Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work are those
of the writer and do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank. The
information in this work is not intended to serve as legal advice. The World Bank
does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work and accepts
no responsibility for any consequences of the use of such data.
Manila, Philippines
February 2012
Cover Design: The images on the cover were derived from two photographs courtesy of
the DILG. The inset photo with a girl is from "The Innocent" by Mr. Jason Cardente. The
boy filling water bottles is from "Water for Drinking" by Mr. Dan Ong. Some elements in
the originals may have been altered for purposes of the design.
Foreword
Purpose of this Manual
This RURAL WATER SUPPLY DESIGN MANUAL is the first of three related volumes
prepared for the use of prospective and actual owners, operators, managements,
technical staff, consultants, government planners and contractors of small Level III and
Level II water supply systems in the Philippines.
Its purpose is to introduce the key concepts and considerations involved in the design of
small waterworks facilities for Level II and III systems.1 For the technical persons,
hopefully it will facilitate their work by providing them with a ready resource reference
for their everyday use. For the non-technical readers, such as the many who are
involved in the management and operation of small water supply systems, hopefully it
will be an aid in understanding the design process, giving them a basis for participating
in decisions that would enable them to avail more usefully of the services of the
technical consultants and contractors they must deal with.
Overall, the local and international partners who cooperated in making these Manuals
possible hope that they will help the participants in the rural water supply sector to
understand better the nature of the water supply business, its responsibilities to the
stakeholders, and the role of the government agencies and regulatory bodies that seek
to help them operate sustainably while protecting the consumers.
1
A few of the topics covered may also be relevant to Level I systems, which consist of a single well or
pump serving a limited number of beneficiaries at source. However, it was felt unnecessary to focus on
Level I systems requirements in this work as the design, engineering, operational and maintenance
requirements of Level I systems – as well as the organizational and training support – are adequately
provided by the relevant government agencies and supported by non-government agencies.
i
Manual Organization
The three volumes in this series of RURAL WATER SUPPLY MANUALS are as follows:
Volume I: DESIGN MANUAL. – Its purpose is to introduce and give the reader the key
design concepts in the design of waterworks facilities. For non-technical readers who
are involved in the management and operation of small water supply systems, rather
than in their actual design and construction, the text of Volume I will be useful in
understanding and in making decisions that would enable them to avail more usefully of
the services of the technical consultants and contractors they must deal with.
Volume II: CONSTRUCTION SUPERVISION MANUAL. – This volume presents the
considerations, requirements, and procedures involved in supervising a waterworks
project. How these are implemented should be clear to one who supervises, inspects,
or manages such a project. For this reason, the details of implementation are covered in
the chapters on Pipeline and Pumping Facilities Installation, Concrete and Reservoir
Construction, Water Sources, Metal Works, and Painting.
Volume III: OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE MANUAL. – This volume focuses on the
small water system as a public utility, and answers the question “What are the
requirements to effectively manage and sustainably operate a small utility?” It covers
the institutional and legal requirements of setting up a water supply business, the
demands of ensuring water safety through proper treatment, the nature and
requirements of operating and maintaining the water distribution system, and its
administration, commercial, financial, and social aspects.
ii
Acknowledgements
Deep appreciation is extended to the following for the cooperation and support given during the
pilot activities and preparation of the Manuals:
Department of Health
iii
The project team also acknowledges Engr. Ramon L. dela Torre, Engr. Yolanda Mingoa, Mr.
Victoriano Y. Liu, Jr., Mr. Simplicio C. Belisario, Jr., Mr. Nasser Sinarimbo, and Ms. Mariles R.
Navarro for their collaboration and unfailing support.
For the professional advice and their comments and inputs in enhancing the Manuals, the team
also extends its gratitude to the following: Ms. Elizabeth L. Kleemeier, Senior Water &
Sanitation Specialist, TWIWA, World Bank (WB); Ms. Ly Thi Dieu Vu, Consultant, EASVS, WB; Mr.
