flat 20.3 (29.5) 0.34
17-7 PH Condition C 1650 (239) C46 1 2.5 20.3 (29.5) 0.34
(1) Before hect treatment.
Table 18. Typical Properties oQ Spring Temper Alloy Strip.
Specifying Hardness
Hardness tests are used extensively to inspect strip and fíat springs, and it is necessary to
specify the correct ;cale. Recommended hardness scales for steels are presented in Tabla
19, below. To obtai i accurate readings free from the effect of the anvil, it is important to
limit the thickness if the material for each hardness scale as shown in Figure 9, page 33,
for hard material; nd Figure 10, page 33, for soft materials.
Annealed Steel and

Thickness : m (in.) Tempered Steel Nonferrous Alloys
0.89 (0.035) and o r c B
0.64-0.86 (0.025 - .034) A 45T
0.35-0.61 (0.015 - .024) 30N 30T
0.20-0.36 (0.008 - .014) 15N 15T
Under 0.20 (0.008)j 1 DPH DPH
Table 19. Reco mended Hardness Scales for Hard and

Soft Spring Allo rs.
a
Commercial thickness tolerances for spring steel strip are presented in Table 17, below.
Many fíat springs and spring washer designs can tolerate this variation. Since the load varíes
as the cube of the thickness, critica) designs may require closer tolerances.
Thickness Tolerance : ± mm (in.)
Thickness : mm (in.) Strip Width : mm (in.)

12.7-76. 1 761-304.8
(0.50 - 2 .99) (3.00 - 12.00)
0.10 - 0.25 (0.004 - 0.010) 0.005 (0.00020) 0.006 (0.00025)
0.25 - 0.51 (0.010 - 0.020) 0.006 (0.00025) 0.009 (0.00035)
0.51 - 0.76 (0.020 - 0.030) 0.009 (0.00035) 0.013 (0.00050)
0.76 - 1.02 (0.030 - 0.040) 0.010 (0.00040) 0.013 (0.00050)
1.02 - 1.52 (0.040 - 0.060) 0.013 (0.00050) 0.019 (0.00075)
1.52 - 2.03 (0.060 - 0.080) 0.025 (0.00100) 0.038 (0.00150)
2.03 - 2.54 (0.080 - 0.100) 0.038 (0.00150) 0.051 (0.00200)
2.54 - 3.18 (0.100 - 0.125) 0.051 (0.00200) 0.063 (0.00250)
Precision rolled high-caibon steel strip is available commercially at tolerances considerably less than
the values stated aboye.
Table 17. Typical High-Carbon Strip Thickness Tolerantes.
Other Spring Materials

A variety of materials other than carbon steel strip is used for fíat springs (Tabla 18, page
32). When high conductivity is required, copper-based alloys are usually specified. Stainless
steels are used in applications requiring heat or corrosion resistance. Typical tensile strength
levels for these alloys after heat treatment are shown in Table 18, page 32. Bend factors
and tensile elongations are for alloys in "as received" condition prior to final heat treatment.
a
AI 1 1050 AISI 1065 AISI 1074, 1075 5
1Jt NJt Nalt
Direction Annealed Annealed Annealed Annealed Annealed ]d nnealed
Annoa
Thickness (t) Annealed
(standard (special (standard (spacial (standard (speclal special
mm (In.) of Bond
lowest lowest lowest lowest lowest lowest lowest
max. max. • max. max . " max. max. e max.
2 0 2 0 2 0 1
1.9mm
4 3 4 3 4 3 4
(0.076)-over
1 0 1 0 1 0 0
0.9-1.89 mm
2 1 2 1 2 1 2
(0.036-0.075")
0 0 0 0
0.37-0.89 mm
0 1 Ya 1 1
(0. 015-0.035")
0 0 0 0 0 0
0.20-0.36 mm
0 0 0 0 0 '/:
(0.008-0.014")
ifN, =
Fonnability is determmed by slowly bending a saniple ovar 80' untll jis ende ere pmallel . me memmed distante between the erds Is N,. For exavele,
•Available m Barco-Fonr® "m Wallace Banes Steel sa idimyoflheis s ofAmerira, Inc.
Table 16. Formability of Ann^ aled Spring Steels.
In fíat spring desi ns where the edge of the strip becomes an edge of the part, the type of
edge is important, particularly for cyclic applications. Common types of edges available are
shown in Figure 8 below. Slit edge (No. 3) and deburred (No. 5) are preferred for
blanked parts ata static applications. No. 1 round edge is recommended for cyclic
applications to re uce the stress concentration and eliminate the edge flaws due to slitting.
Configurations sh wn in Figure 8, are approximate, and it is advisable to use both the
numerical design tion and a description when specifying edge condition.
No. 1 Edge
SQUARE No. 3 Edge

Standard
maximum comer
radius: 0.08 mm
(0.003")
ROUND
Standard NORMAL AS SLIT
BLUNT ROUND
Special
No. 5 Edge
OVAL
Special
BROKEN No. 3 DEBURRED

CORNERS
Special
Figure & Edge Available on Steel Strip.

Spring steels are normally produced to specified hardness leveis that are related lo tensile
strength (Figure 7, below). Composition is not shown in Figure 5, page 28, because
the lowest carbon leve) (AISI 1050) can be used at high strength leveis and the highest
carbon leve) (AISI 1095) can be tempered to the lowest strength levels. In general, higher
carbon levels are used when strength is critical, and lower carbon levels are used when
formability is critical. Hardness levels aboye HRC 50 result in high strength but are not generally
recommended due to notch sensitivity. Surface and edge smoothness become critical, and
plated parts become highly susceptible to static fracture due lo trapped hydrogen.
10 kg. DPH or Vickers (VHN)

250 350 450 550
300
2000
280
1800
260
240
1600
220
1400
200
180
1200
160
1000
140
800 120
28 32 36 40 44 46 48 50 52 54
Rockwell Hardness (HRC)
Figure 7. Tensile Strength vs. Hardness of Quenched

and Tempered Spring Steel.
Parts that cannot be made within formability limits of pretempered strip are made from
annealed strip, and hardened and tempered alter forming. To maintain critical dimensions, it is
often necessary to fixture temper these parts. Sharp bends are not only difficult to fabricate
but are also undesirable in service because of stress concentration. The formability limits of
annealed spring steels are presented in Tabla 16, paga 30.

Moderate High Extra High
Strength Strengt Strength
5.1 mm
0.060
1.5
(.2 00")
4.4 m 0.050
1.25 1 75•) Mini mum
Bending
Radius
3.8 mm
3.2 mm
2.5 mm
(.100")
0.50 0.020
.8 MM
(.075")
0.25 0.010
1.3 mm
40 42 4 46 48 50 52 54 56
Rockwell Hardness (HRC)
Figure 5. Minimum Transverse Bending Radii for Various

Tempers and Thickne ses of Tempered Spring SteeL
Direction of bending with spect to rolling direction is an important consideration. Formability

of strip is greater in trans rse than in longitudinal directions (Figure 6, below). If a part is
designed with two identic 1 bends at 900 to each other, it is common practice to orient the
part so that both bends ara made at 450 to the rolling direction. Dimensionless parameter 2r/t,
often referred to as "bend actor," is frequently used as a measure of formability. Materials with
low values are more formable than materials with high values. This measure is only a guide,
since it does not allow for ooling considerations and complex strains associated with forming
operations.
Indicates Direction Of Rolling

Nt = 2r
Transverse end Longitudinal Bend
Also known as "acn ss the grain," Also known as "with the grain,"
perpendicular to he rolling parallel.to rolling direction.
direction. Easy or good way. Hard or bad way.
Figure 6. Orientation ^f Bend Axis to Rolling Direction for

Transverse and Long tudinal Bends.

Relative Cost of 2 mm
(0.079") Diameter
Wire Specification Mill Warehouse
Quantities Lote
Patenten and Cold Drawn ASTM A227 1.0 1.0
Oil Tempered ASTM A229 1.3 1.3
Music ASTM A228 2.6 1.4
Carbon Valve Spring ASTM A230 3.1 1.9
Chrome Silicon Valve ASTM A401 4.0 3.9
Stainless Steel (Type 302) ASTM A313 (302) 7.6 4.7
Phosphor Bronze ASTM 8.0 6.7
Stainless Steel (Type 631) ASTM A 313 (631) 11 8.7
(17-7 PH)
Beryllium Copper ASTM 8197 27 17
Inconel Alloy X-750 44 31
Table 14. Ranking of Relative Costs of Common Spring Wires.
Springmaking operations rarely change the diameter of the material. Since spring properties
are often dependent upon diameter to the fourth power or thickness to the third power,
tolerances on spring wire are critical. Standard tolerances are shown in Table 15, below.
Closer tolerances are available on request.
meter: mm (in.) Tolerance : mm Maximum Out-of-

(in.) roundness : mm (in.)
.71 (0.020 - 0.028) 0.010 (0.0004) 0.010 (0.0004)
00 (0.028 - 0.078) 0.015 (0.0006) 0.015 (0.0006)
00 (0.078 - 0.118) 0.020 (0.0008) 0.020 (0.0008)
00 (0.118 - 0.240) 0.030 (0.00118) 0.030 (0.0012)
FP
0- 00 (0.240 - 0.354) 0.050 (0.00197) 0.050 (0.002)
.00 (0.375 - 0.6 25) 0.070 (0.00276) 0.070 (0.0028)
wires can be purchased to tighter tolerances. Music wire and most nonferrous materials are
ade to closer tolerantes.
Tabla 15. Standard Tolerantes for Spring Wire.
Spring Strip
Most fíat springs are made from AISI grades 1050, 1065, 1074 and 1095 steel strip. These
compositions are listed in ASTM specifications A682 and A684.
Tensile strength and formability characteristics are shown in Figure 5, page 28. The
vertically inclined bands delineate three strength leveis as functions of stock thickness and
hardness. Horizontal curves indicate minimum bending radii required for the strength leveis
they intersect. Interpolations can be made between any two bands or lines for intermediate
leveis. Formability criteria are given for relatively smooth bends made at reasonable bending
rates. Operations that apply forming forces other than smooth bending, or have impact
characteristics, may require larger red¡¡ to prevent fracture. Fourslide part manufacture,
progressive die work and secondary forming are examples of operations that often produce
less-than-ideal bending.

Cost and Availability
Cost and availabil ty of spring wire have en important bearing on custom-made springs.
Frequently, the d signer can minimize cost and improve delivery by selecting preferred sizes
of wire (Table 13, elow). Since absoluta costs changa very quickly, material costs are
presented on a re ative basis. Changes in ranking with the passage of time are possible.
Other factors, su as wire size, surface quality and quantity, also affect price per pound.
E glish Sizes (In.) Metdc Sizes (mm) English Sizes (in.)

Metric Sizes (mm)
Third F rst Second First Second Third First Second
First Second
P ference Preference Preference Preference Preference Preferente Preference
Preference Preference Preference
0.004 3.0 0.067
0.10
0.005 3.2 0.072
0.11
0.006 3.5 0.076
0.12
0.008 3.8 0.081
0.14
0.009 4.0 0.085
0.16
0.18 0.010 4.2 0.092
0.011 4.5 0.098
0.20
0.012 4.8 0.102
0.22
0.013 5.0 0.105
0.25
0.014 5.5 0.112
0.28
0.015 6.0 0.120
0.30
0.016 6.5 0.125
0.35
0.017 7.0 0.130
0.40
0.45 0.018 7.5 0.135
0.019 8.0 0.140
0.50
0.020 8.5 0.148
0.55
0.021 9.0 0.156
0.60
0.65 0.022 9.5 0.162
0.024 10.0 0.170
0.70
0.026 11.0 0.177
0.80
0.90 0.028 12.0 0.192
13.0 0.200
0.030 14.0 0.207
1.0
0.031 15.0 0.218
1.1
0.033 0.225
1.2
1.3 0.035 16.0 0.250
0.038 0.262
1.4
0.040 0.281
1.6
0.042 0.306
1.8
0.045 0.312
2.0
2.1 0.047 0.343
0.048 0.362
2.2
2.4 0.051 0.375
0.055 0.406
2.5
2.6 0.059 0.437
2.8 0.063 0.469
0.500
Table 13. Preferred Diametei s for Spring Steel Wire.
Table 14, paga 27 , shows data for quantities large enough to avoid extra costs for 2 mm
(0.079") wire. Fo al¡ materials, processing to small sizes adds significantly to basic alloy cost.
Production of hi h quality surfaces may carry a cost premium. As the base alloy value
increases, these factors, though still important, represent a smaller fraction of the total raw
material cosí. P ented and cold-drawn wire (ASTM A227) is used as a base, with an
assigned value f 1.0. W hen the amount of material required is larga, choice of material is
very important, f r it will usually be the mejor element in the spring cosí. If the amount of
material is small and, particularly, if quick delivery is important, immediate availability rather
than cosí often ictates the material choice.

Spring Wire
Tensile properties of spring wire vary with size (Figure 4, below). Common spring wires
with the highest strengths are ASTM 228 and ASTM 401 materials. ASTM A313 Type 302,
A232 and A230 materials have slightly lower tensile strengths with surface qualities suitable
for fatigue applications. Hard-drawn (ASTM 227) and oil-tempered (ASTM 229) are also
supplied at lower strength levels and are most suitable for static applications.
Wire Diameter (in.)

0.004 0.008 0.020 0.040 0.080 0.200 0.400 0.800
-450
3000
AST M A228
-400
2500
-350 ó
ASTM A313
m t
2 (302) ASTM A401
1 - , - L 300
2000
P
= ASTM A229
F
y ASTM A227 250 r

' ASTM 1230 ASTM A232
E 1500 1 1 ^^ ^l
É
Iconel Allcy X-750 ( Spring Temper) -200
E ASTM A229 is
E
? ASTM 8759 ( Spring Temper CA510) ASTM A227 É
2 1000 150 :E
ASTM A313
(302)
100
500
50
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
0.10 1.0 10.0
Wire Diameter (mm)
1
1
Most spring wires can be wrapped on their own diameter (bent around a pin with a diameter
aquel to the wire diameter). Exceptions include some copper-based alloys and large-diameter
and/or high-strength alloys. Because stress relieving increases yield strength of cold-drawn
spring wire, all sharp bends of this grade material should be made prior to stress relief.
c
Glossary of Spring Wiri Terms
Tensile Strengt
ASTM E6, Secti n 37 - Terminology - The maximum tensile stress that a material is
capable of sustai ing. Tensile strength is calculated from the maximum load during a tension
test carried to ru ture and the original cross sectional area of the specimen.
Procedural specifications - ASTM A370, ASTM E8
Size Tolerance
Allowed maximu deviation from a nominal diameter . Usually expressed as both plus and
minus and in the same units with the same precision as the nominal diameter . Most ASTM
standards specif the tolerante as "absolute" as defined in ASTM E29.
Roundness Tolerance
The allowed ma mum range in size readings at any given point in the wire. The roundness
tolerance is usua ly specified as one hall of the size tolerance.
Wrap Test
A wire sample is oiled in a closely spaced helix around a mandrel of specified diameter.
After wrapping, t e specimen is examined for cracks. The sample shall be considered to
have failed if any cracks occur in the wire after the first complete turn.
Procedural Speci'ication - ASTM A370 (Annex A4.7)
Coiling Test
This test is used o determine if imperfections are present to the extent that they may cause
cracking or splitti g during spring coiling and spring extension. A coi¡ of specified length is
close-wound on n arbor of a specified diameter. The closed coi¡ is then stretched to a
specified perman nt increase in length and examined for uniformity of pitch with no splits or
fractures.
Procedural Speci ication - ASTM A370 (Annex A4.8)
Bend Test
A test piece is be t through a specified angle around a specified mandrel. When complete
fracture does not occur, the convex side of the sample is examined for cracks.
Procedural Speci ication - ASTM E290
Torsion Test
A straight length f wire is twisted in a fixture until fracture occurs. The fracture surface
should be perpendicular to the axis of the wire and free from cracks or other injurious flaws.
Procedural Specification - ASTM E558
a
Decarburization
The loss of carbon from a ferrous alloy as a result of heating in a medium that reacts with
carbon.
Procedural Specification - ASTM E1077
Cast & Helix
Cast is the diameter of the circie formed by a length of wire thrown loosely on the floor or a
similar fíat surface large enough in area to support the sample. Diameter of cast is to be agreed
upon by purchaser and seller. Helix or pitch is the amount of separation between two
overlapping cut ends of a wire loop when held vertically by a finger or a similar support.
Distance of separation is to be agreed upon between purchaser and seller.
Reduction of Area
ASTM E6, Section 33 - Terminology - The difference between the original cross sectional
area of a tension test specimen and the area of its smallest cross section. The reduction of
area is usually expressed as a percentage of the original cross-sectional area of the
specimen.
Procedural specifications - ASTM A370, ASTM E8

Tensile P roperties Torsional Properties
Mínimum Modulus of Modulus in
Tensile Elasticity Torsion
Strength E Design G Maximum
St ress 0 O perati ng ® M e th o d of M anu fact ure
Nominal psi x 103 psi x 106 % Minimum psi x 106 Temperatura Rockwell Chief Uses
Material Chemistry [MPa] [MPa x 103 ] Tensile [MPa x 1031 °F °C Hardness Special Properties
Music Wire e 0.70-1.00% 230-399 Cold drawn high and uniform
ASTM A228 Mn 0.20-0.60% [1586-2751] tensile. High quality springs
30 [207] 45 11.5 [79.3] 250 121 C41-60
and wire forms. Suitable for m
cyclic applications. w
Hard Drawn C 0.45-0.85% CLI 147-283 Cold drawn.
m ASTM A 227 Mn 0.60-1.30% [1014-1951] Average stress applications.
30 207 40 11.5 [79.31 250 121 C31-52
[1179-2234] forms.
5 238-350 Cold drawn.
a High Tensile Hard C 0.65-1.00%
Drawn Mn 0.20-1.30% [1641-2413] 30 [207] 45 11.5 [79.3] 250 121 C41-60 Higher quality springs and
ó ASTM A 679 wire forms.
Oil Tempered C 0.55-0.85% CLI 165-293 Cold drawn and heat treated
ASTM A 229 Mn 0.60-1.20% [1138-2020] before fabrication.
rn 30 [207] 45 11.5 [79.3] 250 121 C42 -55
CLII 191-324 General purpose spring wire.
[1317-2234]
Carbon Valve C 0.60-0.75% 215-240 Cold drawn and heat treated
ASTM A 230 Mn 0.60-0.90% [1482-1655] before fabrication . Good sur-
30 [207] 45 11.5 [79.3] 250 121 C45-49 face condition and uniform
tensile. Suitable for cyclic
applications.
Grade B-Carbon C 0.55-0.75% 195 - 275 Annealed and cold drawn or
ASTM Al 000 Mn 0.60-0.90% [1350 - 1897] 30 [207] 45 11.5 [79.3] 250 121 C45-49 oil tempered, as specified by
purchaser.
W Grade C - Chrome C 0.06-0.07% 210 - 270 Annealed and cold drawn or
. Vanadium Mn 0.50-0.90% [1450 - 1860] oil tempered, as specified by
30 [207] 45 11 . 5[79 . 3] 425 218 C41 -55
ASTM Al 000 Cr 0.35-0.60% purchaser.
V 0.10-0.50%
Grade A - Chrome C 0.51-0.59% 231 - 305 Annealed and cold drawn or
ca Silicon Mn 0.50-0.80% [1590 - 2100] oil tempered, as specified by
ó ASTM A1000 Cr 0.6-0.8% 30[207] 45 11.5 [79.3] 475 245 C48-55 purchaser.
Sil 0.20-1.60%
c Grade D - Chrome C 0.55-0.68% 245 - 320 Annealed and cold drawn or