Shyam KC, Disaster Risk Management Specialist, EASIN, WB; Mr. Alexander V. Danilenko,
Senior Water Supply and Sanitation Engineer, WSP, WB; and Mr. Virendra Kumar Agarwal,
Consultant, WB.
The team would also like to express profound thanks to the WB Country Management Unit and
fellow EASPS colleagues for their encouragement, invaluable support and commitment: Mr.
Motoo Konishi, Country Director, Mr. Bert Hofman, former Country Director; Mr. N. Vijay
Jagannathan, Sector Manager, Infrastructure Unit, Sustainable Development Department, East
Asia and Pacific Region (EASIN); Mr. Sudipto Sarkar, Practice Leader for Water, EASIN; and Mr.
Mark C. Woodward, Sustainable Development Leader, Philippines.
Finally, acknowledgements are extended to the Water Partnership Program (WPP), which made
funds available for the development and publication of these Manuals.
These Manuals were prepared under the guidance of Mr. Christopher C. Ancheta, Task Team
Leader, World Bank. The Project Team was composed of the following: Engr. Antonio R. de
Vera, Lead Consultant, Mr. Gil S. Garcia, Mr. Jerome Vincent J. Liu, Mr. IoanNikhos Gil S.
Garcia, Ms. Abegyl N. Albano, Ms. Demilour R. Ignacio, and Ms. Jeannette Ann R. Wiget.
iv
Acronyms & Abbreviations
ASTM American Standard for Testing DPWH Department of Public Works &
Materials Highways
AWS American Welding Society LWUA Local Water Utilities
Administration
AWWA American Water Works
Association NIOSH National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health
BIR Bureau of Internal Revenue
(United States)
CDA Cooperative Development
NSO National Statistics Office
Authority
NWRB National Water Resources Board
DAR Department of Agrarian Reform,
(formerly NWRC)
(ARISP) Agrarian Reform Infrastructure
Support Program NWRC National Water Resources Council
DILG Department of Interior & Local SEC Securities & Exchange
Government Commission
DOH Department of Health WHO World Health Organization
v
km kilometer Opex operational expenses
kPa kilopascals Pa Pascal
KPIs key performance indicators PE pipe polyethylene pipe
LGUs Local Government Units PEER property and equipment entitled
to return
lm linear meter
PNS Philippine National Standards
lpcd liters per capita per day
PNSDW Philippine National Standards for
lps liters per second
Drinking Water
m meter
psi pounds per square inch
2
m square meter
PVC pipe polyvinyl chloride pipe
m3 cubic meter
PWL pumping water level
m3/d cubic meters per day
ROI return on investment
MaxNI maximum allowable net income
RR revenue requirements
MDD maximum day demand
RWSA Rural Water & Sanitation
mg/l milligrams per liter Association
mm millimeter SCBA self-contained breathing
mld million liters per day apparatus
vi
Table of Contents
A. General........................................................................................................................... 3.1
B. Springs............................................................................................................................ 6.2
vii
Chapter 7 Wells ......................................................................................................... 7.1
A. General......................................................................................................................... 10.1
viii
D. Transmission System .................................................................................................... 12.4
Annexes.....................................................................................................................A.1
References............................................................................................................... A.42
ix
List of Tables
Table 5.3: Standard Values for Physical and Chemical Qualities for Acceptability ...................... 5.6
Table 11.1: Friction Head Loss in meters per 100 meters in Plastic Pipe ................................... 11.5
Table 11.2: Friction Head Loss in meters per 100 meters Galvanized Iron (GI) Pipes ............... 11.6
Table 11.3: Head Loss Due to Valves and Fittings ...................................................................... 11.7
List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Hydrologic or Water Cycle.......................................................................................... 2.3
Figure 6.3: Spring Box Design with Permeable Bottom ............................................................... 6.6
x
Figure 9.1: Private Pollution Sources ........................................................................................... 9.2
Figure 12.1: Profile of a Transmission Pipeline from Source to Distribution System ................ 12.6
xi
xii
Chapter 1
Introduction
This Chapter presents the major considerations in the design of successful small water
supply systems such as are appropriate to serve the populations in rural areas and small
towns in the Philippines.
1. Demand-Based Design
In ‘greenfield’ areas or areas where no water supply system is in place, a demand-based
approach that considers what consumers want and are willing to pay for was adopted in
determining design and service levels. This approach departs from the traditional mode
of estimating water demand based on purely engineering considerations, and is more
attuned to preferences of consumers and to their ability and willingness to pay. The
traditional mode often led to costly, over-designed systems that were unsustainable.
For example, consumers in small towns have daily per capita consumption of 80 to 100
liters, compared to standard engineering design parameters of 120 to 150 lpcd. The
demand-based approach lowers the cost of investment and translates into more
affordable tariffs and sustainable operations.
2. Phased Design
In designing systems, the concept of having a master plan for each utility (with a design
horizon of 10-20 years) was adopted but implemented in phases. The initial phase was
designed to address only the service demand projected for the initial years, but
provided for eventual expansion. The implementation of subsequent phases was made
contingent on increases of the revenue base and service demand, and on the
creditworthiness of the utility. This realistic, conservative approach also helped to
4. Operational Autonomy
Water districts (WDs), water cooperatives and rural water & sanitation associations
(RWSAs) were operated by boards chosen from the community. They retained all their
water revenues, which were used for defraying operational costs, debt service and as
reserves for the utility business. These organizations also had to source their own funds
either from internally generated cash or loans. The financial autonomy and discipline
that had to be adopted by these utilities helped greatly to improve their management
and operation.
7. Monitoring System
Key Performance Indicators and operating standards were introduced and all WDs,
water cooperatives, and grantees of Certificates of Public Conveyance (CPC)1 of the
National Water Resources Board (NWRB)2 were required to submit monitoring reports
at least on an annual basis. The monitoring system pinpointed the poor performing
utilities and helped the regulators institute immediate remedial measures.
1
A formal authority to operate a water utility
2
NWRB is the Philippines’ national economic regulatory body for private water systems.
From the experience of the water sector, the considerations that determine a
sustainable system fall into four major areas:
1. Technical Considerations – From the outset, the design and construction of the
system should be done right, using the appropriate technology, equipment and
materials. It is clear that if a newly built system experiences high NRW or
unaccounted-for water at the start of its operational life, the correction of the likely
systemic deficiencies would be very expensive, disruptive of operations and revenue
streams, and almost futile.
3. Social Considerations – This means engaging the population and gaining the
broad community support that is needed to initiate and carry out the public utility
project. The interests and concerns of the various stakeholders, including the local
officials, businesses, community leaders, and the homeowners as groups and
individuals have to be considered and their views given the proper respect. A small
town water business needs to operate with a strong social base to support its role as
a public utility.
4. Environmental Considerations – This means that the system should be built and
operated in relation to its environment. It must be sure that its sources of water
have not been, and will not be compromised by surrounding developments. At the
same time it has to preserve the viability of its water sources, and to ensure that
extractions are well within the limits of safe yields. During the construction and
operational period, care must be taken to ensure that it does not cause pollution of
the environment or degradation of adjacent aquifers waterways and bodies of water.
The design of small water supply systems has to consider key decision areas related
both to the facilities and to the operation and maintenance issues that the utility needs
to address. The details of these decision areas, which are summarized below, are
discussed in several chapters and an annex in this volume (referred below by Chapter
and Annex) and in Chapter 8 of Volume III.
4. Capital Investment and O&M Costs – Estimated Investment Costs are presented
in Appendix C. The planner/designer will have to estimate the O&M costs based on
the details of the proposed system, its water source, and facilities.
6. Design Iteration – Before plans are finalized, there is need to confirm if the facility,
as proposed, meets the social criteria of affordability and acceptance. If the
expected tariffs are too high or the unit investment cost is more than
₱ 15,000/connection (Level III), the proposed project should probably be redesigned
starting from the reduction in service level objectives, lowering the standard for unit
water consumption, and other measures to match the financial capabilities of the
proposed users..