{° Silicon Vanadium Mn 0.60- 0.90% [1690 - 2200] oil tempered, as specified by
30[207] 45 11.5 [79.3] 450 230 C45-55
10
U ASTM A1000 Cr 0.35-0.60% purchaser.
1 Si¡ 1.20-1.60%
El
Tensile Properties Torsional Properties
Mínimum Modulus of Modulus in
Tensile Elasticity Design Torsion Maximum
Strength E Stress OO G Operating ® Method of Manufacture
Material Chemistry [MPa] [MPa x 103 1 Tensile [MPa x 103 ] "F °C Hardness Special Properties
Chrome Vanadium C 0.48-0.53% 190-300 Cold drawn and heat treated
ASTM A 231 Cr 0.80-1.10% [1310-2069] before fabrication. Used for
30 [207] 45 11.5 [79.3] 425 218 C41-55
V 0.15 min% shock loads and moderately
N
elevated temperatura.
Chrome Vanadium C 0.48-0.53% 190 - 300 Cold drawn and heat treated
Valve Mn 0.70-0.90% [1310 - 2069] before fabrication. Used for
30 [207] 45 11.5 [79.3] 425 218 C41-55
ASTM A232 Cr 0.80-1.10% shock loads and moderately
V 0.15 min% elevated temperaturas.
2 Chrome Vanadium e 0.60-0.75% 205 - 290 Annealed and cold drawn,
Valve - Modified Mn 0.50-0.90% [1414 - 2000] hardened and tempered
ASTM A878 Cr 0.35-0.60 % 30 [207] 45 11.5 [79.3] 430 220 C41-45 before fabrication. Used for
in v 0.10-0.25% shock loads and moderately
elevated temperaturas
Chrome Silicon C 0.51-0.59% 235-300 Cold drawn and heat treated
ASTM A 401 Cr 0.60-0.80% [1620-2069] before fabrication. Used for
30 [207] 45 11.5 [79.3] 475 245 C48-55
Si 1.20-1.60% shock loads and moderately
elevated temperatura.
Chrome Silicon C 0.51-0.59% 245 - 305 Cold drawn and hardened
Valve Mn 0.50-0.80% [1690 - 2100] and tempered before
ASTM A877 Cr 0.60-0.80% 30[207] 45 11.5 [79.3] 475 245 C48-55 fabrication. For shock
Sil 1.20-1.60% loading and moderately
higher temperaturas
AISI 302/304 Cr 17.0-19.0% 125-325 Cold drawn general purpose
ASTM A 313 Ni 8.0-10.0% [862-2241 28 [193] 35 10 [69.0] 550 288 C35-45 corrosion and heat resistant.
Magnetic in spring temper.
AISI 316 Cr 16.0-18.0% 110-245 Cold drawn. Heat resistant
ASTM A 313 Ni 10.0-14.0% [758-1689] and better corrosion resis-
28 [193] 40 10 [69.0] 550 288 C35-45
o Mo 2 .0-3.0% Lance than 302. Magnetic in
spring temper.
co
m 17-7 PH Cr 16.0-18.0% Cond CH Cold drawn and precipitation
m ASTM A 313 [6311 Ni 6.5-7.5% 235-335 hardened alter fabrication.
in Al 0.75-1.5% [1620-2310]
29.5 [203] 45 11 [75.8] 650 343 C38-57
High strength and general
purpose corrosion resis-
tance. Slightly magnetic in
spring temper.
Minimum Modulus of Modulus in
Tensile Elasticity Torsion Maximum
Design
Strength E Stress OO G Operating Q Method of Manufacture
Material Chemistry [MPa] [ MPa x 103 ] Tensile [MPa x 103 1 °F °C Hardness Special Properties
Phosphor Bronze Cu 94.0-96.0% 105-145 Cold drawn . Good corrosion

Grade A Sn 4.0-6.0% [724-1000] 15 [103] 40 6.25 [43.1] 200 93 .3 B98-104 resistance and electrical
ASTM B 159 conductivity.
.E eryium opper u °
Be 2.0 % [1034- 1586] hardened before fabrication.
ASTM B 197
18.5 [128] 45 7.0 [48.3] 400 204 C35-42 Good corrosion resistance
and electrical conductivity.
High physicals.
ó
Monel 400 Ni 66.0% 145-180 Cold drawn . Good Corrosion
d
AMS 7233 Cu 31.5% [1000-1241] 26 [179] 40 9.5 [65.5] 450 232 C23-32 resistance at moderately
o elevated temperature.
z
Ni 65.0% 160-200 Excellent corrosion resis-
Monel K 500
Cu 29.5% [1103-1379] 26 [179] 40 9.5 [65.5] 550 288 C23-35 tance at moderately elevated
QQ-N-28600 [Fed]
temperature.
Ni 26.0% 160-200 Cold drawn and precipitation

A 286 Alloy
Cr 15.0% [1103-1379] hardened affer fabrication.
[no spring spec] 29[200] 35 10.4 [71.7] 950 510 C35-42
Fe Good corrosion resistance at
53.0% elevated temperature.
Inconel 600 Ni 76.0% 100-230 Cold drawn . Good corro-

Cr 15.8% [1172 -1586] 31 [214] 40 11.0 [75.8] 700 371 C35-45 sion resistance at elevated
AS B 166
Fe 7.2 % temperature.
Inconel 718 Ni 52.5% 210-250 Cold drawn and precipitation

0 hardened alter fabrication.
[no spring spec] Cr 18.6% [1448-1724] 40 11.2 [77.2] 1100 593 C45-50
29[2001 Good corrosion res i stance at
Fe
E 18.5% elevated temperatura.
Inconel x 750 Ni 73.0% No. IT 155 Cold drawn and precipitation

Cr 15.0% Min. hardened after fabrication.
AMS 5698 , 5699
Fe [1069] 750- 399- C34-39 Good corrosion resistance at
31 [214] 40 12 [82.7] C42-48 elevated temperatura.
6.75% Spg. T 190- 1100 593
230
[1310-1586]
(D iD
Tensile Properties Torsional Properties N
m O
w n
Minimum Modulus of Modulus in O
Tensile Elasticity Torsion
Strength E
Design Maximum
Operating ® Method of Manufacture
U
Stress OO G
Nominal psi x 10' psi x 106 % Minimum psi x 106 Temperatura Rockwell Chief Uses
Material Chemistry [MPa] [MPa x 10' ] Tensile [MPa x 10' ] °F °C Hardness Special Properties
Elgiloy Co 39.0-41.0% 270-330 Cold drawn and aged . Excel- w
[R30003] Cr 19.0-21.0% [1862-2275] lent corrosion resistance in (
AMS 5833 Ni 15.0-16.0% 32[221] 45 12.0 [82.8] 850 454 C40-60 sour environments. Non- a)
Mo 6.0- 8.0% magnetic. N
Fe Bal
MP35N Co Bal 260 Cold drawn and aged . Excel-
[R30035] Ni 33.0-37.0% [1793] lent corrosion resistance in
34 [235] 45 11.7 [80.7] 750 399 C35-55
AMS 5844 Cr 19.0-21.0% sour environments.
Mo 9.0-10.5%
NiSpan C Fe Sal 150-190 Precipitation hardenable.
[N09902] Ni 41.0-43.5% [1034-1310] Constant modulus alloy
24 29 [166
Cr 4.9-5.75% 40 9-10 [62-69] 150 66 which is heat treatment
m 200]
Ti 2.2-2.75% dependent.
Al 0.3-0.8%
C276 Ni Bal 100-200 High corrosion resistance.
[N10276] Cr 14.5-16.5% [690-1379] Higher temperaturas pos-
ASTM B574 Mo 15.0-17.0% 30.7 [210] 40 11.8 [81 .4] 700 371 sible. with lower stresses.
W 3.0-4.5%
Fe 4.0-7.0%
CL [N06022] Cr 20.0-22.5% [690-1379] Higher temperaturas pos-
ASTM B574 Mo 12.5-14.5% 30.8 [212] 40 11.8 [81.4] 700 371 sible with lower stresses.
W 2.5-3.5%
co Fe 2.0-6.0%
Rene 41 Ni Bal 135-200 High temperature applica-
[N07041] Cr 18.0-20.0% [931-1379] tions possible with good
Mo 9.0-10.5% corrosion/oxidation resis-
31.6 [218] 40 12.1 [83.4] 1800 982
Co 10.0-12.0% tance.
Ti 3.0-3.3%
Al 1.4-1.6%
Ti 3-8-6-4-4 Ti Bal 180-210 Cold drawn and aged for
[R58640] Al 3.0-4.0% [1241-1448] best spring characteris-
AMS 4957 V 7.5-8.5% tics. Non-magnetic. Good
15.4 [106] 40 5.9 [40.7] 600 316
Cr 5.5-6.5% strength/weight ratio. Low
Mo 3.5-4.5% modulus.
Zr 3.5-4.5%
Minimum Modulus of Modulus in
Strength E Stress OO G Operating ® Method of Manufacture
Nominal psi x 10' psi x 106 % Minimum psi x 106 Temperatura Rockwell Chief Uses
Material Chemistry [MPa] [MPa x 1031 Tensile [MPa x 10' ] 9F 9C Hardness Special Properties
o. Medium Carbon C 0.47-0.55% 160-280 B85 Max. Cold rolled annealed or
ASTM A 682 Mn 0.60-0.90% [1103-1931] Annld. tempered. General purpose
M 30 [207] 250 121
AISI1050 C38-50 applications. Ñ
Temp. N
o
` Regular Carbon C 0.69-0.80% 160-320 B85 Max. Cold rolled annealed or
£ ASTM A 682 Mn 0.58-0.80% [1103-2206] Annld. temperad. Most popular for
CO 20 [9071 n 12
v nat springs.
Temp.
A
High Carbon C 0.90-1.04% 180-340 B88 Max. Cold rolled annealed or
2 ASTM A 682 Mn 0.30-0.50% [1241-2344] Annld. tempered. High stress fíat
30 [207] 250 121
AISI1095 C40-52 springs.
Temp.
ASTM A 666 Cr 16.0-18.0% 240-270 Cold rolled to high yield
Ni 6.0-8.0% [1655-1862] 28 [193] 300 149 C48-52 strength. Magnetic in spring
temper.
ASTM A 666 Cr 17.0-19.0% 185-230 Cold rolled. General purpose
Ni 8.0-10.0% [1276-1586] 28 [193] 550 288 C42-48 corrosion and heat resistant.
Magnetic in spring temper.
y AISI 316 Cr 16.0-18.0% 170-230 Cold rolled heat resistant and
in Ni 10.0-14.0% [1172-1586] better corrosion resistance
28[193] 550 288 C38-48
Ñ Mo 2.0-3.0% than 302. Magnetic in spring
d temper.
17-7 PH Cr 16.0-18.0% Cond CH Cold rolled and precipitation
ASTM A 693 [631 ] Ni 6.5-7.5% 240 Min. hardened alter fabrication.
AMS 5529 Al 0.75-1.5% [1655] High strength and general
29 [200] 650 343 C46 Min.
purpose corrosion resis-
tance. Magnetic in spring
temper.
Chrome Vanadium C 0.48-0.53% 200-250 Cold rolled and heat treated
á AMS 6455 Cr 0.80-1.10% [1379-1724] alter fabrication. Used for
30 [207] 425 218.5 C42-48
in V 0.15 Min. % shock loads and moderately
m elevated temperatura.
rn Chrome Silicon C 0.51-0.59% 250-325 Cold rolled and heat treated
_ó AIS 9254 Cr 0.50-0.80% [1724-2241] after fabrication. Used for
30[207] 475 246 C47-51
Si 1.20-1.60% shock loads and moderately
elevated temperature.
Minimum Modulus of Modufus in
Strength E Stress0 G Operating © Method of Manufacture
Nominal psi x 103 psi x 106 % Minimum psi x 106 Temperatura Rockweil Chief Uses
Material Chemistry [MPa] [MPa x 103 ] Tensile [MPa x 1031 °F °C Hardness Special Properties
Phosphor Bronze Cu 94.0-96.0% 95-110 Cold rolled. Good corrosion N
Grade A Sn 4.0-6.0% [655-758] 15 [103] 200 93.3 B94-98 resistance and electrical
ASTM B103 conductivity.
Beryllium Copper Cu 98.0% 180-200 Cold rolled and may be mili
ASTM 6194 Be 2.0% [1241-1379] hardened before fabrication.
ó 16-18.5
400 204 C39 Good corrosion resistance
[111-128]
and electrical conductivity.
ó High physicals.
d Monel 400 Ni 66.0% 100-140 Cold rolled. Good corrosion
AMS 4544 Cu 31.5% [690-765] 26 [179] 450 232 B98 Min. resistance at moderately
o elevated temperatura.
z
Monel K 500 Ni 65.0% 170-200 Excellent corrosion resis-
QQ - N - 286© Cu 29.5% [1172-1379] 26 [179] 550 288 C34 Min. tance at moderately elevated
C/Fe/AI/Ti temperature.
A 286 Alloy Ni 26.0% 160-200 Cold rolled and precipitation
AMS 5525 Cr 15.0% [1103-1379] hardened alter fabrication.
29 [2001 950 510 C30-40
n 53.0% elevated temperatura.
T Inconel 600 Ni 76.0% 145-170 Good corrosion resistance at
3 AMS 5540 Cr 15.8% [1000-1172] elevated temperatura.
31 [218] 700 371 C30 Min.
ASTM B 168 Fe
7.2%
Inconel 718 Ni 52.5% 180-204 Cold rolled and precipitation
AMS 5596, 5597 Cr 18.6% [1241-1407] hardened after fabrication.
29 [200] 1100 593 C36
18.5% elevated temperatura.
rn
x Inconel x 750 Ni 73.0% 150 Cold rolled and precipitation
AMS 5542 Cr 15.0% [1034] 750- 399- hardened alter fabrication.
31 [214] C30 Min.
Fe 1100 593 Good corrosion resistance at
6.75% elevated temperatura.
oá
Minimum Modulus of Modulus in en
Tensile Elasticity Design Torsion Maximum á
Strength E Stress ( G Operating ® Method of Manufacture
Material Chemistry [MPa] [MPa x 1031 Tensile [MPa x 108 ] "F °C Hardness Special Properties co
Elgiloy Co 39.0-41.0% 170-325 Cold drawn and aged. Excel- <
v
[R30003] Cr 19.0-21.0% [1172-2241] lent corrosion resistance in
AMS 5875 Ni 15.0-16.0% 32 [221] 45 12.0 [82.8] 850 454 C40-58 sour environments. Non-
Mo 6.0-8.0% magnetic.
Fe Bal Ñ
MP35N Co Sal 200 Cold drawn and aged. Excel-
N 33.0 97.0% [13791
34 [235] 45 11.7 [80.7] 750 399 C35-50
Cr 19.0-21.0 % sour environments.
Mo 9.0-10.5%
ó NiSpan C Fe Sal 150-190 Precipitation hardenable.

[N09902] Ni 41.0-43.5% [1034-1310] Constant modulus alloy
24 29 [166
AMS 5521 Cr 4.9-5.75% 40 9-10 [62-69] 150 66 which is heat treatment
200]
ó AMS 5223 Ti 2.2-2.75% dependent.
AMS 5525 Al 0.3-0.8%
CL C276 Ni Sal 100-200 High corrosion resistance.
m [N10276] Cr 14.5-16.5% [690-1379] Higher temperaturas pos-
rñ W 3.0-4.5%
Fe 4.0-7.0 %
[N06022] Cr 20.0-22.5% [690-1379] Highertemperaturas pos-
W 2.5-3.5%
Fe 2.0-6.0%
Oy?.yO^^° a°Oz
-no C) :E Cn o
a o (D Ñ m N
O m Ñ Ñ ti D) N. N
m N x(O a 3
m0m m^
2.
O CDXá3 (ó 3-(ó3
m
m
m
zi ? Ñ m m 3
m m - á m z
O0 Qá 0 O m N N
O 31 N. U D
0
3omm
m
0 3 F a cn Ñ
j
m- Ñ Ñ C& o t0
o - + O S
O
J d
a.
m
Table 21.
Minimum Tensile Strength of Wire Spring Materials - Ferrous
in psi x 103 [MPa]
Wire Size Wire Size

Music Wire Hard Drawn Oil Temp. Music Wire Hard Drawn Off Temp.
in. [mm] in. [mm]
0.008 [0.20] 399 [2751] 307 [2117] 315 [2172] 0.050 [1.27] 306 [2110] 245 [1689]
0.009 [0.23] 393 [2710] 305 [2103] 313 [2158] 0. 051 [1 .29] 303 [2089] 244 [1682]
0.010 [0.25] 387 [2668] 303 [2089] 311 [2144] 0.052 [1.32] 303 [2089] 244 [1682]
0.011 [0.28] 382 [2634] 301 [2075] 309 [2131] 0.053 [1.34] 303 [2089] 243 [1675]
0.012 [0.30] 377 [2599] 299 [2062] 307 [2117] 0.054 [1.37] 303 [2089] 243 [1675] 253 [1744]
0.013 [0.33] 373 [2572] 297 [2048] 305 [2103] 0.055 [1.39] 300 [2069] 242 [1669]
0.014 [0.36] 369 [2544] 295 [2034] 303 [2089] 0.056 [1.42] 300 [2069] 241 [1662]
0.015 [0.38] 365 [2517] 293 [2020] 301 [2075] 0.057 [1.44] 300 [2069] 240 [1655]
0.016 [0.41] 362 [2496] 291 [2006] 300 [2069] 0.058 [1.47] 300 [2069] 240 [1655]
0.017 [0.43] 362 [2496] 289 [1993] 298 [2055] 0.059 [1.50] 296 [2041] 239 [1648]
0.018 [0.46] 356 [2455] 287 [1979] 297 [2048] 0. 060 [1 .52] 296 [2041] 238 [16411
0.019 [0.48] 356[2455] 285 [1965] 295 [2034] 0. 061 [1 .55] 296 [2041] 237 [1634]
0.020 [0.51] 350 [2413] 283 [1951] 293 [2020] 0. 062 [1 .57] 296 [2041] 237 [1634] 247 [1703]
0.021 [0.53] 350 [2413] 281 [19371 0.063 [1.60] 293 [2020] 236 [1627]
0.022 [0.56] 345 [2379] 280 [1931] 0.064 [1. 62] 293 [2020] 235 [1620]
0.023 [0.58] 345 [2579] 278 [1917] 289 [1993] 0.065 [1.65] 293 [2020] 235 [1620]
0.024 [0.61] 341 [2351] 277 [1910] 0.066 [1.67] 290 [2000]
0.025 [0.64] 341 [2351] 275 [1896] 286 [1972] 0.067 [1.70] 290 [2000] 234 [1613]
0.026 [0.66] 337 [2324] 274 [1889] 0.069 [1.75] 290 [2000] 233 [1607]
0.027 [0.69] 337 [2324] 272 [1875] 0.070 [1.78] 289 [1993]
0.028 [0.71] 333 [2296] 271 [1869] 283 [1951] 0.071 [ 1.80] 288 [1986]
0.029 [0.74] 333 [2296] 267 [1841] 0.072 [1.83] 287 [1979] 232 [1600] 241 [1662]
0.030 [0.76] 330 [2275] 266 [1834] 0.074 [1.88] 287 [1979] 231 [1593]
0.031 [0.79] 330 [2275] 266 [1834] 280 [ 1931] 0 .075 [1.90] 287 [1979]
0.032 [0.81] 327 [2255] 265 [1827] 0.076 [1.93] 284 [1958] 230 [1586]
0.033 [0.84] 327 [2255] 264 [1820] 0.078 [1. 98] 284 [1958] 229 [1579]
0.034 [0.86] 324 [2234] 262 [1306] 0.079 [2. 01] 284 [1958]
0.035 [0.89] 324 [2234] 261 [1800] 274 [1889] 0. 080 [2 .03] 282 [1944] 227 [1565] 235 [1620]
0.036 [0.91] 321 [2213] 260 [1793] 0.083 [2.11] 282 [1944]
0.037 [0.94] 321 [2213] 258 [1779] 0.084 [2.13] 279 [1924]
0.038 [0.96] 318 [2193] 257 [1772] 0.085 [2.16] 279 [1926] 225 [15511
0.039 [0.99] 318 [2293] 256 [1765] 0.089 [2 .26] 279 [1924]
0.040 [1.02] 315 [2172] 255 [1758] 0.090 [2.29] 276 [1903] 222 [15311
0.041 [1.04] 315 [2172] 255 [1759] 266 [1834] 0 .091 [2.31] 276 [1903] 230 [1586]
0.042 [1.07] 313 [2158] 254 [17511 0 .092 [2 .34] 276 [1930] 220 [1517]
0.043 [1.09] 313 [2158] 252 [1738] 0.093 [2.36] 276 [1903]
0.044 [1.12] 313 [2158] 251 [1731] 0.094 [2.39] 274 [1889]
0.045 [1.14] 309 [2131] 250 [1724] 0.095 [2.42] 274 [1889] 219 [1510]
0.046 [1.17] 309 [2131] 249 [1717] 0.099 [2.51] 274 [1889]
0.047 [ 1.19] 309 [2131 ] 248 [1710] 259 [1786] 0.100 [2.54] 271 [1869]
0.048 [1.22] 306 [2110] 247 [1703] 0.101 (2.56] 271 [1869]
0.049 [1.24] 306 [2110] 246 [1696] 0.102 [2.59] 270 [1862]