7. Plans and Design Specifications – Once all the agreements, design parameters,
and assumptions are established, the detailed plans have to be prepared by
professional engineers to ensure a well-balanced system that will fulfill its objectives,
and to provide a detailed guide for the construction of the facilities.
Annex A gives additional details of the design steps, including a flowchart of the design
process.
D. DESIGN OUTPUTS
2. General Layout – This is usually the first page of the detailed plans showing the
name of the barangay/town covered, the CBO or agency in charge of the WS
facilities, the location of major facilities (sources, reservoirs) and coverage of the
pipe network.
3. Detailed Plans – These are also called the blueprints or working drawings. The
designs of these facilities are explained in the chapters in this Manual covering the
particular component of the facilities. Plans will include the locations, elevations,
schematics, dimensions and elevations of all facilities.
5. Bill of Quantities and Cost Estimates – The bill of quantities prepared during the
detailed engineering phase will be used as the bill of quantities in the bid documents,
and the cost estimates will be used as a basis of the agency estimate for the bid.
All materials including pipe, fittings, valves and fire hydrants shall
conform to the latest standards issued by the PNS 14:2004 or PNS-
ISO 4427:2002 and be acceptable to the approving authority.
Plastic pipe materials In the absence of such standards, materials meeting applicable
Product Standards and acceptable to the approving authority may be
selected.
Unless otherwise indicated on the plans, the minimum concrete
Pavement concrete compressive strength for slabs on fill subjected to pneumatic tired
subject to heavy traffic will be 4,000 pounds per square inch @ 21 days. Portland
loads cement shall meet specifications of PNS 14:2004
The overflow for a ground-level storage reservoir shall open
downward and be screened with twenty-four mesh non-corrodible
Drain pipe for screen. The screen shall be installed within the overflow pipe at a
ground reservoir location least susceptible to damage by vandalism. The overflow pipe
shall be of sufficient diameter to permit waste of water in excess of
the filling rate
Rolled bars used for concrete reinforcement shall conform with PNS
Steel bars 49: 2002 requirements.
The pump to be used shall have an operating characteristic of xxx m
Submersible pump TDH and yyy lps at a minimum efficiency of 60% as indicated in its
operating curve.
All wells, pipes, tanks, and equipment which can convey or store
potable water shall be disinfected in accordance with current AWWA
Disinfection procedures. Plans or specifications shall outline the procedure and
procedure include the disinfectant dosage, contact time, and method of testing
the results of the procedure.
This Chapter discusses the nature of water, the hydrologic cycle and climate change
effects as they relate to the operation of a small public water utility business designed
to supply the potable water needs of Philippine communities.
Water is one of the most abundant substances on Earth without which life, it is said,
cannot exist. It covers more than 70 per cent (70%) of the earth’s surface and exists as
vapor in the earth’s atmosphere. It is considered as the universal solvent because of its
ability to dissolve almost all organic and inorganic solids and gases it comes in contact
with. For this reason, pure water is never found in nature. Even rainwater, the purest
natural water, contains chemicals dissolved from the air. Pure water is obtained only by
special methods of distillation and by chemical action in laboratories.
Pure water is a tasteless, odorless and colorless liquid. Water in liquid form is most
dense at 4° C, (39.2° F). The density of water at this temperature is used as a standard of
comparison for expressing the density of other liquids and solids. At 4° C, one liter of
water weighs 1 kilogram (a density of 1 gram/cc). In its gas form as a vapor, water is
lighter than air, thus, it rises in the atmosphere.
Other important properties of water are the following:
• At 4°C pure water has a specific gravity of 1.
• The density of pure water is a constant at a particular temperature, and does
not depend on the size of the sample (intensive property). Its density
however, varies with temperature and impurities.
• Water is the only substance on Earth that exists in nature in all three physical
states of matter: solid, liquid and gas.
• When water freezes it expands rapidly adding about 9 % by volume. Fresh
water has a maximum density at around 4° C. Water is the only substance
whose maximum density does not occur when solidified. As ice is lighter than
liquid water, it floats.
• The specific heat of water in the metric system is 1 calorie – the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of one gram one degree Celsius.