Table 21 continued.
Minimum Tensile Strength of Wire pring Materials - Ferrous
in psi x 103 [MPa]
Wire Size Wire Size

Music Wire Hard rawn Oil Temp . Music Wire Hard Drawn Oil Temp.
in. [mm] in. [mm]
0.105 [2.67] 270 [1862] 216 [1 489] 225 [ 1551] 0 . 148 [3 . 76] 254 [1751] 203 [1400] 210 [1448]
0.106 [2 .69] 268 [1842] 0.149 [3.78] 253 [1744]
0.109 [2.77] 268 [1842] 0.150 [3 .81] 253 [1744]
0.110 [2 . 791 267[1841 ] 0.151 [3.84] 251 [1731]
0.111 [2 . 82] 267 [ 1841] 0 . 160 [4 .06] 251 [1731]
0.112 [2 . 84] 266 [1834] 0.161 [4 .09] 249 [1717]
0.119 [3.02] 266 [1834] 0.162 [4.11] 249 [1717] 200 [1379] 205 [1413]
0.120 [3 .05] 263 [1813] 210 [1 448] 220 [ 1517] 0 .177 [4. 50] 245 [1689] 195 [1345] 200 [1379]
0.123 [3 . 12] 263 [1813] 0.192 [4.88] 241 [1662] 192 [1324] 195 [1345]
0.124 [3.15] 261 [1800] 0.207 [5.26] 238 [1641 ] 190 [1310] 190 [1310]
0.129 [3.28] 261 [1800] 0.225 [5.72] 235 [1620] 186 [1282] 188 [1296]
0.130 [3.30] 258 [1779] 0.250 [6 . 35] 230 [1586] 182 [1255] 185 [1276]
0.135 [3 .43] 258 [ 1779] 206 [1 420] 215 [1482] 0 . 3125 [7 . 94] 174 [ 1200] 183 [1262]
0.139 [3 . 53] 258 [ 1779] 0.375 [9 .53] 167 [1151] 180 [1241]
0.140 [3 . 56] 256 [ 1765] 0 .4375 [ 11.11] 165 [1138] 175 [1207]
0.144 [3 .66] 256 [1765] 0.500 [12 . 70] 156 [1076] 170 [1172]
0.145 [3.68] 254 [17511

Table 22.
Mínimum Tensile Strength of Wire Spring Materials - Stainless Steels
in psi x 103 IMPa1
Wire Size Type* 17-7 Wire Size Type* 17-7 Wire Size Type* 17-7
Type 302 Type 302 Type 302
in. [mm] PH in. [mm] PH in. [mm] PH
0.008 [0.20] 325 [2241] 345 [2379] 0.033 [0.84] 276 [1903] 0.061 [1.55] 255 [1758] 305 [2103]
0.009 [0.23] 325 [2241] 0.034 [0.86] 275 [1896] 0.062 [1.57] 255 [1758] 297 [2048]
0.010 [0.25] 320 [2206] 345 [2379] 0.035 [0.89] 274 [1889] 0.063 [1.60] 254 [1751]
0.011 [0.28] 318 [2193] 340 [2344] 0.036 [0.91] 273 [1882] 0.065 [1.65] 254 [1751]
0.012 [0.30] 316 [2179] 0.037 [0.94] 272 [1875] 0.066 [1.68] 250 [1724]
0.013 [0.33] 314 [2165] 0.038 [0.97] 271 [1869] 0.071 [1.80] 250 [1724] 297 [2048]
0.014 [0.36] 312 [2151] 0.039 [0.99] 270 [1862] 0.072 [1.83] 250 [1724] 292 [2013]
0.015 [0.38] 310 [2137] 340 [2344] 0.040 [1.02] 270 [1862] 0.075 [1.91] 250 [1724]
0.016 [0.41] 308 [2124] 335 [2310] 0.041 [1.04] 269 [1855] 320 [2206] 0.076 [1.93] 245 [1689]
0.017 [0.43] 306 [2110] 0.042 [1.07] 268 [1848] 310 [2137] 0.080 [2.03] 245 [1689] 292 [2013]
0.018 [0.46] 304 [2096] 0.043 [1.09] 267 [1841] 0.092 [2.34] 240 [1655] 279 [1924]
0.019 [0.48] 302 [2082] 0.044 [1.12] 266 [1824] 0.105 [2.67] 232 [1600] 274 [1889]
0.020 [0.51] 300 [2069] 335 [2310] 0.045 [1.14] 264 [1820] 0.120 [3.05] 225 [1551] 272 [1875]
0.021 [0.53] 298 [2055] 330 [2275] 0.046 [1.17] 263 [1813] 0.125 [3.10] 272 [1875]
0.022 [0.56] 296 [2041] 0.047 [1.19] 262 [1806] 0.131 [3.33] 260 [1793]
0.023 [0.58] 294 [2027] 0.048 [1.22] 262 [1806] 0.148 [3.76] 210 [1448] 256 [1765]
0.024 [0.61] 292 [2013] 0.049 [1.24] 261 [1800] 0.162 [4.11] 205 [1413] 256 [1765]
0.025 [0.64] 290 [2000] 330 [2275] 0.051 [1.30] 261 [1800] 310 [2137] 0.177 [4.50] 195 [1345]
0.026 [0.66] 289 [1993] 325 [2241] 0.052 [1.32] 260 [1793] 305 [2103] 0.192 [4.88]
0.027 [0.69] 287 [1979] 0.055 [1.40] 260 [1793] 0.207 [5.26] 185 [1276]
0.028 [0.711 286 [1972] 0.056 [1.42] 259 [1786] 0.225 [5.72] 180 [12411
0.29 [0.74] 284 [1958] 0.057 [1.45] 258 [1779] 0.250 [6.35] 175 [1207]
0.030 [0.76] 282 [1944] 325 [2241] 0.058 [1.47] 258 [1779] 0.375 [9.53] 140 [965]
0.031 [0.79] 280 [1931] 320 [2206] 0.059 [1.50] 257 [1772]
0.032 [0.811 277 [1910] 0.060 [1.52] 256 [1765]

Table 22 continued.
Chrome Silicon/Chrome Vanadium Copper-Base Alloys
Wire Size In . Chrome Phosphor Bronze (Grade A)

Chrome Silicon
[mm] Vanadium Wire Size Range - in. [mm]
0.020 [0.511 300 [2069] 0.007 - 0.025 [0.18 - 0.64] 145 [1000]
0.026 - 0.062 [10.65 - 1.53] 135 [931]
0.032 [0.811 300 [2069] 290 [2000]
0.063 and over [1.59 and over] 130 [896]
0.041 [ 1.04] 298 [2055] 280 [1931 ]
Beryllium Copper
0.054 [1.37] 292 [2013] 270 [1862] (Alloy 25 pretemp)
0.062 [ 1.57] 290 [2000] 265 [1827] 0.005 - 0.040 [0.13 - 1.02] 180 [1241]
0.041 and over [1.03 and over] 170 [1172]
0.080 [2 .03] 285 [1965] 255 [1758]
Spring Brass
0.092 [2 .34] 280 [1931]
120 [827]
al¡ sizes
0.105 [2.67] 245 [1689]
0.120 [3 . 05] 275 [1896]
Nickel-Base Allovs
0.135 [3.43] 270 [1862] 235 [1620]
0.162 [3.76] 265 [ 1827] 225 [1551] Inconel (Spring Temper)
0.177 [4.50] 260 [1793] Wire Size Range - in. [mm]
up to 0.057 [1 . 45] 185 [1276]
0.192 [4.89] 260 [1793] 220 [1517] 0.057 - 0.114 [1.46 - 2.89] 175 [1207]
0.218 [5.54] 255 [1758] 0.114-318[2.90-8.08] 170 [1172]
0.250 [6 .35] 250 [ 1724] 210 [1448] Inconel X
0.312 [7.92] 245 [1689] 203 [1400] Spring Temper After Anging
190 [1310] 220 [1517]
0.375 [9 .53] 240 [1655] 200 [1379]
0.437 [11.10] 195 [1345]
0.500 [12 .7] 190 [1310]
Table 23.
Wire Size Tolerance Charts
Hard-Drawn / Oil-Tembered Chrome Silicon
Wire Size Range - in. [mm] Tolerance ± in. [mm] Wire Size Range - in. [mm] Tolerance t in. [mm]
0.010 - 0.0199 [0.25 - 0.50] 0.0005 [0.013] 0.032 - 0.072 [0.081 - 1.82] ± 0.001 [0.025]
0.020 - 0 . 0347 [0.50 - 0.88] 0.0006 [0.015] 0.0721 - 0.375 [1.83 - 9.53] ± 0.002 [0.0511
0.0348 - 0 . 051 [0 .89 - 1.29] 0.0008 [0.020]
0.0511 - 0 . 075 [1 .30 - 1.90] 0.001 [0.025] Chrome Vanadium
0.0751 - 0 . 109 [1 . 91 - 2.76] 0.0015 [0.038] Wire Size Range - in. [mm] Tolerance ± in. [mm]
0.1091 - 0 . 250 [2 .77 - 6.35] 0.002 [0.051] 0.020 - 0.0275 [0 .51 - 0.69] ± 0.0008 [0.020]
0.2501 - 0.375 [6 . 36 - 9.52] 0.0025 [0.064] 0.0276 - 0.072 [0.70 - 1.82] ± 0.001 [0.025]
0.3751 - 0.625 [9 . 53 - 15.88] 0.003 [0.076] 0.0721 - 0.375 [1. 83 - 9.52] ± 0.002 [0.051]
0.3751 - 0.500 [9.53 - 12.7] ± 0.003 [0.076]
Music Wire
Wire Size Range - in. [mm] To erance ± in. [mm] Type 302 Stainless / 17-7 PH Stainless
0.004 - 0 .010 [0. 10 - 0.25] 0.0002 [0.005] Wire Size Range - in. [mm] Tolerance ± in. [mm]
0.011 - 0.028 [0.28 - 0.71 ] 0.0003 [0.007] 0.007 - 0.0079 [0.13 - 0.20] ± 0.0002 [0.005]
0.029 - 0.063 [0.72 - 1.60] 0.0004 [0.010] 0.008 - 0.0119 [0.21 - 0.30] ± 0.00025 [0.006]
0.064 - 0 . 080 [1 .61 - 2.03] 0 .0005 [0.013] 0.012 - 0 . 0239 [0.31 - 0.60] ± 0.0004 [0.010]
0.081 - 0.250 [2 .04 - 6.35] 0.001 [0.025] 0.024 - 0 . 0329 [0.61 - 0.83] ± 0.0005 [0.013]
0.033 - 0 . 0439 [0.84 - 1.111 t 0.00075 [0.019]
0.044 and larger [1.12 and larger] ±0.00110.025]

o
Compression Springs
Introduction
Helical compres ion springs are used to resist applied compression forces or to store energy
in the push mod . They have the most common spring configuration and are found in many
applications suc as automotive, aerospace and consumar goods. While the most prevalent
form of compres ion spring is a straight cylindrical spring made from round wire, many other
forms are produ ed. Conical, barrel, hourglass or cylindrical forms are available, with or
without variable pacing between coils. Such configurations are used to reduce solid height,
buckling and sur ing, orto produce nonlinear load deflection characteristics . Energy storage
capacity is great r for round wire compression springs than for rectangular wire compression
springs and can e increased by nesting. Rectangular wire is sometimes employed to reduce
solid height or in rease the space efficiency of the design. Most die springs are made from
rectangular wire or this reason.
Helical Compression S ring Terminology

Special termino) gy has evolved in the spring industry to describe features of helical
compression sp ngs. These terms are defined and the relationship between terms is
reviewed in Figu e 11, below. Communication between designer and springmaker is
improved if thes common terms are used.
uareness (e.)
Spring Index - C = d
Parallelism (e,)
Bearing
Surface
Pitch = p 1
Figure 11. Dimensional Ter, inology for Helical Compression Springs
a
Spring Diameter
Outside diameter (O.D.), inside diameter ( I.D.) and mean diameter ( D)are al¡ used
to describe helical compression spring dimensions . Mean diameter is equal to the sum of O.D.
and I.D .divided by two, and is employed in spring design calculations for stress and deflection.
The O. D. is specified for springs that operate in a cavity , while the I.D. is specified for springs
that operate over a rod , seat or shaft . Mínimum diametral clearance between the spring
and cavity or rod is:
0.05D - when Dc is greater than 13 mm (0.512")

0.1 OD - when Dc is less than 13 mm (0.512")
Dc is the diameter of the rod or cavity.
Diameter increases when a spring is compressed . Although the increase in diameter is

usually small , it must be considered when minimum clearances are established . The increase
in diameter is a function of initial spring pitch and can be estimated from the following
equation where p = pitch.
z_ dZ
O.D., tsolid = D2 +p nz + d (Eq.1)
If the spring ends are allowed to unwind , the O.D . at solid may be greater than calculated by
this equation . Long springs buckle (see Figure 18, page 57) and may require lateral support
and larger diametral clearances.
Spring Index
Spring index is the ratio of mean diameter to wire diameter or radial dimension of the cross
section ( Figure 11 , page 49 ). The preferred index range is 4 to 12 . Springs with high
indexes tangle and may require individual packaging , especially if the ends are not squared.
Springs with indexes lower than 4 are difficult to form.
Free Length
Free length is the overall spring length in the free or unloaded position (Tabla 24 , page 51). lf
loads are not critical , free length can be specified. When definite loads are required, free
length should be a reference dimension that can be varied to meet load requirements. Pitch
is the distance between centers of adjacent coils and is related to free length and number of
coils.
Type of Ends
Types of ends available are : plain ends, plain ends ground , squared ends and squared ends -
ground ( Figure 12 , page 51 ). To improve squareness and reduce buckling during operation, a
bearing surface of at least 270 ° is required . Squared and ground springs are normally
supplied with a bearing surface of 270 ° to 330 °. Additional grinding results in thin sections.
"Squared ends only" are preferred on springs with small wire diameters (less than 0.5 mm or
0.020"), a large index (greater than 12) or low spring rates . Squared ends cost less to
manufacture than squared and ground ends.
50, SMI Handbook of,Spring Design

pd
'. V!V,w MM
Open Ends Closed, Squaredand Ground
C ID iled Right-hand EndsCoiled Left-hand
LIN .Y ILi .V.V ,.

Cosed Ends Not Open Ends Ground Square
Grou d, Coiled Right-hand Coiled Left-hand
Figure 12 . Type$ of Ends for Helical Compression Springs.
Number of Coils
Total number of coi s should be specified as a reference number. For springs with squared
ends, the total num er of coils minus two is the number of active coils. There is some activity
in end coils, but du ing deflection some active material comes in contact with the end coils
and becomes inacti le. Experience indicates that this equation is a good approximation. The
number of active c ils in springs with plain ends is greater than those with squared ends and
depends upon the eating method employed. Some useful guidelines for estimating the
number of active cc ils are presented in Table 24, below.
Type of Ends
Dimensional Ope Open Closed and
Characteristics Not ro nd Ground Closed Only Ground
Solid Height (Nt+ )d Ntd (N,+ 1)d N,d`
(Ls)
Pitch L,- L, L, - 3d L,-2d
(P) Na N, Na N,
ActiveCoils L,- L, 1 L,-3d L,-2d
(Na) p p p p
Total Coils
Na Na+1 Na+2 Na+2
(Nt)
Free Length
p N, d p Nt p Na + 3d p Na + 2d
(Lf)
'For small índex springs lower solid heights possible.
Table 24. Guidelines for Dimensional Characteristics of Compression Springs.
a
Solid Height
Solid height is the length of a spring with all coils closed. For ground springs, solid height is
the number of coils multiplied by wire diameter. For unground springs, solid height is the
number of coils plus one, multiplied by wire diameter (Table 24, page 51). If critical, solid
height should be specified as a maximum dimension. After allowances are made for plating
or other coatings, it is good practice to add one-half of the wire diameter to determine
maximum solid height. With larger wire sizes and fewer coils, this allowance can be
decreased. Solid height is often measured by applying a force equal to 110 to 150% of the
calculated load at solid. If solid height is not critical, this dimension should be omitted.
Direction of Coiling
A helical compression spring can be either left or right-hand coiled. If the index finger of the
right hand can be bent to simulate direction of coil, so that the fingernail and coil tip are
approximately at the same angular position, the spring is right-hand wound (Figure 13,
below). If the index finger of the left hand simulates the coil direction, the spring is left-hand
wound. If direction of coiling is not specified, springs may be coiled in either direction. Nested
springs with small diametral clearances should be coiled in opposite directions.
Figure 13. Direction of Coiling Helical Compression Springs.
Squareness and Parallelism

Squareness of helical compression springs can be measured by standing a sample spring on
end on a horizontal flat plate and bringing the spring against a straightedge at right angles to
the plata. The spring is rotated to produce a maximum out-of-square dimension e3 (Figure 11
page 49). Normally squared and ground springs are square within 30 when measured in the
free position. Squareness should be checked at both ends. Specifying squareness or
parallelism in the free position does not assure squareness or parallelism under load.
Parallelism (Figure 11, page 49) refers to the relationship of the ground ends, and is
determined by placing a spring on a fíat plata and measuring the maximum difference in free
length around the spring circumference ep.

Hysteresis
Hysteresis is the 1 ss of mechanical energy under cyclic loading and unloading of a spring. It
results from frictio al losses in the spring support system due to a tendency of the ends to
rotate as the sprin is compressed . Hysteresis for compression springs is low and the
contribution due t internal friction in the spring material itself is generally negligible.
Spring Rate
Spring rate (R) for helical compression springs is defined as the change in load per unit
deflection and is pressed as shown:
P Gd4
R= (Eq.2)
f 8D'N,
This equation is v lid when the pitch angle is less than 150 or deflection per turn is less than
D14. For large def 3 ctions per turn, a deflection correction factor should be employed.
The load deflectio 1 curve for helical compression springs is essentially a straight line up to
the elastic limit , p ovided that the amount of active material is constant . The initial spring rate
and the rate as th spring approaches solid often deviate from the average calculated rate.
When it is necess ry to specify a rate , it should be specified between two test heights that
lie within 15 to 85 0 of the fui¡ deflection range ( Figure 14 , below).
11
0 15 85 100
Deflection % -^
Figure 14. Typ cal Load Deflection Curve for Helical Compression Springs.
When compressic n springs are used in parallel, the composite rate is the sum of the rates for
individual springs For compression springs in series , the rate is calculated from:
a
1
R= (Eq.3)
1 1 1 1
R R2 R3 ... R.
This relationship is often used to calculate the rate for springs with variable diameters. The
technique involves dividing the spring into many small increments and calculating the rate for
each increment. The rate for the whole spring is computed from the rate of the increments
according to the equation aboye.
Stress
Wire in a helical compression spring is stressed in torsion. Torsional stress is expressed as:
S=BPDK
(Eq.4)
rrd'
Bending stresses are present but can be ignored except when the pitch angle is greater than
15° and deflection of each coil greater than D14. Under elastic conditions, torsional stress is
not uniform around the wire cross section dueto coil curvature and a direct shear load.
Maximum stress occurs at the inner surfaces of the spring and is computed using a stress
correction factor. The most widely used stress correction factor Kw1 is attributed to Wahl. It is
shown below and in Figure 15, below.
4C-1 0.615
(Eq.5)
Kw'-4C-4+ C
2.2
4C - 1 0.615
K-'= 4C-4 + C
2.0
For 2 % set point
or fatigue
K, =1+ 0.5
1.8
For springs with
set removed (Eq.6)
1.2
1.0
2 4 6 8 10 12
C = D/d
Figure 15 . Wahl Stress Correction Factors for Round Wire Helical

Compression and Extension Springs.

In some circumsta ices after yielding occurs, resultant stresses are distributed more uniformly
around the cross ection. Then, a stress correction factor Kw2 which accounts only for the
direct shear comp nent is used.
=1+0_5 (Eq.6)
C
In other circumsta ices, such as static loading at elevated temperatures, stress distribution
tends to become niform around the cross section and can best be estimated by using no
correction factor. se of different stress correction factors can lead to confusion. In published
data, it is essentia to know which stress correction factors were used. (The stress correction
factor used by a d signer must be the same as that used to develop the data.) Methods to
calculate stress fo different applications and the use of stress correction factors will be
discussed in the f Ilowing paragraphs on choice of operating stresses.
Loads
When deflection i known, loads are determined by multiplying deflection by the spring rate
(Equation 2). W he the stress is known or assumed, loads are determined from Equation
4. The procedure sed to determine loads of variable rate springs is complex. In Chis case,
the load deflectior curve is approximated by a series of short chords. The spring rate is
calculated for eac chord and multiplied by deflection to obtain the load. The load is then
added to that calc lated for the next chord. The process is repeated until load has been
calculated for the Jesired value of deflection (Figure 16,below).
f, f,
Deflection
PS = R,f,+R2(f2-f,)... Rs(f,-f4)
Figure 16. Load Deflection Curve for a Variable Rate Spring.
Loads should beIpecified at a test height. Because the load deflection curve is often not
linear at very low oads oral loads near solid, loads should be specified at test heights
between 15 and 5% of the full deflection range (Figure 14,page 53).
o
Loads are classified as static, cyclic or dynamic. In static loading applications, the spring is
expected to operate between specified loads only a few times. Frequently, springs in static
applications remain loaded for long periods of time. In typical cyclic applications, springs are
required to cycle between specified loads from 10,000 to more than a billion cycles. During
dynamic loading, the rate of load application is high and causes a surge wave in the spring,
which will induce stresses that exceed the value calculated from Equation 4.
Buckling of Compression Springs

Compression springs that have lengths greater than four times the spring diameter can
buckle. If properly guided, either in a tube or over a rod, buckling can be minimized. However,
friction between the spring and tube or rod will affect the loads, especially when the aspect
ratio (Lf/D) is high.
Critica) buckling conditions are shown in Figure 17, below, for axially loaded springs with
squared and ground ends. Curve A is for springs with one end on a fíat plata and the other
end free to tip (Figure 18, page 57). It indicates that buckling will occur when the spring
design is aboye and to the right of the curve. A tendency for buckling is considerably less for
springs compressed between parallel plates as shown in curve B. For applications requiring
springs with a high aspect ratio and large deflections, severa) springs can be used in series in
a tube or over a rod, with guides between the springs to prevent binding.
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
0.45
0.40 Unstable
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ratio: Free Length/Mean Diameter
Figure 17. Critica) Buckling Condition Curves.
o
A B
End Free to Tip End Fixed Against Tipping
Fixed End Fixed End
Figure 18. End Ponditions Used to Determine Critica) Buckling.
Choice of Operating Stress - Static Conditions

For static applicati ns, the yield strength or stress relaxation resistance of the material limits
the load-carrying bility of a spring. The spring is required to operate for a limited number of
cycles, and the ve ocity of the end coils is low to preclude high stresses dueto surging or
impact conditions. Maximum allowable torsional stress for helical compression springs used
in static applicatio s is presented in Table 25, page 58 as a percentage of the tensile
strength for comm n spring materials. For springs that do not contain beneficia) residual
stresses induced 1 y set removal, maximum allowable torsional stress values are from 35 lo
50% of the tensile strength. To calculate the stress before set removal, it is necessary lo use
the Kw, correction factor. If the calculated stress at solid is greater than the indicated
percentage of ten ile strength, the spring will take a permanent set when deflected to solid.
Amount of set is a function of the amount that calculated stress at solid exceeds the indicated
percent of tensile trength.
To increase the lo d-carrying ability of springs in static applications, it is common practica to

make the spring lo ger than its required free length and to compress the spring to solid. This
causes the spring o set to the desired final length and induces favorable residual stresses.
This process is ca led "removing set" or"presetting" and can be conducted at either room or
elevated temperat res. The loss of deflection from the free position to solid by cold set
removal should be at least 10%. If the set is less, it is difficult to control the spring's free
length. Ratios of s ress greater than 1.3 lead to distortion and do not appreciably increase the
load-carrying abilit . This is illustrated schematically in Figure 19, page 58.

Preferred
4 Range
0.8
0.6
Stresses Are
Calculated
At Solid.
0.4
0.2
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

Stress Before Set Removal S,
R, =
Stress After Set Removal S,
Figure 19. Spring Load-Carrying Ability vs. Amount of Set Removed.
Allowable torsion stresses in springs with set removed (Tabla 25, below) are significantly
higher than for springs that have not had set removed. It is important to note that, because
yielding has occurred during presetting, the stress is relatively uniform around the cross
section and it is calculated using the Kw2 stress correction factor. Set removal is an added
springmaking operation that increases the manufacturing cost but greatly increases the
energy storage capacity of the spring. Set removal is common for critica) springs made from
premium materials . In some instances , springs have the set removed during an assembly
operation.
Maximum % of Tensile Strength

Materials Before Set Removed ( Kwi) After Set Removed (Kw2)
Patented and cold drawn carbon steel 45 60 - 70
Hardened and tempered carbon and 50 65 - 75
low alloy steel
Austenitic stainless steels 35 55 - 65
Nonferrous alloys 35 55 - 65
Table 25. Maximum Allowable Torsional Stresses for Helical Compression Springs in Sta tic
Applications. 6endrng or buckling stresses not included.
If the calculated stress using the Kw2 stress correction factor exceeds the percentage of
tensile strength indicated in Tabla 25, aboye, the spring cannot be made. In this case, it is
necessary to either lower the stress by altering spring design or selecting a higher strength
material.

In some applications, ma imum operating stress is limited by material stress relaxation
resistance and amount of load loss that the design can tolerate. When load is constant, these
designs are limited by ma erial creep resistance. When the spring is compressed at a fixed
test height, stress relaxati n resistance of the material is limiting. Designs limited by stress
relaxation resistance are ore common than designs ¡¡mitad by creep resistance. It is
suggested that creep-limit d designs be reviewed by a qualified engineer with springmaking
experience.
Stress relaxation is define p as percent load loss according to the following relationship:
% Relaxation = Po - PF x 100 (Eq.7)

Po
Po is load at test height bifore testing.
PF is load at test height afjer testing.
Typical stress relaxation d ta (Figure 20 , page 60 ) indicate that at high stresses, some
spring materials such as usic wire exhibit appreciable stress relaxation after only 100 hours
at temperaturas as low as 100 °C (212°F ). These data are only representativa of the
conditions indicated . Stress relaxation is affected by material , spring processing variables,
time, temperature and str ss.
a
Music Wire, ASTM A228,1.57 mm (0.062") Stainless Steel 302 Wire, ASTM A313, 1.57 mm (062')
100 1000
40 140
900 30
20
800
a-
110
2 700
w
o,
p
Á`4 90
600
80 c
500
70
400 60
50
5 10 15 20 10 15 20
Relaxation , Load Loso (%) Relaxation, Load L.. (%)
Chrome-Silicon WIre, ASTM A401 , 1.57 lo 3.76 mm (0.062" to 0.148") Chrome-Vanadium Wre, ASTM A232, 1.57 lo 3.76 mm (0.062" lo 0.140")
1000
140
900 130
120
800 o4^ry^ F^
ñ
110
700 100
w
90
600
80
500
70
400 60
50
5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15
Relaxation, Load Loas (%) Relaxation , Load Loas (341
Canon Valva Spring Wire , ASTM A230, 1 .57 lo 3. 76 mm (0,06T lo 0.148") Inconel Alloy X 750 Wire, 1.93 mm (0.075")
1000
140
900 1 30
RF^
1 20
500
70
110
h
O ^ry ^
`
0- e
ó 60
400
100
m 50
90 o, 001 2
300
40
80
500 200 ygA 30
70
20
400 60 100
10
50
0 5 10 15 - 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Relaxation, Load Loas (%) Relaxation , Load Loas (34)
Figure 20. Spring Relaxation Data for Various Materials. Springs were preset at.oom
temperature and testad 100 hours at the indicated temperatures. The initial stress is Km corrected.
c
When set is rem( ved at an elevated temperature, the process is callad "heat setting." It
significantly impr )ves the stress relaxation resistance of springs (Figure 3, page 21) at
moderate tempei 3tures and is frequently a more cost-effective method for achieving low
leveis of stress n laxation than specifying a more costly spring material.
Choice of Operating Stress - Cyclic Applications

In cyclic applicati :)ns, the-load-carrying ability of a spring is limited by material fatigue
strength. Velocit} of end coils is low compared with the natural frequency. To select the
optimum stress I' wel, it is necessary to balance spring cost vs. reliability. Reducing
operating stresse s increases spring reliability as well as cost. A complete knowledge of
operating enviror ment, expected life, stress range, frequency of operation, speed of
operation and pe ^missible levels of stress relaxation are required in order to make the best
choice between c ost and reliability.
Because maxim m stress is at the wire surface, any surface defects, such as pits or seams,
severely reduce l atigue life. Shot peening improves fatigue life and minimizes the harmful
effect of surface tefects, but it does not totally remove them.
Maximum allowal le design stresses for fatigue applications should be calculated using the
Kw1 correction fa( tor and are shown for common spring materials in Table 26, page 62.
These values are for a stress ratio of zero in en ambient environment with no surging. Note
that shot peening increases the fatigue strength by as much as 20% at lives of 10 million
cycles.
Values in Table 2 6 are guidelines for designers and should only be used in the absence of
specific data. Mo: >t springs designed to recommended stress levels will exceed the indicated
¡¡ves; however, in the absence of detailed information on material, manufacturing method and
operating conditic )ns, it is not possible to quantify the reliability level.
Fatigue Life Estimation Example

Fatigue lile at oth ,r stress ratios can be determined from Tabla 26, page 62, according to
the procedures oi tlined in this section. A short example illustrates the procedure:
Estimate the fatic ue life of a not-shot-peened helical compression spring loaded sinusoidally
ata rate of one c tcle per second. The spring is flooded with oil and operates at a maximum
temperature of 4 q C (104°F). The material is ASTM A228 wire, and ends are squared and
ground. The des ¡ n is given here:
d = 1.00 mm (0.019")
C=8
Lf = 20.5 mm (ret (0.807")
L,= 17.5mm(0.89")
L2 = 10 mm (0.39 „)
L5=8mm(0.315')
N,=8
Spring rate is det rmined from the following equation:
z
4
R=8D N =3.2N/mm
a
Loads are calculated from the deflections and found to be:
P, = (20.5 - 17.5) x 3.2 = 9.6 N
P2 = (20.5 - 10.0) x 3.2 = 33.6 N
P3 = (20.5 - 8) x 3.2 = 40 N
Stresses are calculated using Equation 4 and are:
S8aDKwi
S, = 232 MPa
SZ = 810 MPa
S3 = 965 MPa
Tensile strength of the wire is 2180 MPa. The stress at solid is 44% of the tensile strength.
Referring lo Table 25 , page 58 , the maximum stress allowable before set removal for
ASTM A228 is 45% of tensile strength . Therefore , the spring can be made and does not
require set removal.
Percent of Tensile Strength

ASTM A228 , Austenitic Stainless Steel and
Nonferous ASTM A230 and A232
Fatigue Life (cycles) Not Shot-Peened Shot-Peened Not Shot-Peened Shot-Peened
105 36 42 42 49
106 33 39 40 47
107 30 36 38 46
11
Table 26. Maximum Allowable Torsional Stresses for Round Wire Helical Compression
Springs in Cyclic Applications.
To estimate the fatigue life, it is necessary lo:
1. Plot en S-N curve on a modified Goodman diagram ( Figure 21 , page 63) using the data
from Tabla 22 for not-shot- peened springs and a tensile strength of 2180 MPa.
2. Plot point A on the 45 0 fine at 67% of the tensile strength.
3. Plot the stress range coordinates, point B.
4. Estimate the life by drawing a line through AB. At the intersection of this line with the
vertical axis , point C , draw a horizontal line lo intersect a S-N curve. The point of
intersection , D, is the estimated life of 2,500,000 cycles.

Minimum Stress (10' psi)
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280
Minimum Stress (MPa)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
1 1 1 I I I I I I I I
280
1800 -
F 240
1600 -
A
1400- -200
1200 -
-160
1000-
B
800- 1120
D
600-
- 80
400 -
1-40
200 -
V
10' 2 4 6 8110° 2 4 6 8 106 2 4 6 810' 2 4 6 8106
Stress Cycles
Figure 21. Modified Goodman Qiagram for Estimating Fatigue Life.
Dynamic Loading - Impac

When a spring is lo ded or unloaded, a surge wave is established that transmits torsional
stress from the poin of loading along the spring length to the point of restraint. The surge
wave travels ata ve ocity approximately 1/10 of a normal torsional stress wave. Velocity of
the torsional stress ave (VT) is given by:
VT = 10.1- I Pg m / sec (or) VT = _ I Gg in./sec (E4.8)
Velocity of the surg wave Vs varias with material and spring design, but is usually in the
range of 50 to 500 /sec. The surge wave limits the rate at which a spring can absorb or
release energy by li iting impact velocity V. Impact velocity is the spring velocity parallel to
the spring axis and i a function of stress and material constants shown as:
V 10.1S/ 9G n /sec (or) V= S IZ pgG in./sec (E4.9)
This is a surprising sult because impact velocity and stress are independent of the spring
configuration. For st els, impact velocity reduces to:
SMI Handbook of Spring Design ,63

0
S m /sec ( or) V = S in./sec (Eq.10)
35.5 131
If a spring is compressed to a given stress leve) and released instantaneously , the maximum
spring velocity is expressed as the stress divided by 35.5. Similarly , if a spring is loaded at a
known velocity, instantaneous stress can be calculated . At very high loading velocities,
instantaneous stress will exceed the stress calculated from the conventional static formula
(Equation 4 ) and will limit design performance . These equations for impact velocity are only
concerned with the primary surge wave . Frequently, this wave will reflect from the other end
of the spring , increasing stress. Springs loaded at high velocities are frequently subject to
resonance phenomena.
When the ratio of the weight to be accelerated to the weight of the spring is less than 1, surge
wave theory accurately predicts design performance ( Figure 22, page 65 ). At high weight
ratios and lower velocities , en energy balance is used to predict velocity of a weight projected
from the spring end or deflection of the spring when impacted by a mass . Velocity and
deflection are related as:
For horizontal loading:
f = 31.6V gR mm (or) f = V. R in. (Eq.11)
For vertical loading:
f=31.6V W+Wmm(or)f =V W+W in. (Eq.12)

gR R gR R
W/g is the mass that is being accelerated or decelerated and V is the axial velocity of the
spring.
These equations assume that the spring is massless and should only be used when the
spring mass is less then 1/4 of the mass to be accelerated.
When the ratio of spring load to weight is less than four , the energy required to accelerate the
spring itself becomes appreciable . By assuming that al¡ mass of the spring is concentrated at
the moving end , Equations 10 and 11 can be corrected by substituting (W + Ws / 3) for W
where Wa is the spring weight.
Dynamic Loading - Resonance

Resonance occurs in a spring when the frequency of the cyclic loading is near natural spring
frequency or a multiple of it. Resonance can increase individual coil deflection and stress
levels well aboye amounts predicted by static or equilibrium analysis. Resonance can also
cause spring bounce, which results in loads considerably lower than calculated at the
minimum spring deflection. To avoid resonance, natural spring frequency should be at least
13 times the operating frequency.
The natural frequency of a compression spring is inversely proportional to the time required
for a surge wave to traverse the spring. For a compression spring without damping and with
both ends fixed:
1.2x103d Gg 3.5x105d
n = D2N P , for steel n = DZN metric (Eq.13)
a a
c
4000
n 9D2Na Pg; for teel n = 1N DZd English
e
n is in hertz.
If a spring cannot be des gned so the natural frequency is more than 13 times operating
frequency, or if the sprin is to serve as a vibration damping device , it must utilize one of
severa ) methods of ener y absorption . Generally , these are friction devices in which the
spring rubs against anot er element,such as en interna ) damper coi), arbor , housing or
another portion of the sp ing . Variable pitch springs and springs in combination are also
occasionally used to avo d or minimize resonant frequency effects.
1.4
For mass ratios of:
Over 4 - use case (1)
1 - 4 - use case (2)
1.2 Under 1 - use case (3)
Concentrated Mass Theory (2)
Surge Wa ve
Theory (3)
Massless Spring Theory (1)
V = Velocity
0.4
V = Maximum Velocity
0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5
Mass Ratio P/Ws
Figure 22. Velocity off an Object Propelled by a Compressíon Spring.
For a vibration isolation $ystem, the essential characteristic is that the natural frequency of
the spring-mass system be as far as possible from the disturbing frequency . Filtering of
disturbing forces may be I calculated as:
% of force transmitted = 1 2 x 100 (Eq.14)

(nd/n) -1
where nd is the frequency of the disturbing force and n the natural frequency of the spring-
mass system ( Figure 23 , page 66).
o
220
200
180 0
m
160
140
120
100
x 100 = % of Force
80 i) 1 Transmitted
n
60
40
20
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

n, Disturbing Frequency
n Natural Frequency of Spring and Load
Figure 23. Transmissibility of Spring Mounting.
If nd/n is less than one, the denominator in Equationl4 should be changed to 1 - (nd/n)2.
Note that the frequency n in this equation is the frequency of the spring-mass system and not
the natural spring frequency. In fact, the most commonly used equation neglects the spring
weight and is only deflection dependent. The general equation is:
n _ 15.8 gk metric (or) n = 1 . English (Eq.15)

P 27c P
Special Springs
Previously in this section, design considerations for round wire helical compression springs of
uniform diameter were discussed. These design techniques are modified below and applied
to many special spring configurations. Special springs are chosen to fulfill a unique set of
design criteria. Springs from rectangular wire and stranded wire as well as variable diameter
springs with conical, hourglass and barre) shapes, are discussed in the upcoming subsections.
below. Helpful guidelines for nested springs are also reviewed.
Rectangular Wire
In applications where space is limited, and particularly where solid height is restricted, springs
designed from rectangular or keystoned wire are often selected. These springs are commonly
referred to as "die springs."