Water has a higher specific heat than almost any other substance. The high
specific heat of water protects living things from rapid temperature change.
1. Domestic Uses
Small water utilities are primarily concerned with water for potable use, which is
basically for the home. Aside from drinking, other domestic uses include washing,
bathing, cooking and cleaning. Other household needs might include tending and
watering of home gardens and the upkeep of domestic animals. Basic household water
requirements have been estimated to average around 40 liters per person per day. The
standard used for drinking water supplied by Level II and Level III utilities is potability, or
water that can be consumed directly by drinking without risk of immediate or long-term
harmful effects.
2. Other Uses
Other use categories for water supplied by water utilities include Municipal, Irrigation,
Power Generation, Fisheries, Livestock Raising, Industrial and Recreational uses.
The hydrologic or water cycle (Figure 2.1) is a conceptual model published on the
internet that describes the storage and movement of water on, above and below the
surface of the Earth. Since the water cycle is truly a "cycle," there is no beginning or end.
Water occurs in one of its three forms (solid, liquid and vapor) as it moves through this
cycle. The water cycle consists primarily of precipitation, vapor transport, evaporation,
evapo-transpiration, infiltration, groundwater flow, and runoff.
Many factors have an impact on the normal workings of the water cycle. Some of these
are either man–made, such as extent of agricultural and industry activities,
deforestation and forestation, the construction of dams, the amount of water
abstracted from surface and groundwater, and the effects of urbanization in terms of
consumption and obstruction of the topographic flow of groundwater.
b. Design of Facilities
1. If possible have at least 2 sources of supply at different locations.
2. Build superstructures above high flood line level.
3. Adopt energy-efficiency programs and, where possible, select facilities
which require less power consumption.
c. Reforestation of Watersheds:
1. Join or initiate community programs for watershed reforestation. Enlist
assistance from NGOs and the LGU units.
2. Enlist the support of the community in protecting the watersheds.
Water Demand
This Chapter describes the method of determining the water volumes needed by a new
small water utility project to supply the population it intends to cover.
A. GENERAL
The first step in designing a Level II or small Level III water system is to determine how
much water is needed by the population to be covered. The water to be supplied should
be sufficient to cover both the existing and future consumers. It must include provisions
for domestic and other types of service connections. In addition to the projected
consumptions, an allowance for non-revenue water (NRW) that may be caused by
leakages and other losses should be included.
Water demands are influenced by the following factors:
1. Service levels to be implemented;
2. Size of the community;
3. Standard of living of the populace;
4. Quantity and quality of water available in the area;
5. Water tariffs that need to be shouldered by the consumers;
6. Climatological conditions;
7. Habits and manners of water usage by the people.
Once the consumption demands are defined, the next step is to determine the service
level as part of the demand analysis.
Water service levels are classified in the Philippines under three types3, depending on
the method by which the water is made available to the consumers:
• Level I (Point Source) – This level provides a protected well or a developed
spring with an outlet, but without a distribution system. The users go to the
source to fetch the water. This is generally adaptable for rural areas where
affordability is low and the houses in the intended service area are not
crowded. A Level I facility normally serves an average of 15 households
within a radius of 250 meters.
3
NEDA Resolution No.5, Series 1998
C. DESIGN PERIOD
In commercial utility models, the design period normally spans long periods involving
decades within which the initial capital outlay and succeeding outlays for expansion and
rehabilitation can be rationally recovered. For small water utilities, including those
owned by the local governments, such large outlays are not available and cannot be
matched by the rural population’s capacity to pay. For these reasons, the design period
or horizon in this Manual is set at 5 or 10 years. In fact, these are the design periods
frequently decided by agreements among the funder, the implementing agency, and the
community or the LGU. In setting the design period, the designer should take into
account the terms of the financing package and the potential consumers’ capability and
willingness to pay the amounts needed to support repayment.
The advantages and disadvantages for the 5- and 10-year options are:
The design population is the targeted number of people that the project will serve.
Examples in this section on population and water demand projections are based on the
assumption that the design period is 10 years and the design year (or base year) is 2020.