Springs made from rectanl fular wire , with the width of the rectangle perpendicular to the
spring axis, store more em !rgy in a smaller space than equivalent round wire springs. Even
though stress distribution round the rectangular cross section is not as uniform as the round
wire section , the energy st >rage capacity is higher because more material can be
incorporated into the alloci ited space . Rectangular wire is more costly than round wire, but
less costly than keystoned wire. Keystoned wire is processed specially so that deformation
during spring winding or cc iling causes the cross section to become approximately
rectangular. Distortion of ti e cross section can be estimated from the equation presented in
Figure 24 , below . Howevei , distortion depends upon the manufacturing technique
employed , and this equatic n is, at best , an approximation . Axial dimensional change of the wire
must always be considere) when calculating solid heights of rectangular springs.
Keystone Rectangular
b
Before Spring
Coiling Axis
1
b,
After t,
Coiling 1
t,=t(CC.5)
Figure 24. Wire Cross Section Before and After Coiling.
The rate for a compressi spring made from rectangular wire is expressed as follows:
R=P/f=Ñ D3 Kz (Eq.16)
a
Since the wire is loaded i torsion, the rate is the same whether the wire is wound on fiat or
on edge (Figure 25, page 68 ). Values for the constant K2 are shown in Figure 26, page
68. Stress is expressed a
PD PD
(Eq.17)
S K bt2 KE or K1bt
a
t Spring
A x is
'
T b
D/2 -^ Spring Wound
On Flat
C_ D
1
t D/2 - ^ I Spring Wound C_ 7
1 On Ed g e b
Figure 25. Rectangular Wire Compression Spring

Wound on Flat or Edge.
11
10
9
8
7
6
K,,
5
4
0
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70
K, and K,
Figure 26. Constants for Rectangular Wire in Torsion.
Values for K1 and K2 are shown in Figure 26, aboye, while values for the stress correction
factor for springs wound on the flat (KF) and springs wound on edge (KE) are shown in
Figures 27 and 28, page 69. When rectangular wire is produced by rolling round wire or if
the cross section of the wire deviates significantly from a rectangle, additional correction
factors are required. Whenever a round wire cannot be used because the solid height
exceeds specifications, it is possible to try a rectangular wire coiled on edge where:
2d
t= (Eq.18)
1+b/t
and d is equal to the wire diameter for the equivalent round wire spring. A typical value for a
width to thickness ratio of two may be assumed in the initial design calculations.

1.5
C = 3--
C = 4-I
0
o
o 1.2 C=6-^
t
o
o
8--1
C=10
1.1
1.01 0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4 .0
Ratio b/t
Figure 27. Str ss Correction Factors for Rectangular

Wire Compre sion Springs Wound on Flat.
1.5
1.4
1.3
C=3
1.2
C=4
1.1 C=6
C=8
C=1
1.0 1.0 .5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Ratio b/t
Figure 28. St}ess Correction Factors for Rectangular

Wire Compresion Springs Wound on Edge
Stranded W ¡re Spring

Long springs wth many coils, when subjected lo high rates of loa d application as in
automatic wea ons, encounter shock wave motion and can literal ly be torn apart. Stranded-
wire springs ar often the most successful solution to such proble ms because of the frictional
resistance bet een the strands.

To function properly, the helix of a spring must be opposite in direction to the helix of the
strands, so that the strands bind together when the spring is compressed. The stranded-wire
spring may be wound with two, three or more strands. Springs with four or more strands are
made with a center wire core lo assure necessary stability. Ends should be soldered, brazed
or welded to prevent unraveling.
Recognizing that a stranded-wire spring can be considered as single-wire springs arranged in

parallel, spring rate is derived on the basis given by:
R= KnGd4
(Eq.19)
8D3Na
where K = correction factor and n = number of strands. For a three-strand spring, K = 1.05.
An approximation for torsional stress in each wire of the strand is given by Equation 4, which
is shown again below:
S= nd3 wi (Eq.4)
Maximum allowable stress after set removal should not exceed 55 to 60% of the material
tensile strength. Wire diameter (da) for a single strand in a stranded wire spring is less than
the wire diameter for a monolithic spring with the same mean diameter and rate.
Number of Strands Wire Size

2 ds greater than 0.79 d
Stress in the stranded-wire spring is also less than the stress in an equivalent monolithic
spring.
Variable Diameter Springs

Conical, hourglass and barrel-shaped springs (Figure 29, page 71) are used in applications
requiring a low solid height, increased lateral stability or resistance to surging. Conical
springs can be designed so that each coil nests wholly or partly into an adjacent coil. Solid
height can be as low as one wire diameter. Rate for conical springs usually increases with
deflection (Figure 30, page 71) because the number of active coils decreases progressively
as the spring approaches solid. By varying the pitch, conical springs can be designed to have
a uniform rate. Rate for conical springs is calculated, as indicated previously, by considering
the spring as many springs in series. Rate for each turn or fraction of a turn is calculated
using Equation 2. Rate for a complete spring is then determined, remembering that the
spring rate follows the series relationship given previously in Equation 3.

Figure 29. Conical, Parrel and Hourglass Springs, Respectively.
Figure 30. Typical load Deflection Curve for

Variable Diameter $prings (Solid Line).
To calculate the highe t stress at a given load , the mean diameter of the largest active coil at
load is used . Solid hei ht of a uniformly tapered , but not telescoping , spring with squared and
ground ends made fro round wire can be estimated from:
L, = N, d2 - u2 + 21d (Eq.20)
where u = the O.D. larle end minus the O.D. small end divided by 2Na.
Designing a variable ameter spring so that adjacent coils rub against one another during
deflection increases r sistance to resonance phenomena but may also shorten spring life due
to wear.
prings are calculated as two conical springs in series.

Variable Pitch
Variable pitch springs (Figure 31, below) are used to achieve a variable rate similar to that
shown in Figure 30, page 71, or in dynamic applications where the cyclic rate of load
application is near the natural spring frequency. As turns of lesser pitch become inactiva
during deflection, the natural frequency of a spring changas. Throughout the cycle, the spring
has a spectrum of frequency response and not a single resonant frequency. Thus, surging
and spring resonance are minimizad.
Figure 31. Typical Variable Pitch

Helical Compression Spring.
Nested Compression Springs

Helical compression springs are often used in combination because of space limitations and
resonance considerations. A nest of compression springs can store more energy but will
have lower natural frequencies than a single equivalent spring. Nested springs are not
recommended when the diametral space is so restricted that a single spring would have en
index of five or less. The following design practices apply to nested springs:
1. To prevent internesting, the springs should be wound alternately left and right-hand.
2. Clearance between springs must be at least twice the diameter tolerance.
3. The most efficient distribution of load between individual springs varias with their indexes
and the clearances between them. For a first approximation in designing a nest with two
springs, one-third of the load should be on the inner spring and two-thirds on the outer spring.
4. Solid heights and free heights should be about the same for al¡ springs.
These practices result in springs with approximately the same index.
Commercial Tolerances
Standard commercial tolerances for free length, diameter and load are presented in Section
F: Tolerancing Guidelines. Tolerance on squareness is 3°. These tolerances represent a
good trade-off between manufacturing costs and performance in most applications. Certain
premium spring materials and processing methods can be used to achieve tighter tolerances.

For fatigue applic tions, spring ¡¡fe is often specified. Unless otherwise stated, life is
interpreted as th Sio life. This is the life at which 90% of the springs are expected to survive
with a 50% confi ence leve) based on Weibull analysis.
Acceptable Quality Levo¡ (AQL)

Quality leveis are often expressed by an AQL (for example MIL-STD-105, Sampling
Procedures and 1 ables for Inspection by Attributes). Only critica) attributes should be subject
to an AQL on the drawing. Unnecessarily tight AQL's will increase manufacturing and
inspection costs. f tolerances must be close for proper functioning and if, for instance,
nonconforming p: irts can be discarded at assembly, a standard AQL will minimize the parts
cost. Springs ass -mbled automatically often require tight AQL on dimensions, while springs
used in instrumer ts and critica) machines often require tight AQL on loads and life.
Packaging
Normally, compr ssion springs and other custom parts are packaged in bulk. Compression
springs with high pitch angles and large indexes are subject to tangling. Tangling not only
makes it difficult separate springs upon arrival but can also cause distortion. Special
packaging syste s where springs are packaged in rows (Figure 32, below) is one method
to prevent tangli g. Another method is to place springs on adhesive-coated corrugated
panels. There are many other packaging methods used to prevent tangling and reduce
shipment bulk.
led Springs and Special Spríng Packaging.
How to Specify
There are many ays to specify compression springs. Because the number of variables is
large, it is useful for the designer to use the specification checklist on page 76 to be
sure that al¡ critii al aspects are specified.

Compression Spring Design Example
Given : Squared and ground compression spring to work in a hola DH = 40 mm ( 1.575") and
exert P, = 275 N (61.8 lbf) ata height of L, = 60 mm (2.362") and P2 = 500 N ( 112 Ibf) at a
height of L2 = 50 mm ( 1.969"). Application : static at room temperatura . Material : oil tempered
wire ASTM A229. Spring must not set when compressed to solid height.
A. First estimate the wire diameter by solving Equation 4, paga 54 using

approximate values for unknown factors and Kw, = 1. Then, calculate O . D. and D.
Substituta this wire size in the load deflection equation (Equation 2, paga 53) and solve
for Na. Repeat this process until a satisfactory solution is obtained.
1. Rearranging Equation 4 for uncorrected stress:
2.55P2D
d=31
S2
2. Assume tensile strength of ASTM A229 is 1500 MPa and S2 = 700 MPa
uncorrected:
d=3 2.55x500x40 4.2 mm

700
3. For clearance , assume O . D. = 0.95 DH:
O.D. = 0.95 x 40 = 38.0 mm
D = 38.0 - 4.2 = 33.8 mm
D 33.8
C=-=-=8.0
d 4.2
Rate = R= 500 - 275 = 22.5 N / mm

60-50
N. _Gd4
8D'R
(7.93 x 104)(4.2)"
N" 8(33.8)3(22.5) = 3.55
B. Find amount of space left between L2 and L,:
1. Compare to f2.
2. Find the corrected stress at solid height.
3. Compare to tensile strength of material . SeeTable 26, paga 62
4. Ls=5.55x4.2=23.3
a
Lr=P'+L = 275 + 60 = 72.2 mm
R 22.5
f2=72.2- 0=22.2mm
L2-L,=5 -23.3=26.7mm
f,=72.2- .3=48.9 mm
15% of 48.9í 7.3 mm
KW' 4C 4+'CS=1.18
P,=f.xR:48.9x22. 5=1100N
2.55P, K - (2.55)(1100x33. 8)(1.18)

d' wi (4.2)s
= 15101 IPa
5. Tensile stre gth of 4.2 mm diameter wire = 1400 MPa. Before set is removed,
maximum al owable torsional stress is 50% of TS or 700 MPa (Table 25 , page 58).
S,= 1510 is reater than 700 MPa, and the spring will set.
C. Because (L2 - L3):26.7 > 0.15 fs = 7. 3, there is more space available . Try a larger
preferred wire siz (Table 13, page 26) of 4.8 mm.
TS = 1400MPS, D = 38.0 - 4.8 = 33.2 mm, C = 6.9
(7.9 x 104 (4.8)4

= 6.4
Na 8(33.2)' 02.5)
L, = 8.4 x 4.8 = 40.3 mm
L2-L,=50- 0.3=9.7mm
fs=72.2-40.3= 31.9 mm
(L2-L,)=9.7 015f =48mm
PS = (31.9)(22. ) = 718 mm
KW' = (4)(6.9) 1 +.615 =1.22

(4)(6.9) 4 6.9
a
(2.55)(718)(33.2)(1.22) =
- 671 MPa
(4.8)3
S, = 671 MPa or 671 x 100 = 48% of TS

1400
COMPRESSION SPRING SPECIFICATION CHECKLIST Frequency of loading Hz

(Fill in required data only) Required life cycles.
Material: Required reliability (sea Section 4)
Working Conditions: Special Information:
To work in mm(in .) diameter hola Squareness Parallelism
To work ovar mm(in.) diameter shaft Finish
Load N (Ibf), ± N (Ibf) Maximum operating temperature °C(°F)
at mm(in.) Operating environment
Load N (Ibf), ± N (Ibf) Electrical/magnetic
at mm(in.) Design Data ( Reference):
Rate N/mm (Ibf/in.), ± N/mm (Ibf/in.) Wire diameter mm(in.)
between _ mm (in.) and mm(in.) Outside diameter mm(in.)
Maximum solid height mm(in.) Inside diameter mm(in.)
Direction of coil (right- hand, left-hand or optional) Free length mm(in.)
Type of ends Total number of coils
Allowable relaxation _% Hours/days
Impact loading mm/sec (in./sec)
Again referring to Tabla 25 , page 58, it is clear that the spring can be made without
presetting . The final design becomes:
Final Design Specifications

Material : ASTM A229
Wire Diameter d: 4.8 mm (0.189") Reference
O.D.: 38. 0 ± 0.4 mm ( 1.500 ± 0.050")
Free Length Lf: 72.2 mm (2.843") Reference
Test Height L,: 60 mm (2.362")
Test Height L2: 50 mm ( 1.969")
P, Load at L,: 275 N (61.8 Ibf) t 11.0%
P2 Load at L2: 500 N (112 Ibf) t 7%
Final Design Stress S, : 671 MPa (97,300 psi ) or 48% TS
N,: 8.4

Helical Extension Springs
Introduction
Helical extension springs store energy and exert a pulling force. Usually, they are made from
round wire and ale close-wound with initial tension. Typical applications include tape cassette
players, balance cales, toys, garage doors, automatic washing machines and various types
of spring tensioni g devices.
Helical extension springs are stressed in torsion in the body. Design procedures for the body
are similar to tho se discussed previously for compression springs with the following major
exceptions. Most helical extension springs are coiled with initial tension, equal to the
minimum force r quired to separata adjacent coils. Helical extension springs do not normally
have set remove J. Furthermore, unlike compression springs, extension springs do not have a
solid stop to prev ent overloading. For these reasons, design stress levels are generally lower
for extension tha i for compression springs. A special type of extension spring, known as a
drawbar spring igure 33, below), has a solid stop. It is essentially a compression spring
with special hoo s.
C j
Figure 33. Dra}vbar Spríng Provides a Solid Stop.
The pulling force exerted by an extension spring body is transmitted to mating parts through
hooks or loops. ^ /han stresses in the hooks are higher than in the spring body, the hooks
limit spring perfo mance.
o
Initial Tension
Initial tension in an extension spring is measured according to the procedure illustrated in
Figure 34, below. The linear portion of the load deflection curve is extrapolated to zero
deflection. The point of intersection on the ordinate is initial tension P1. The amount of initial
tension that can be put finto a spring depends upon its índex, material, method of manufacture
and postcoiling stress relief treatment. Occasionally, in critica) applications when stress is
high, a high stress-relief temperature is required to minimize unfavorable residual stresses
due to coiling or forming the hooks. High temperature stress relief reduces the amount of
initial tension. Typical values of initial tension are shown in Figure 35, page 79. High
strength materials, such as small diameter music wire, are able to support higher levels of
initial tension than low strength materials such as larga diameter hard-drawn wire.
r
Load (P)
P,
Deflection (f)
Figure 34. Load Deflection Curve for a Helical Extension Spring with Initial
Tension.
a
300
275 Difficult 40
To Attain
250
35
225 I
Available 30 CaL
m 200
Upon ^ó
o ,-
Special Ú
co 175 Request d C
o_
25
O C O N
C C
¡ 150 DE-
20 ti Y
a c 125 d C
m Um
15
C M 100 .2 N
N
H Ú 75 F 0
10
Difficult
50 To Control
5
25
4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Index 0
Figure 35. Ton Tonal Stress Due to Initial Tension as a Function

of Index in He! cal Extension Springs.
Types of En ds
Extension springrequire
: a method of attachment to other parts in an assembly. A wide
variety of ends h ve been developed and used successfully for many years - for example,
threaded inserts, wivel hooks, twist loops, side loops, cross-center loops and extended
hooks. Loops are attachment ends that have small gaps (Figure 38, page 81), while hooks
are loops with a 1 rge gap. In fact, the variety of ends is almost unlimited. The most common
configurations ar those that can be formed during the springmaking operation . Typical types
include twist, cross center, side loops and extended hooks (Figure 36, page 80). Many of
these configurati ns are made by bending the last coils of an extension spring to forro loops.
Most special hoo s are formed from straight sections of wire on the so-called "tangent ends"
of an extension spring body.