There are 2 ways of projecting the design population.
1. Estimate the population that can be served by the sources. In this case, the
supply becomes the limiting factor in the service level, unless a good
abundant and proximate source is available in the locality.
2. Project the community or barangay population, and determine the potential
service area4 and the served population.
For purposes of illustration, the latter method is used throughout this Chapter. (The
challenge is to discover and develop sources for populations in need of potable water
supply. It is relatively simple to correlate the projected population to be served with the
limitations of supply that may be determined using the first method.)
The historical population growth rates of the municipality/city/barangays are needed as
the basis for population projections. The population is enumerated every 5 years
(beginning on 1960, except in 2005 where it was moved to 2007 due to budgetary
constraints). The latest national census was conducted for year 2010 but no official
results have as yet been released by the NSO. These data can be obtained from the local
governments themselves or from the National Statistics Office (NSO).5
Steps 1-3 below are used to determine the design population.
4
Areas with pipes
5
As of Oct 2010, the available census data are for years 2000 and 2007.
The projected growth rates are preliminary and should be examined if reasonable and
realistic. These should be compared with projections, if any, from the Provincial and
Municipal Planning and Development Offices. Adjustments on the computed GRs should
be made as considered necessary.
The population for the years in-between are projected by using the same basic equation
and applying the respective growth rates for the periods.
Water consumptions served by small water utilities are commonly classified into
Domestic Use, Commercial Use, Institutional Use, or Industrial Use. In rural areas, water
consumption is generally limited to domestic uses, i.e., drinking, cooking, cleaning,
washing and bathing. Domestic consumption is further classified as either Level II
consumption (public faucets) or Level III consumption (house connections).
1. Unit Consumptions
Unit consumption for domestic water demand is expressed in per capita consumption
per day. The commonly used unit is liters per capita per day (lpcd). If no definitive data
are available, the unit consumption assumptions recommended for Level II and Level III
domestic usages in rural areas are as follows:.
• Level II Public Faucets: 50 - 60 lpcd
(Each public faucet should serve 4 - 6 households)
• Level III House Connections: 80 - 100 lpcd
If there are public schools and health centers in the area, they will be supplied from the
start of systems operation and be classified as institutional connections.
Commercial establishments can also be assumed to be served, after consultation with
the stakeholders, within the 5-year period. The unit consumptions of institutional and
commercial connections are, in terms of daily consumption per connection, usually
expressed in cubic meters per day (m3/d). Unless specific information is available on the
consumptions of these types of connections, the following unit consumptions for
commercial and institutional connections can be used.
• Institutional Connections: 1.0 m3/d
• Commercial Connections: 0.8 m3/d
This unit consumption can be assumed to be constant during the design period under
consideration, unless available information indicates otherwise.
2. Total Consumption
The total consumption is the sum of the domestic, institutional and commercial
consumptions expressed in m3/d.
a. Domestic Consumption:
The year-by-year total domestic consumption is projected by applying the projected unit
consumption to the projected population to be served for each year. The served
population is estimated by employing the market survey results and the planner’s
judgment of the potential of the area.
In anticipation of the trend towards upgrading to Level III in the future, the Level II
system planner should assume that within 5 years, 90% of the households served would
opt for individual house connections.
This estimate, however, should be tempered by the planner’s direct first-hand
information about the area and its population.
Non-revenue water is the amount of water that is produced but not billed as a result of
leaks, pilferages, free water, utility usages, etc. An allowance should be made for this
category; otherwise, the designed source capacity would not be sufficient to supply the
required consumption of paying customers.
In actual operation, the NRW should be a cause of concern and should be subject to
measures to keep it as low as possible. For planning purposes, however, a conservative
approach should be adopted. The water demand projection should assume that the
NRW of the new system will be fifteen percent (15%) of the estimated consumptions.
The plan’s figure can be increased up to a total of 20% at the end of 10 years. . These
assumed NRW figures require good maintenance of utilities, pro-active leakage
prevention, and no illegal connections for 100% recovery of supplied water.