D
Figure 36 . Common End Configurations for Helical Extension Springs.
Examples of common loops are presented in Figure 36, aboye. Although other configurations
and lengths are available, common loops of preferred lengths are generally the most
economical. If possible, a spring should be designed with one or both loops at the preferred
length. For example, if a design requires a total loop length equal to five times the I.D., a
popular choice is one twist loop with a length aquel to the I.D. and one extended loop with
length equal to four times the I.D. Whenever possible for extended loops, the designer should
allow for a straight section approximately three wire diameters long at the end of the wire (A,
Figure 36, aboye). Loops at each end can be made with a controlled angular relationship.
Specifying en angular relationship may add to the cost; therefore, whenever en application
permits, a random angular relationship should be allowed. Production of special end
configurations may involve tool charges and generally results in increased costs.
Stresses in loops are often higher than in the spring body. This limits spring performance,
particularly in cyclic applications. Generous bend radii in loops and reduced end coil diameters
are two methods frequently employed to reduce stresses. In a fui¡ twist loop, stress reaches a
maximum at point A in bending and a maximum in torsion at point B (Figure 37, paga 81).
Stress at these locations is complex, but can be estimated with reasonable accuracy by:
Sa = 16DP
nd3
K, t 4cdP2 bending (Eq.21)
z
where K, = 4C -C, -1 and C, = 2R'
4C1(C1-1) d
Sg=
zd P(4C---
'C 2
1 and C2 = 2á2 torsion
4)
(Eq.22)
a
P
Torsion Stress
at B
Figure 37. Loc^tion of Maximum Bending and

Torsion Stres$es in Twist Loops.
Free length of a extension spring is the distance between the inner surfaces of the ends
(Figure 38, belo ). It is equal to the spring body length plus ends , where spring body
length is given b Lbody = d(N + 1) The gap , which is sometimes referred to as "hook or loop
opening," can b varied by the springmaker . Certain manufacturing processes require a
minimum gap. T e number of active coils in a spring is approximately equal to the number of
coils in its body. For springs with threaded inserts or swivel hooks, the number of active coils
is less than the otal coils in the body. Hooks and loops add to the number of active coils.
Allowances of 0 1 Na are occasionally made for one-half twist loops. Allowances as larga as
0.5 Na can be ade for some cross-center, fui¡-twist and extended loops.
Free Length
Length of
ap 1 Bod y
Figure 38. T pica) Extension Spring Dimensions.
Design Equations
Design equati ns for extension spring are similar to compression springs. The rate is given
by:
R_P - P, Gd
(Eq.23)
f D'Na
where P, is ¡ni ¡al tension. Stress is given by:

S 8PD
(Eq.24)
nd
Dynamic considerations discussed previously are generally applicable to

extension springs . Natural frequency when one end is fixed is given by:
5.6 102d Gg
n= D2Na p metric (Eq.25)
= 1.76 105
for steel n d metric
NaD2
n= d
18DZN
a Pg English
7000d
for steel n = d English
N aD
Choice of Operating Stress - Static

Recommended maximum stresses for extension springs used in static applications (Tabla 27,
below) are similar to leveis recommended for compression springs without set removal.
For springs that cannot be adequately stress-relieved due to high initial tension requirements,
the maximum recommended stress in the body should be reduced to that recommended for
their ends . Maximum recommended stress in the ends is lower than in the body because the
wire is often stretched , marked or distorted during loop making.

In Torsion In Bending
Materials Body End End
Patented, cold-drawn or hardened and
45 - 50 40 75
tempered carbon and low alloy steels
Austenitic stainless steel and nonferrous
35 30 55
alloys
This information is based on the following conditions: set not removed and low temperatura heat treatment applied.
For Wm that re uire hi initial tmion, use the sama ercent of tensile stren as for end.
Table 27. Maximum Allowable Stresses (Kw, Corrected) for Helical Extension
Springs in Sta tic Applications.

Maximum recommended stresses for extension springs used in cyclic applications are
presented in Tabla 28 , page 83 . These data are for stress-relieved springs with low leveis of
initial tension.
a
Percent of Tenslle Strength
In Torsion In Bending
Number o Cycles Body End End
10 36 34 51
10 33 30 47
10 30 28 45
This infomration is bas on the following conditions : not shot peened, no surging and ambient environment with a low
tempemture hect treatm nt applied. Stress ratio = 0.
Table 28. Maxin um Allowable Stresses for ASTM A228 and Type 302
Stainless Steel elical Extension Springs in Cyclic Applications.
Clearances
Extension springs, when deflected, do not require central arbors or holes lo prevent buckling.
When a spring is d rnamically loaded or unloaded suddenly (as a cam drop-off), it may vibrate
laterally, inducing dditional stresses. If clearance is not allowed, this lateral vibration may be
noisy and result in Dremature failure from abrasion of the spring or adjacent parts.
Tolerances
Since requesting c ose tolerances can increase manufacturing costs, only characteristics
critica) lo spring p rformance should have tolerances specified. Commercial free length,
angular relationshi of ends and load tolerances are presented in Section F: Tolerancing
Guidelines. O.D. t lerances for extension springs are the same as for compression springs.
These tables shou d be used only as a guide, since some manufacturing operations have
different process apabilities that can cause variations in tolerance values.

How to Specify
For mínimum cost, it is important to specify springs properly. The following checklist is
presented as a guide.
HELICAL EXTENSION SPRINGS SPECIFICATION

CHECKLIST
(Fill in required data only.)
Suggested Design Data:
Material
Wire diameter _ mm(in.)
Working Conditions:
Outside diameter_____________ ....... mm(in.)
Maximum outside diameter ------------------ mm(in.)
Total number of coils
Initial tension ------------------------------ N(Ib9
Free length inside ends ___ ------------- mm(in.)
Load ------------- -- Special Information:
N(lbf). ---------------
at - length mm(in.) Finish
Load--------------- N(Ibf), Maximum operating temperatura ----------
------------ C(-F)
at ----------------------------- length mm(in.) Operating environment ___ _
Impact Loading---------------------- m/sec (in./sec) Frequency of Loading __ __________ _____ hertz
Rata ____- ___________ _________ N /mm(Ibf/in) Required life -_ _- cycles
---------------_---
Maximum extended length in service_ mm(in.) Required Reliability _____________
mm(in.) during installation
Direction of coila right __________ _ left_______ ______
optional_______
--------------------------
Type of ends __ _ -
Position of ends and tolerance
Gap opening and tolerance ------------------ mm(in.)
Extension Spring Design Example

A spring is to be incorporated into an overload circuit breaker. It is to be preloaded L, = 25.00
mm (0.984") and must exert a load of 17.5N (3.93 Ibf), + 15%, when the circuit breaker is
closed. If overload occurs, the circuit breaker is tripped and the spring is extended to a length
LZ = 29.00 mm (1.142"). The load must be 30 N + 12%, to operate a lock, preventing
accidental resetting before the malfunction is corrected. Either twist or extended Ioops with
generous radii are satisfactory. Because of surrounding components, the maximum O.D. is 7
mm (0.276"). Probability of overloads is small, and breaker operation is expected only three or
four times in a year. The spring will not be extended beyond L2 during service or installation.

For static application , an ambient environment , the material selected is ASTM A227.
1. Assume a clearan e on O.D. of 10%:
O.D. = (0.9) (7) 6.3 mm
2. Assume S2 = 700 1 Pa uncorrected ; let D = O.D. = 6.3 mm
Calculate wire dia eter d:
d= 3 2.55PD (2.55)(30)(6.3) = 0 .88 mm

S 700
let d = 0.9 mm
Tensile strength t ken from Figure 4 , page 25 , is 1790 MPa.
3. Calculate mean di 3 meter D and coil index C:
D=O.D.-d=6. - 0.9 = 5.4 mm,
C=D/d55_4_
0.9
4. Calculate mean sQ ress at the extended length:
L2= 29.00mm,I P2=30N
2 . 55P2 D
S 2 = d3K
__ 4C-1 615= 4(6)-1 +0.615 =1.25

KW +
4C_4 C 4(6)-4 6
S = (2.55)(30)(.4)(1.25) _ 708 MPa or 40% TS

(0.9 )3
5. Calculate rate R:
R= P2 - P, _ 13 P -
17.5 3.13N/ mm
L2-L, 9-25
6. Calculate numbei of coils Na:
Gd4 _ (70 x 104 )(0.90)'

Na 8D3R (8)(5.4)3(3 . 13) =13.2
7. Calculate free len 9 th Lf and deflections ff and f2 ; assume fui¡ twist loops:
Lf = 2(ID)+(N[+ 1)d = (2)(4.5)+ (13.2+ 1)(0.9) = 21.78 mm

f, =L1-Lf=25.00-21.78=3.22 mm
f2 =L2-Lf=29.00-21.78=7.22mm
8. Calculate initial tension Pi and uncorrected stress due to initial tension Si:
P1 = P1 -Rf, = 17.5 -(3.13)(3.22) = 7.42 N
si = 2.55P1D - (2.55)(7.42)(
5.4) =140 MPa
1 d3 (0.90)3
Referring to Figure 35 , page79 , it can be sean that this is in the preferred range for initial
stress for en índex of six.
9. Check stresses in the hooks:
Bending Stress:
SA =16PD 4P
Zd3 K1+ 4C'2-C-1
z'K1=4C1(C1-1)'letC1=C
4(6)2 -6-1
K' = 4(6)(6-1) =1.142
S = (16)(30)(5.4)(1.142) + 4(30) _ 1340 MPa or 74.9% TS

,r(0.90)3 ir(0.90)2
Torsional stress , where R2 = 2.70 mm:
SB 8PD(4C2-1) C_2R2
2zd' 4Cz 4 2 d
Se = (8)(30)(5.4) 4(6) -1 = 651 MPa or 36% TS

n(0.90)' 4(6)-4
Final Design Specifications

Free Length Lf: 21.78 mm (0.854") Reference
Outside Diameter : 6.3 + 0.10 mm ( 0.248 ± 0.004")
Wire Diameter d: 0.9 mm (0.035" ) Reference
Initial Tension Load P;: 7.45 N (1.68 Ibf ) Reference
Extended Length L1 : 25.00 mm (0.984")
Extended Length L2: 29.00 mm ( 1.142")
P1 Load at L1: 17 . 5 ± 2.0 N (3.93 ± 0 . 45 Ibf)
P2 Load at L2: 30 ± 2.5 N (6 . 74 ± 0.55 Ibf)
Final Design Stress S2 : 708 MPa ( 103,000 psi) 40% TS
N3: 13 . 2 Coils
Refer to the load tolerance calculations for helical extension springs (Equations 46-48,
paga 100-101 ). Tolerance on load for is P1 ± 11 %, which is less than
the required ± 15%, and P2 is ± 8%, which is less than the required ± 12%.
a
Torsion Springs
Introduction
Helical springs us to apply a torque or store rotational energy are commonly referred to as
"torsion springs." he two most common types are single and double - bodied springs (Figure
40, page 90). Tors on springs are found in clothespins , window shades , counterbalance
mechanisms, ratc ets and various types of machine components. They are also used as
couplings between concentric shafts , such as in a motor and pump assembly. Torsion springs
are generally mou ted around a shaft or arbor , and must be supported at three or more
points. Various kin s of ends are available to facilitate mounting.
Torsion springs ar stressed in bending . Rectangular wire is more efficient in bending than
round wire, but du to the premium cost of rectangular wire, round wire is preferred. If
possible , a torsion spring should always be loaded in a direction that causes its body
diameter to decre se. The residual forming stresses are favorable in this direction, but
unfavorable when he spring is loaded in a direction that increases body diameter. Unless
there are unfavo le residual stresses in the end bends , springmakers normally heat-treat
these springs at a low temperáture to stabilize the end positions rather than to fully stress
relieve them. If th direction of loading tends to increase body diameter , the springmaker
should be advisedito stress relieve the springs.
Number of Turns
The number of ac ive turns in a helical torsion spring is equal to the number of body turns,
plus a contributio from the ends. For straight torsion ends , this contribution is equal to one-
third of the mome t arms and is usually expressed as an equivalent number of turns:
(Eq.26)
L, = length of the noment arm of the first end.
L2 = length of the oment arm of the second end.
Na =Nb +Ne (Eq.27)
Nb = number of br;5dy turns.
Mean Diameter
Mean diameter is equal to I.D. plus O . D. divided by two. When the direction of loading tends
to reduce the bo y diameter , the mean diameter changes with deflection according to:
(Eq.28)
where D , is initia mean diameter and 9 is deflection in revolutions. Clearance must be

maintained betw en the shaft or tube and spring at al¡ times to prevent binding . The ideal
shaft size is equ 1 to , or slightly less than, 90% of the I.D. when the spring is fully deflected
(minimum diame er). Shafts significantly smaller than 90% should be avoided to prevent
buckling during l rge deflections.

0
Length
Most torsion springs are close-wound, with body length equal to the wire diameter multiplied
by the number of turns plus one. When a spring is deflected in the direction that will reduce
the coi¡ diameter, body length increases according to:
L=d(Nb+1+B) (Eq.29)
For applications that require minimum hysteresis, springs should be designed with space
between adjacent coils to reduce frictional losses.
Spring Rate
Spring rate for helical round wire torsion springs is given by:
M Ed4
R=-= (Eq.30)
B 10.8DNa
The 10.8 factor is greater than the theoretical factor of 10.2 to allow for friction between
adjacent spring coils, and between the spring body and the arbor. This factor is based on
experience and has been found to be satisfactory. Loads for torsion springs should be
specified at a fixed angular position and not at a fixed deflection from the free position (Figure
39, below). Presently, there is no standard way to test loada for torsion springs.
Specify:
a° -Position
p -Load at a
0° -Final Position
Figure 39. Speclfying Load and Deflection Requirements for Torsion

Springs.
a
Stress
Stress in torsion s rings is due to bending , and for round wire is given by:
S= 3M
;2 K B (Eq.31)
During elastic defl ction of a curved beam, the neutral axis shifts toward the center of
curvature , causing higher stress at the inner surface than the outer . Wahl has calculated the
stress correction f ctor at the I . D. of a round wire torsion spring as:
_ 4C2-C 1
(E q. 32)
K 61D 4C(C-1
A convenient appr ximation for engineering calculations is:
4C-1
(Eq.33)
K BtU 4C-4
4C+1
KBou= (Eq.34)
4C+4
At low indexes , st ss is significantly higher on the inner surface than the outer . These factors
are useful to deter ine the stress range for cyclic applications and the set point for fully
stress-relieved sp ings in static applications . A stress correction factor of one is
recommended to d etermine the set point of springs that have favorable residual stresses
induced by yieldin during forming . Yielding results in a more uniform stress distribution over
the round cross s ction . Therefore , the actual stress correction factor approaches the
recommended vale of one.
End Configurations
Some of the more ^common end configurations available are shown in Figure 40, page 89.
Special configura ons are available on request. In designing ends , it is important to recall that
bends , loaded to lecrease their radius of curvature , have favorable residual stresses. They
can operate at hi her applied stress Ievels than bends that increase the radius by loading.
Frequently, sprin performance is limited because the sharply bent ends have greater stress
than the body. Eq cation 34 is generally employed to determine maximum bending stress in
the ends . Torsion springs are subject to surging and resonante phenomena . The natural
frequency n for a orsion spring with one end fixed is determined using Equation 35 on the
next page.
a
Short Hook Ends
Special Ends 9
Hinge Ends
Straight Offset
Double Torsion
9
Straight Torsion
Figure 40. Common Helical Torsion Spring End Confgurations.
1.26x103d Eg 2x105d
n = 7VD2N
N. ; for steel = metric (Eq.35)
P N DZN .
d
; for steel = D Nd English
n = 8 2N F-109- a
and with both ends fixed:
2.5x10' Eg 4x105d
n = jtDZN d ; for steel = DZN metric (Eq.36)
p a
d
n = 4 2N Eg; for steel English
P N. = 1D2N d
To avoid or minimize resonance phenomena, the natural frequency must be much greater
than the operating frequency and/or the spring should contain initial tension.
Choice of Operating Stress - Static

Recommended maximum operating stresses for static applications are given as a percentage
of tensile strength in Tabla 29, on paga 91 . For spring bodies or ends loaded in a direction
that increases the radius of curvatura, stress leveis in the "stress -relieved" column are most
appropriate . These stresses should be calculated using the appropriate KB stress correction
factor ( Equation 36 or 37). When the outer surface is in tension , springs with a low índex
usually yield at the inner surface , while those with a high index may yield at the outer surface.
For springs not stress-relieved and loaded in a direction that decreases the radius of
curvatura , the stress leveis recommended for springs with favorable residual stress are
appropriate . No stress correction factor is used since the spring has yielded.
0
With Favorable
Stress-Relieved (1) (KB Residual Stress (2) (No
Mate al Corrected) Correctlon Factor)
Patented and Cold Dr wn 80 100
Hardened and Tempe ed Carbon and
85 100
Low Alloy Steels
Austenitic Stainless St els and
60 80
Nonferrous Alloys
(1) Also for springs without residual stresses.
(2) Springs that have not b un stress-relieved and that have bodies and ends loaded in a direction that decreases the
radios of curvature.
Table 29. Maximu Recommended Bending Stresses for Helical Torsion

Springs in Static A[pplícations.

Maximum allowed op rating stresses for cyclic applications are presented in Table 30,
below, as percentage of tensile strength . Al¡ stresses are assumed to be calculated with the
appropriate KB correc ion factor. This information can be used to estimate fatigue ¡¡ves at
other stress ranges b methods discussed previously. Frequently, bending
stresses are higher in the ends than in the body. In this situation, bear in mind that during
forming of sharp bend the wire may be stretched or marked, resulting in stress
concentrations that re Juce design stress levels below those recommended. Because of
friction, the point of c ntact between torsion end and arbor is often the highest stressed area.

ASTM A228 nd Type 302 Stainless Steel ASTM A230 and A232
Fatigue Life (cycles) Not Shot-Pe ned Shot.Peened* Not Shot-Peened Shot Peened*
105 53 62 55 64
106 50 60 53 62
This infonnation is based on the following conditi s: no surging, springs are in the "as-stress-relieved" condition.
" Not alwa possible.
Table 30. Maximum Recommenc ed Bending Stresses (Ka Corrected) for Helical Torsion
Springs in Cyclic Applications.
Double Torsion Springs

Double-bodied torsio springs are designed using the same methods as for single-bodied
torsion springs. The r te for a double-bodied torsion spring is equal to the sum of the rates for
each component. For he same wire diameter, coil diameter and wire length, double-bodied
torsion springs have r tes four times those of single-bodied types. Double-bodied torsion
springs should be des gned so they are coiled out from the center rather than in from the
ends (Figure 41, pag 92).
a
"-m
Yes
Figure 41. Preferred Winding for Double-Bodied Torsion Springs.
Rectangular Wire
Rectangular- wire torsion springs have higher energy storage capacities than similar round-
wire springs. The general comments on round-wire torsion springs apply to springs with
rectangular wire. In producing springs from rectangular wire, the wire cross-section distorts
and becomes "keystoned" (Figure 42, page 93). The wire axial dimension bi can be
estimated from:
(C+0.5
=b (Eq.37)
C )
When axial length is critica¡, keystone-shaped wire can be purchased. This wire will have a
near rectangular shape after coiling. The cate equation is:
R=M/B= Ebt' (Eq.38)

6.6DNa
and the stress equation is:
S =MKB (Eq.39)
These equations are for springs wound either on edge or on flat (Figure 42, page 93).
Stress correction factor KB is slightly lower than for round wire and can approximated by:
4C
(Eq.40)
KBID-4C-3
_ 4C
(Eq.41)
KBOD 4C+3
Sharp corners on rectangular wire cause stress concentrations and should be avoided, while
generous comer radii of rolled wire reduce the wire cross sections sufficiently to lower the
rate.
c
Wound Cpn Edge Wound On Flat
i 1
b,
1 1
Spring
Axis
Figure 42. Key^toned Cross Sections of Springs
Wound From R ctangular Wire on Edge and Flat
Tolerances
Coil diameter and nd position tolerances for helical torsion springs are presented in Section
F: Tolerancing Guid lines. These tolerances should serve as guidelines, applied only to those
dimensions critica) o spring function. Closer tolerances are available upon request.
How to Specify
The accompanyin!check)ist is suggested as a guide to designers and a vehicle for improved
communications b tween designer and springmaker.
Design Example
Design a cabinet d or hinge torsion spring to hold the door closed by exerting a torque M =
55 N-mm (0.49 lb-i .) at a = 900 (Figure 39, paga 88) between ends, each with a moment
arm of 19 mm (0.7 8") and tangent to the body. When the door is fully opened, the spring
deflects through a ditional overtravel (A9) of 120° or 1/3 revolution. Maximum spring length
is 13 mm (0.512") nd the spring operates over a 6.0 mm (0.236") diameter arbor Da.
Required life is 5,0 0 cycles. Use oil-tempered spring steel wire ASTM A229.
1. Assume a de ection t0,, from free to first loaded position is:
0 = AB =1 / revolution
Calculate °2' he angular deflection to second loaded position:
02 = 0, +B 2 / 3 revolution
a
2. Calculate spring rete R
R = M = 55 =165 N • mm / revolution
6 1/3
Calculate torque M2 at 92 deflection:
M2 =M1+R(A9)=55+165(1/3)=110 N•mm
3. Assume stress S2 (at M2 ) to be equal to 1400 MPa and solve for:
d = 3 32M, 32(110) = 0.9 mm

'tSz irl400
4. Assuming the clearance between the arbor and spring inner surface to be 25% of arbor
diameter, calculate mean diameter:
D = 1.25xDa+d=1.25x6.0+0.9=8.4mm diameter
5. Calculate number of coils Na from:
N Ed4 _ (20.7 x 10°)(0.9)4 = 9.1

N. 10.8Dk 10.8(8.4)(165)
where Ne=Li+L2 = 38 =0.5

3nD 31r(8.4)
is a correction for ends . Therefore Nb = 8.6 coils
6. Adjust Nb so that partial coil agrees with the desired position of ends when spring is
unloaded . Because 900 + 120° is greater than 180°, the desired partial coil is:
540-(90+360 x 1 / 3) = 0.9
360
Therefore , Nb = 8.9 and the adjusted mean diameter is:
D = (20.7 x 104 )(
0.9)4 = 81 mm
10.8(8.9 + 0.5)(165)
7. Calculate length of spring in loaded position:
L=(Nb+1+92) d=(8.90+0 .67+1)x0.9
L = 9.5 mm
8. 9.5 < 0.9 x 13 = 11.7 mm, therefore the length is satisfactory.
n
9. Calculate clea rance A:
_ DN b (8.9)(8.1)
A d-D e = -0 . 9-6 . 0
N bn 2 (8.9+0.66)
A= 0.641 mi n
10. Check wheth r the clearance is safe:
0.64 mm> 0 1 x 6.0= 0.60 mm
Therefore the clearance is satisfactory.
11. Check bendin stress leve) for static application:
TS of 0. 9 mm wire is 1870 MPa (271,000 psi) (Figure 4 , paga 25)
S2 = 1400 100
75% TS < 100% (Tabla 29, paga 91)
1870
Therefore theistress leve) is satisfactory.
Final Design Specificatic ns

Material : ASTM A 29
Outside Coi¡ Diam ter: 9.0 ± 0.09 mm (0.354 ± 0.0035")
Wire Diameter, d: .9 mm (0.035") Referente
M, at a, position: 5±5.5 N -mm (0.49 ± 0.05 lbf-in.)
M2 at a2 position: 110 N•mm (0.98 Ibf-in.) Referente
Nb: 8.9 coils ± 10°
Ends: Straight Tor ion
Final Design Stres : 1400 MPa (203,000 psi) or 75% TS
HELICAL TORSION SPRING SP E CIFICATION

CHECKLIST Reference Data:
(Fill in required data only) Wire diameter mm(in.)
Material Mean diameter mm(in.)
Working Conditions: Number of coils_
To work in m (in.) diameter hole Rata N mm /revolution ( lb-in./revolution)
To work ovar m (in.) diameter shah Special Information:
Torque N mm(Ib-in.), N mm(Ib-in.) Finish
when angle between ends ís degrees Loading (cyclic, impact , static , other)
Torque N mm(Ib-in.), ± N mm(Ib-in.) Required life cycles
when angle between ends is degrees Required reliability
Axial space required mm(in ) Operating deflection ranga revolutions
Direction of coi¡ (right or left-hand) Maximum operating temperatura °C(°F)
Maximum wound position re('olutions or degrees Operating environment

Reference
SYMBOLS FOR SPRING TERMS
b = Width Na = Number of active coils

C = Spring Index N1 = Total Number of coils
d = Wire diameter p = Density of Material
D = Mean diameter p = Pitch
E = Modulus in tension or bending P = Load
F = Deflection PI = Initial tension load
f1 = Deflection to length one P, = Load at length one
f2 = Deflection to length two P2 = Load al length two
fs = Deflection to solid PS = Load at solid
g = Gravitational accelleration OD = Outside diameter
G = Modulus of rigidity of material R = Rate of Spring
H = Overall Height R, = Radius 1
ID = Inside Diameter R2 = Radius 2
J = Joules S = Stress
K = Stress correction factor S, = Stress al load one
L = Spring length S2 = Stress al load two
LB = Body length SS = Stress at solid
Lf = Free length Sk = Corrected stress
L1 = Length at load one = Corrected stress at load one
S k1
L2 = Length at load two = Corrected stress at load two
S k2
Ls = Solid height = Corrected stress at solid

SkS
M = Moment or Torque = Rotation
T1, T2
mi = Moment at position one t = Thickness
M2 = Moment at position two e = Angular position
Max. LB = Maximum body length = Angle al first moment
01
Max. OD = Maximum outside diameter
02 = Angle at second moment
Min ID = Minimum inside diameter ef = Angle in free position
n = Natural frequency Wt. = Weight
N = Number of coils

Tolerancing Guidelines
Introduction
Determination of a pecific tolerance is highly dependent on the specific spring design,
material used, equi ment used to manufacture the spring, and heat treating methods used in
spring processing. he tolerances presented are "normally achievable." However, the spring
manufactures shoul be consulted before finalizing. In severa¡ areas, different grade levels
are available. One hould be aware that selection of the highest grade (most stringent) could
have significant cos implications.
Today, use of statisl :¡cal controls allows both the spring manufacturer and the customer a high
leve¡ of confidence 1 hat the spring "properly toleranced" will meet or exceed the performance
requirements. Once again ¡t is important to have both the designar and the manufacturer
work closely togethc :r to establish the "process capability," which w¡II determine the quality
leve¡ obtainable.
WARNING
Actual quality levels (Cpk) on many toleranced dimensions can only be determined through
process capability s udies.
Note: It is possiblf to obtain tighter tolerancing with the intervention of special equipment.
These spec al processes frequently add significant cost. Do not use standard block
tolerances.
Note: Al¡ English units of measure are shown in boldface type.

Compression Spring Load Tolerances
Regression formulas derived from industry standards for helical round wire compression
springs (based on springs with parallel sides and constant pitch.)
There are two factors to calculate before computing the load tolerance . The first factor, (Af),
is based on wire (d ) and mean diameter ( D). Since the specification was formulated to work
with metric input, you must first convert English data to metric.
Therefore, for conversion to inches:
d=d*25.4
D=D*25.4
Also, the math operators are written to accommodate programming. The foliowing symbols
are representad in the formula.
* = multiplication
/ = division
A = exponentiation (raised to the power of the number to its immediate right)
C(index) = D/d
Af=65.92*(dA3.31DA1.6) (Eq.42)
* (-0.84 * (Cl 10) A 3 + 3.781 * (Cl 10) A 2 - 4.244 (C110) + 2.274)
The second factor (Kf) is based on active material (Na).
Kf = 1 1(3 * NaA2)+8/(5*Na)+.803 (Eq.43)
The tolerance formula is then calculated as shown below. (If English, convert the load in
pounds, to Newtons with p = p * 4.44822)
Tol=±Af*Kf+(1.5*p)/100 (Eq.44)
To convert to English, divide the result by 4.44822 for pounds.
Example: (See Figure 43 on page 99)
Design parameters:
d = .125"
D = 1.100"
Na = 5.274
p = 50 lbs
R = 50 lbs/in
a
H0.125
Figure 43. Comprrssion Spring.
d = .125 * 25.4 = 3.175 mm

D =1.100*25. = 27.94 mm
p =50*4.4482 = 222.411 N
C =27.9413.17 = 8.8
R = 50 15.71 = 8.76 N/mm
2. Calculate Af:
Af = 65.92 * (3.1 5A3.3 / 27.94^1.6) * (-.84 * (8.8110)A3 + 3.781 * (8.8110)A2
- 4.244 * (8. /10) + 2.274
Af = 12.95864
3. Calculate Kf:
Kf=1/(3*5.27 A2)+8/(5*5.274)+.803
Kf = 1.11836
4. Calculate the loa 1 tolerance:
Tol = ± 12.958 * .11836 + (1.5 * 222.411) 1100
Tol = ± 17.828 N (pounds = 17.828/4.44822 = ± 4.008 lbs)

Quality Grades for LoadTolerances
Load tolerances calculated from the previous formulas establish the base (precision
tolerance). This precision tolerance is considered to be optimum, which would result in Cpk of
1.2 or less. The precise tolerance can only be determined by a capability study. Commercial
tolerance may also be calculated as indicated below. When using commercial tolerances,
Cpk >1.2 can "normally" be expected.
Precision = 1.0
Commercial = 1.6
When using the Grade factor (Q), multiply the Grade factor by the calculated tolerance. From
our example:
Tolerance = ± 4.008 lbs
Therefore:
Precision = ± 4.008 * 1.0 = ± 4.008 lbs
Commercial = ± 4.008 * 1.6 = ± 6.413 lbs
Compression Spring Free Length Tolerances

The following formula may be used to calculate the Free Length tolerance for an unloaded
compression spring:
FL Tol = ±(Af * Kf * Q) (Eq.45)

R
Using our example:
FL Tol = ± (12.95864 * 1.11836 * 1) 18.76
FL Tol = ± 1.654 mm (1.6541 25.4 = ±.065")
For unground springs , multiply FL Tol by 1.7.
Extension Spring Load Tolerances

Regression formulas are derived from the industry standard for helical round wire extension springs.
The Af factor for calculating extension spring load tolerances is identical to that of the
compression formula.
Af=65.92*(dA3.3/DA1.6) (Eq.46)
* (-0.84 * (Cl 10) A 3 + 3.781 * (Cl 10) A 2 - 4.244 (C/10) + 2.274)
The second factor (Kf), however, is as shown below.
Kf = 5.61 / Na + .7 (Eq.47)

The tolerance formula is also i entical to the compression calculation.
Tol = ±Af * Kf + ( 1.5 * p)/ 100 (Eq.48)
Example : ( See Figure 44 on p ge 102)
Design parameters:
d = .125"
D = 1.300"
Na = 22.792
p = 20 lbs
R = 7.009 lbs/in
1. Convert English parameters to metric:
d =.125 *25.4 =3.1 5mm

D =1.300 *25.4 = 33.2 mm
p = 20 * 4 .44822 = 88.6 N
C =33.02 13.175 = 10.
R =7.009 /5.71 =1.2 7N/mm
2. Calculate Af:
Af = 65.92 * (3.175^3.3 / 3.02^1.6) * (-.84 * (10.4/10)^3 + 3.781 * (10.4/10)^2
- 4.244 * (10.4/10) + 2.274
Af = 11.13894
3. Calculate Kf:
Kf = 5.61 /22.792+.7
Kf=.94614
4. Calculate the load toleran e:
Tol = ± 11. 13894 * .9461 + (1.5 * 88.96) 1100
Tol = ± 11.873 N (poun s = 11.873 / 4.44822 = ± 2.669 lbs)
o
Quality Grades for Extension Spring Load Tolerances
The quality grades for torsion springs are the same as for both compression and extension springs.
When using the grade factor (Q), multiply the grade factor by the calculated tolerance. From
our example:
Tolerance = ± 2.669 lbs
Therefore:
Precision = ± 2.669 * 1.0 = ± 2.669 lbs
Commercial = ± 2.669 * 1.6 = ± 4.270 lbs
Note: When two loads are toleranced, free length should not have a tolerance and should be
marked reference.
Extension Spring Free Length Tolerances

For springs with no initial tension, use the following formula to determine free length
tolerance. (Note: Free length is measured from the inside of the hooks.)
FLTol=±(Af*Kf*Q)/R (Eq.49)
-0.125
1 1.300
5.00
Figure 44. Extension Spring.
a
Permissible variations in mm
Precision Commercial
Free Length
perindex perindex
4 to 8 Above 8 to 20 4 to 8 Above 8 to 20
Up to 10 ± 0,4 ± 0,5 ± 0,6 ± 0,7
aboye 10 to 16 ± 0,5 ± 0,6 ± 0,8 ± 1,0
aboye 16 to 25 ±0,6 ±0,7 ± 1,0 ± 1,3
aboye 25 to 40 ±0,8 ±0,9 ± 1,3 ± 1,6
aboye 40 to 63 ± 1,1 ± 1,3 ± 1,8 ±2,2
aboye 63 to 100 ±1,5 ± 1,8 ±2,4 ±3,0
aboye 100 to 160 ± 2,0 ± 2,4 ± 3,0 ± 4,0
aboye 160 to 250 ± 2,5 ± 3,0 ± 4,0 ± 5,0
aboye 250 to 400 ± 3,0 ± 4,0 ± 5,0 ± 6,5
aboye 400 ± 1 .5% of FL ±1.5% of FL ±2% of FL ±2% of FL
Table 31. Free Length Tolerance (with Initial Tension) Metric.
Permissible variations in inches

Precision Commercial
Free Length
perindex peri ndex
4 to 8 Above 8 to 20 4 to 8 Above 8 to 20
Up to .394 ±.016 ± .020 ± . 024 ± .028
aboye . 394 to .630 ±. 020 ± .024 ± . 031 ± .039
aboye . 630 to .984 ±.024 ± .028 ±.039 ± .051
aboye .984 to 1.575 ±. 031 ± .035 ±.051 ± .063
aboye 1.575 to 2.480 ±. 043 ± .051 ±. 071 ± .087
aboye 2.480 to 3.937 ±. 059 ± .071 ±. 094 ± .118
aboye 3.937 to 6.3 ±.079 ± . 094 ±. 118 ± .157
aboye 6.3 to 9 .843 ±.098 ± .118 ±. 157 ± .197
aboye 9.843 to 15.75 ±. 118 ± .157 ±. 197 ± .256
aboye 15.75 ±1.5% of FL ±1.5% of FL ±2% of FL ±2% of FL
Table 32. Free Length Tolerance (with Initial Tension) English.
Angle Between Loop

Total Number of Coils
Planes
3-6 ±25°
7-9 ±35°
10-12 ±45°
13-16 ±60°
over 16 Random
Table 33. End Positio, Toleran ce.

Torsion Spring Load Tolerances (Torque)
Regression formulas are derived from the industry standard for helical
round wire torsion springs.
The factor (Kf) = 54
The tolerante formula is then as shown below:
Tol=±((1.3*Kf*dA3)1(NaA.24*c^.5))*Q (Eq.50)
-I H 0.087
mmr
U-LLII 3
H-0.663
Figure 45. Torsion Spring.
Example: (Sea Figure 45 aboye)
Design parameters:
d = .087"
Na= 6.62
1. Convert English parameters to metric:
d=-.087 *25.4=2.21 mm
2. Calculate index:
C=42.42/2.21=19.195
3. Calculate the load tolerance:
Tol = ± (1.3 * 54 * 2.21 ^3) 1(6.62A.24 * 19.195^.5)
Tol = ± 109.881 Nmm (in. lbs. = 109.881 / 112. 985 = ± .972 in. lbs.)
o
Quality Grades for Torsion S ring Load Tolerances
The quality grades `or torsion springs are the same as those for compression
and extension sprin gs.
When using the gra de factor (Q), multiply the grade factor by the calculated tolerance. From
our example:
Tolerance = ± . 972 in. lbs.
Therefore:
Precision = 1.972 * 1.0 = ±.972 in. lbs.
Commercial = 1.972 * 1.6 = ± 1.555 in. lbs.

Metric
Diameter Precision Commercial
perindex perindex
aboye to Aboye Aboye Aboye Aboye

4 to 8 4 to 8
8 to 14 14 to 20 8 to 14 14 to 20
0,63 1 ±0,07 ±0,1 ±0,15 ±0,1 ±0,15 ±0,2
1 1,6 ± 0,08 ± 0,1 ± 0,15 ± 0,15 ± 0,2 ± 0,3
1,6 2,5 ± 0,1 ± 0,15 ± 0,2 ± 0,2 ± 0,3 ± 0,4
2,5 4 ± 0,15 ± 0,2 ± 0,25 ± 0,3 ± 0,4 ± 0,5
4 6,3 ± 0,2 ± 0,25 ± 0,3 ± 0,4 ± 0,5 ±0,6
6,3 10 ± 0,25 ± 0,3 ± 0,35 ± 0,5 ± 0,6 ± 0,7
10 16 ±0,3 ±0,35 ±0,4 ±0,5 ±0,7 ±0,8
16 25 ±0,35 ±0,45 ±0,5 ±0,7 ±0,9 31,0
25 31,5 ± 0,4 ± 0,5 ± 0,6 ± 0,8 ± 1,0 ± 1,2
31,5 40 ± 0,5 +06 ± 0,7 ± 1,0 ± 1,2 ± 1,5
40 50 ± 0,6 ± 0,8 ± 0,9 ± 1,2 ± 1,6 ± 1,8
50 63 ±0,8 ±0,10 ±1,1 ±1,5 ±2,0 ±2,3
63 80 ± 1,0 ± 1,2 ± 1,4 ± 1,8 ± 2,4 ± 2,8
80 100 ± 1,2 ± 1,5 ± 1,7 ±2,3 ±3,0 ±3,5
100 125 ± 1,4 31,9 ±2,2 ±2,8 ±3,7 ±4,4
125 160 ±1,8 ±2,3 ±2,7 ±3,5 ±4,6 ±5,4
160 200 +21 +2,9 ± 3,3 ±4,2 ± 5,7 ± 6,6
English
Diameter Precision Commercial
perindex perindex
aboye Aboye Aboye Aboye Aboye

to 4 to 8 4 to 8
1 Sto 14 14 to 20 8 to 14 14 to 20
.025 .039 ±.003 ±.004 ± . 006 ±.004 ±.006 ±.008
.039 .063 ± . 003 ±.004 ± .006 ±.006 ±.008 ± .012
.063 .098 ±.004 ±.006 ± .008 ±.008 ±.012 ±.016
.098 .157 ±.006 ±.008 ± .010 ±.012 ± . 016 ±.020
.157 .248 ±.008 ±.010 ±. 012 ± .016 ± . 020 ±.024
.248 .394 ±.010 ±.012 ±. 014 ±.020 ± . 024 ±.028
.394 630 ± . 012 ±.014 ±. 016 ±.024 ± .028 ±.031
.630 .984 ±. 014 ±.018 ± . 020 ±.028 ±.035 ±.039
.984 1 .240 ±.016 ±.020 ±.024 ± .031 ±.039 ±.047
1.240 1 . 575 ±.020 ± . 024 ±.028 ± .039 ±.047 ±.059
1.575 1 .969 ±.024 ±.031 ±.035 ± .047 ±.059 ±.071
1.969 2.480 ±.031 ± .039 ± .043 ± . 059 ±.079 ±.091
2.480 3.150 ±.039 ±.047 ±.055 ±. 071 ±.094 ±.110
3.150 3. 937 ±.047 ± . 059 ±.067 ±. 090 ±.118 ±.138
3.937 4.921 ±.055 ±. 075 ±.087 ±.110 ±.146 ±.173
4.921 6.300 ±.071 ±.090 ±.106 ±.138 ±.181 ±.213
6.300 7.874 ±.083 ± . 114 ±.130 ± . 165 ±.224 ±.260
Table 34. Body Diameter Tolerances for Compression, Extension

and Torsion Springs.
a
Tolerances for Hot Coiled ISprings
Tolerances that are pplied to hot-coiled springs are given in Tablas 35 through 39, as
published by the A erican Society for Testing and Materials . Table 35, below, covers
tolerances for outsid diameters for manufacturing only. They do not allow for the expansion
of active coils that o curs when the spring is compressed in application.
Because of manufa turing variations, the actual solid height of a hot-coiled compression
spring varias from th¡e calculated value. Usual practice is to apply the tolerantes shown in
Tabla 36, on paga 1 98, to the specified solid height. In checking solid height, the applied load
should not exceed 1 5 0 percent of the calculated solid load.
Tabla 37, on paga 1 9, presents tolerances for maximum permanent set, free height and
loaded height. Thes characteristics should be checked in this order because of the anelastic
recovery experience on preset springs. Making the permanent set check first takes care of
any anelastic recov ry dueto vibration and shock in shipping and handling. The permanent
set is usually taken s the difference between the initial test height with load P and the test
height with load P a er cycling to solid three times. A height tolerance can be converted to a
load tolerance if loa is lo be checked at a fixed height.
Tabla 38, on paga 1 0, gives out-of-squareness tolerances for springs with ground ends
having slenderness atios between 1 and 5. Tolerances for permissible out-of-squareness in
springs with ungrou d ends are given in Table 39, on paga 110.
Nominal Free Height or Length of Spring , in (mm)

Nominal Outside Diameter , in U to 10 Over 10 to Over 18 to Over 26 to Over 34 lo Over 42 to
(mm) (25 incl , t 18 (254 to 26(457 to 34(661 to 42 (874 to 60(1067 to
457), incl, ± 661 ), incl, ± 874), incl, ± 1067), incl, t 1524), incl, t
Up to 6 (152), incl 1/1 (1.57) 3132 (2 . 38) 1/8 (3.17) 5/32 (3.97) 3/16 (4 .76) ...
Over 6 to 8 (152 lo 203), incl 3/3 (2.38) 1 /8 (3.17) 3/16 (4. 76) 1/4 (6.35) 1 14 (6.35) ...
Over 8 to 12 (203 to 305), incl 1/5 (3.17) 3116(4.76) 1/4 (6.35) 1/4 (6.35) 1/4 (6.35) ...
Oven 12 to 16 (305 to 406 ), incl I 114 (6.35) 1 /4 (6.35 ) 114(6.35) 1/4 (6.35) 5/16 (7.94)
Oven 16 to 20 (406 to 508), incl ... 5116 (794) 5116(794 ) 5116(7 . 94) 3/8 (9.53)
Over 20 to 24 (508 to 610 ), incl ... 3/8 (9.53) 3/8 (9.53) 3/8 (9.53) 7/16 (11.00)
NOTE 1 - (for design information) These permi ible variations , exclusive of manufacturing tapar, should be used as a guide in the design or
concentrically-nested helical-spring units for thr e spring assemblies . The diametrical clearance desired is 1/8 in (3.175 mm) less than the sum of Che
applicable tolerances of the nested spring units, ut in no case should it be less than 1/8 in (3.175 mm).
NOTE 2 - In cases where radial clearance on exi ting concentrically-nested helical-spring units will not accommodate these tolerances , the nominal
inside diameters shall be adhered toas closely a practicable, with plus variation on the outer springs and minus variation on the inner springs to
guarantee free assembly . Drawings must show ference to the complete nested spring units.
Table 35. Permissible Variatior s In Outside Díameter of Spring, ± in (mm) (Did = 8 or less).

Deviation Aboye Nominal Solid
Nominal Solid Height, in (mm)
Height max. in (mm)
Up to 7 (178), incl 1/16 (1.59)
Over 7 to 10 (178 to 254), incl 3/32 (2.38)
Over 10 to 13 (254 to 330), incl 1/8 (3.17)
Over 13 to 16 (330 to 406), incl 5/32 (3.97)
Over 16 to 19 (406 to 483), incl 3116 (4.76)
Over 19 to 22 (483 to 559), incl 7132 (5.56)
Over 22 to 25 (559 to 635), incl 1/4 (6.35)
Over 25 to 28 (635 to 711), incl 9132 (7.14)
Over 28 to 31 (711 to 787), incl 5116 (7.94)
a For additional 3-in (76-mm) increase in solid height, the deviation shown should be increased by
1132 in (0.79 mm). 11
Table 36. Permissible Variations in Solid Height (From ASTM A-125).

Deviation From Deviation From Permanent Set,
Nominal Total Deflectio , Nominal Free Nominal Loaded max, in (mm)
in (mm) Height, max. in Heighta, max. in
(mm), ± (mm), ±
Up to 3 (76.2), incl 5132 (3 .97) 1/8 (3.17) 3/64 (1.19)
Over 3 to 4 (76.2 to 102), incl 114(6.35) 5132 (3.97 ) 1/16 (1.59)
Over 4 to 5 (102 to 127), incl 1/4 (6.35) 3/16 (4.76) 1/16 (1.59)
Over 5 to 6 (127 to 152), incl 11/32 (8.73) 7/32 (5.56) 5164(1 99)
Over 6 to 7 (152 to 179), incl 11/32 (8.73) 114(6.35) 5164 (1.99)
Over 7 to 8 (179 to 203 ), incl 7/16 ( 11.0) 9/32 (7.14) 3/32 (2.38)
Over 8 to 9 (203 to 228), incl 7/16 (11. 0) 5/16 (7.94) 3/32 (2.38)
Over 9 to 10 (228 to 254), incl 17/32 (13.49) 11132 (8.73) 7/64 (2.78)
Over 10 to 11(254 to 279), incl 17/32 (13.49) 3/8 (9.53) 7/64 (2.78)
Over 11 to 12 (279 to 305), inc 1 5/8 (15.87) 13/32 (10.32) 1/8 (3.17)
Over 12 to 13 (305 to 330), in 1 518(15 .87) 7/16 (11.00) 1/8 (3.17)
Over 13 to 14 (330 to 356), in 1 23/32 (18.25) 15/32 (11.91) 1/8 (3.17)
Over 14 to 15 (356 to 381), inc 1 23/32 (18.25) 1/2 (12.70) 9/64 (3.57)
Over 15 to 16 (381 to 406), inc 1 13116 (20.64) 17/32 (13.49) 9/64 (3.57)
Over 16 to 17 (406 to 431), inc 1 13/16 (20.64) 9/16 (14 .28) 5/32 (3.97)
Over 17 to 18 (431 to 457), in 1 29/32 (23.01 ) 19/32 (15.08) 5/32 (3.97)
Over 18 to 19 (457 to 483), in 1 29/32 (23 01) 518(15.87) 11/64 (4.37)
Over 19 to 20 (483 to 508), in 1 1 (25.40) 21/32 (16.67) 11164 (4.37)
Over 20 to 21 (508 to 533), inc 1 (25.40) 11/16 (17.46) 3/16 (4.76)

Over 21 to 22 (533 to 559), in 1 1 3/32 (27.78) 23/32 (18.25) 3/16 (4.76)
Over 22 to 23 (559 to 584), in 1 1 3/32 (27.78) 314(19.05) 13/64 (5.16)
Over 23 to 24 (584 to 610), in 1 1 3/16 (30.16) 25/32 (19 .84) 13/64 (5.16)
Over 24 to 25 (610 to 635), in 1 1 3/16 (30.16) 13/16 (20.64) 7/32 (5.56)
Over 25 to 26 (635 to 661), inal 1 9/32 (32.54 ) 27/32 (21.43) 7/32 (5.56)
Over 26 to 27 (661 to 685 ), inal 1 9/32 (32.54) 7/8 (22 .22) 15/64 (5.96)
Over 27 to 28 (685 to 711), in 1 1 3/8 (34.93) 29/32 (23.01) 15/64 (5.96)
Over 28 to 29 (711 to 746), in 1 1318 (34.93) 15116 (23.81) 15/64 (5.96)

Over 29 to 30 (746 to 772), in 1 1 15/32 (37.19) 31/32 (24 .61) 15/64 (5.96)
a if two loads are specified, no toler ce shall apply to the free height.
Table 37. Permissible D viations, Springs With Ground Ends (From ASTMA-125).

2 (51) Over 2 Over 4 Over 6 Over 8 Over Over 12 Over 14 Over 16 Over 1
and to 4 to6 to8 to10 to l4 tol6 tol8 to20
Total Travel, in (mm) under (51 to (102 to (152 to (203 to 12'O(254to (305 to (356 to (406to (457 to
102), 152), 203), 254), to 305), 356), 406), 457), 508),
incl incl incl incl incl incl incl incl incl
De ree
2 and under 1 1/4 1 1/4 1 1 1 1 ...
Over 2 to 4 (51 to 102), incl 1 3/4 1 1/2 1 1/4 11 1/4 1 1 1
Over4to6(102to152),incl 21/4 13/4 11/2 111/4 11/4 1 1
Over 6 to 8 (152 to 203), incl 2114 1 3/4 1 1/2 1 1/4 1 1/4 1 1 ... .. .
Over 8 to 10 (203 to 254), incl 2 1/2 2 1 1/2 1 1/2 1 1/4 1 1/4 1 ..
Over 10 to 12 (254 to 305), incl 2 1/4 1 3/4 1 1/2 1 1/2 1 1/4 1 1/4 1
Over 12 to 14 (305 to 356), incl 2 1/2 2 1 3/4 1 3/4 1 1/2 1 1/2 1 1/4 1 1/4
Over 14 to 16 (356 to 406), incl ...
...
I ... ... 2 1/4 2 2 1 3/4 1 3/4 1 1/2 1 1/2
Over 16 to 18 (406 to 457),incl .. 2 1/4 2 2 1 3/4 1 3/4 1 1/2
Over 18 to 20 (457 to 508), incl ... ... ... ... 2 1/2 2 1/4 2 1/4 2 2 1 3/4
Over 20 to 22 (508 to 559), incl .'. 2 1/4 2 1/4 2 2 1 3/4
... ... ...
Over 22 to 24 (559 to 610), incl .. ... ... 2114 2 2 1 3/4
... ... 2 1/4
Over 24 to 26 (610 to 660), incl ... ... ... ... ... 2 1/2 2 1/2 2 1/4 2 1/4 2
Over 26 to 28 (660 to 701), incl
Over 28 to 30 (702 to 762), incl
I ... ... ... ... 1 2 1/2 2114 2 1/4 2
... 2112 2 1/4 2 1/4 2
Table 38. Permissible Squareness Deviation , Springs With Ground Ends (From ASTMA-125).
Mean Diameter, in (mm) Deviation , degree

Up to 2 (51), incl 3 1/2
Over 2 to 4 (51 to 102), incl 3
Over 4 to 6 (102 to 152), incl 2 1/2
Over 6 to 8 (152 to 203), incl 2 1/2
Over 8 to 10 (203 to 254), incl 2 1/4
Over 10 to 12 (254 to 305), incl 2 1/4
Over 12 to 14 (305 to 356), incl 2 1/4
Over 14 to 16 (356 to 406), incl 2 1/4
Table 39. Permissible Squareness Deviation,

Springs Wíth Unground Ends.

Errata Sheet
Date 02/14/05 for the "Handbook of Spring Design", Copyright 2002

Pagé(s) Correction
12 The symbol N for total numb r of coils should havebeen Nr.
16 Table 7: Maximum Service T mperatures for the following are not correct, they should read:
Carbon Steel Wires:
Hard Drawn 120° 250°F
Oil Tempered 120° 250°F
Valve Spring 120° 250°F
Stainless Steel Wires:
Austenitic Type 302 290° 550°F
Precipitation
Hardening 17-7PH 340° 650°F
Stainless Steel Strip:,
Austenitic
Type 302 290° 550°F
Type 301 1500 300°F
Precipitation
Hardening 17-7PH 340° 650°F
Under Copper Base Alloy es:
Phosphor Bronze (A), ¡¡he li d G Modulus should be 6.3 not 63 (psi 10^6)
27 Phosphor Bronze specificatio in Table 14 was left blank; it sbould be ASTM (B159).
28 Transverse Bend and Longi Bend tags were reversed, Longitudinal Bends are across the grain
and called the easy or good y.
32 Referentes to Figures 9 and 1 on page 33 were made. Page 33 has been left blank in the Handbook.
36 Definition of Reduction of Ari a was not aceurate . It sbould Nave read: "The difference between the
original cross sectionarea an the final cross section arca divided by the original cross section crea.
This fraction is multiplied by 00 and expressed as a percentage."
46 Table 22 properties for the Type* 17-7PH the asterisk should point out that the properties in the table
were for the CH900 condition
51 The symbol for pitch in Table 24 was represented by a capital (P); it should have been a sniall (p).
Free Length for the " Open Gro und" should be p*Na not p*Nt
62 The referente to Table 22 sho d have been Table 26 under item #l.
85 There was a missing equal si between D/d and 5.4/0.9 under item #3.
89 "End Configurations" sectio referred to Figure 40 on page 89;,the figure is on page 90.
90 "Choice of Operating Stress Static" section referred to the "appropriate KB stress correction
factor (Eguation 36 or 37), sh uld be E uation 33 or 34).
93-95 The Design Example was calc ated incorrectly.
About the SMI andbook of Spring Design
Developed and publish ed by the Spring Manufacturers Institute under the guidance of its Technol-
ogy Committee, the SA dl Handbook of Spring Design is a guide for spring engineers and users in
designing and specifyii Ig the most widely applied types of springs. Design methods for each type are
described, and exampl s of calculations are given for most. Suggested specification forms are pre-
sented for the three mc st common spring types: compression, extension, and torsion.
Although the freedoms and limitations of spring design are thoroughly reviewed here, there will
always be questions oi specific applications which can only be answered by a spring manufacturer's
design specialist.
The Spring Manufacturi ?rs Institute published its first standards manual in 1949. After a number of
revisions and the publi ation of an SMI Design Handbook in 1970, the SMI Handbook of Spring
Design, which combine s the standards manual and the Design Handbook, was published in 1972.
Since that time, the SM I Handbook of Spring Design has been continuously updated and improved,
evolving into the curren 12002 edition. Metric units were added to this edition and some sections
were expanded and rec esigned to facilitate understanding and use by both novice and experienced
spring designers. Metrk conversions follow generally accepted practices, except for advisory data
for which the conversioi ^s are often approximate.
In addition to this handil ook, SMI has a comprehensive Encyclopedia of Spring Design plus software
available to assist in sp ing design. The software is intended to be used in conjunction with the ency-
clopedia to provide bas' o solutions to spring problems. Whether you use the software, handbook or
the encyclopedia, your: spring requirements are best served by an SMI member company. These
companies combine the theories used in these documents with the art of springmaking to provide
solutions to the most co mplex spring-related problems.
The Technology Commí .lee wishes to thank SMI member companies that have supplied much of the
technical information pre sented in this publication. Special appreciation is extended to both Associ-
ated Spring and MW Inc ustries for their contributions to this comprehensive document on spring
design. Their technical 1 uidance and expertise were critica) to the development and presentation of
this information.
Technology Comm tee of SMI

Herb Beuter
Darrell Clark
Allan Davey
John Drabczyk
Simon Fleury
Loren Godfrey
Ed Lanke
Michael Limb
Bruce Moss
Chuck Pepka
Dan Sebastian
Gary VanBuren
Tim Zwit
SYMBOLS FOR SPRING TERMS
= Width N = Number of coils
= Spring Index Na = Number of
= Wire diameter active coils
= Mean diameter Ni = Total Number

of coils
= Modulus in
tension or p = Density of
bending Material
F = Deflection p = Pitch
= Deflection lo P = Load
length one Pl = Initial tension
f2 = Deflection lo load
length two P, = Load at length
one
fS = Deflection lo
solid P2 = Load at length
two
9 = Gravitational
accelleration PS = Load at solid
G = Modulus of OD = Outside
rigidity of diameter
material R = Rate of Spring
H = Overall Height
R, = Radius 1
ID = Inside Diameter R2 = Radius 2
J = Joules S = Stress
K = Stress si = Stress at load
correction factor one
L = Spring length S2 = Stress at load
LS = Body length two
L, = Free length SS = Stress at solid
L1 = Length at load Sk = Corrected stress
one Sk1 = Corrected stress
L2 = Length at load at load one
two Sk2 = Corrected stress
LS = Solid height at load two
M = Moment or Sks = Corrected stress
Torque at solid
mi = Moment al T1, T2 = Rotation
position one t = Thickness
M2 = Moment at 6 = Angular position
position two
01 = Angle at first
Max. LB = Maximum body moment
length
e2 = Angle al second
Max. OD= Maximum moment
outside diameter
6f = Angle in free
Min ID = Minimum inside position
diameter
Wt. = Weight
n = Natural
frequency

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Handbook

SMI Handbook of Spring Design, iii

SMI Handbook of Spring Design, v

Figure 1 . Design Sequence

2, SMI Handbook of Spring Design

Push - wide load and

} Push - wide load and

Push - light loads, low

Finger Push - for axial loading

Curved Push - used to absorb

Table 1. Spring Conggurations.

Push - may have

Brush Twist or Push.

Table 1(continued). Spring C nfigurations.

SMI Handbook of Spring Design, 5

Power, Motor or Clock

Twist - exerts torque

Twist - exerts torque

Constant Force Spring Motor

Twist - exerts Glose-to-

Table 1 (continued). Spring Con figurations.

Pull - wide load and

Pul¡ - very long

Extension Pul¡ with radial pressure.

Compression Push with radial

Table 1 (continued). Spring onfigurations.

8, SMI Handbook of Spring Design

Compression or Extension S2 7rC

Helical Torsion Spring

Spiral Torsion( round wire)

geometry have been omitted.

Table 2. Energy Storage Cap city (ESC) of Various Spring Configurations.

SMI Handbook of Spring Design, 9

Baking Heating of electroplated springs to relieve hydrogen embrittlement.

Block See Solid Height.

Buckling Bowing or lateral displacement of a compression spring. This effect is related to

Close Wound Adjacent coils are touching.

Ls Closed Length See Solid Height.

p Coils Per Inch See Pitch.

F Deflection Motion imparted to a spring by application or removal of en externa) load.

Fixture Tempering Restraining parts during tempering to improve dimensional control.

Lf Free Length Overall length of a spring which is not under load.

Gradient See Rate.

Hooks Open loops or ends of extension springs.

10, SMI Handbook of Spring Design

G Modulus in Shear Or Torsion (Modulus of Rigidity G) Coefficient of stiffness used for

E Modulus in Tensiofi or Bending (Young's Modulus E) Coefficient of stiffness used for

R Rate Spring gradien , or change in load per unit of deflection.

C Spring Index Ratio f mean diameter to wire diameter.

Squared and Grou d Ends See Closed and Ground Ends.

Squared Ends See Closed Ends.

Stress Range Difference in operating stresses at minimum and maximum loads.

Stress Ratio Minimum stress divided by maximum stress.

M Torque Sea Moment

Bisshopp, K. E. and D. C. Drucker., "Large Deflections of Cantilever Beams ," Quarterly of

Design and Manufacture of Voluta Springs. New York: SAE, 1945.

Maier, Karl, W., "Dynamic Loading of Compression Springs,"Product Engineering, (January

onversion Factors , Metric and English Units

Table 3. Conversion Factors.

Table 4, Common Abbreviations.

3000 Tensile Strength,

Chemical and Physical C aracteristics

SMI Handbook of Spring Design, 15