G. WATER DEMAND
The water demand is a summation of all the consumptions given in the preceding
sections and will determine the capacity needed from the source/s. The average daily
water demand, also known as the average day demand, is calculated (in m3/day or lps)
from the estimated water consumptions and the allowance for the NRW (expressed as a
percentage).
A system with consumption of 2 lps with a 15% NRW will have an average day demand
equal to
࢙
= . ࢙
( − ࡺࡾࢃ)
The average day demand is first estimated, and the estimates for the other demands
follow by directly applying the respective demand factors to the projected average day
demand.
SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS
Given data:
P = 2000
Pଵ = 3000
Persons per HH = 5
Determine: Required source capacity for a well operating 18 hr/day
Analysis:
The number of standpipes would be, at present,
2000 persons/5 persons per HH/6 HH = 67 standpipes
Each standpipe should be able to supply 50 lpcd x 6 HH x 5 = 1500 lpd.
Domestic consumption for the 67 standpipes: 67 x 1500 lpd = 100,500 lpd
Assuming 15% NRW, source capacity should be
, ܌ܘܔ ܡ܉܌ ܚܐ
൬ ൰×൬ ൰×൬ ൰ = . ૡ ܡ܉ܛ … ܛܘܔ ܛ ܘܔ
. ૡ ૡ ܛܚܐ ܋܍ܛ
However, a source capacity of 2 lps now will not be sufficient for future
demand of P10
Even if the source capacity required now is only for a Level II system, the
proper approach is to determine the source capacity requirement for a
Level III system.
For a system that started as a Level II system, we can assume that 90% of the HHs
will have Level III connections at Year 10.
No. of Level III connections in P10 = 3000/5 x 90% = 540 connections
For this community size, additional 2 commercial and one institutional connection
can be assumed.
Since only 90% will have Level III connections, the remaining population (300
persons or 60 HH) will still rely on standpipes. At 6 HH per standpipe, 10
standpipes will still be needed by Year 10.
Average Day
Consumption 15 243 1.6 1.0 261
(m3/d)
Water Sources
After the demand has been estimated, the next step is to look for a source that passes
both the quantity and quality requirements. This Chapter presents an overview of the
possible water supply sources that can be utilized for rural and other small water supply
systems.
A. WATER RESOURCES
In the selection of a source or sources of water supply, adequacy and reliability of the
available supply could be considered the overriding criteria. Without these, the water
supply system cannot be considered viable. These, together with the other factors that
should be considered (and which are interdependent), are as follows:
• Adequacy and Reliability
• Quality
• Cost
• Legality
• Politics.
Adequacy of supply requires that the source be large enough to meet the water demand.
Frequently, total dependence on a single source is undesirable, and in some cases,
diversification is essential for reliability.
From the standpoint of reliability, the most desirable supplies are, in descending order:
1. An inexhaustible supply, whether from surface or groundwater, which flows
by gravity through the distribution system;
2. A gravity source supplemented by storage reservoirs;
3. An inexhaustible source that requires pumping;
4. A source or sources that require both storage and pumping.
The capacity or flow rates and water quality of each type of source should be evaluated
through actual flow measurements, water quality sampling and testing – or, if available,
recent data that can be relied upon to be accurate. In addition, information on potential
sources of contamination and pollution should be determined.
The Philippines has annual rainfall varying throughout the country from 965 mm (38 in)
to 4,064 mm (160 in). The monsoon rains are pulled in by hurricanes or typhoons. The
Chapter 4: Water Sources Page 4.1
actual distribution of rainfall varies widely with time and location due to the archipelagic
nature of the country’s geography and regional climatic conditions.
The tropical climate of the Philippines is marked by comparatively high temperature,
high humidity and plenty of rainfall. The mean annual temperature is 27.7° C. January is
the coolest month with a mean temperature of 22° C, while the warmest month is May
with a mean temperature of 34° C.
Based on temperature and rainfall, the climate of Philippines can be categorized
generally into two predominant seasons: the rainy season, from June to November; and
the dry season, from December to May. Different sectors of the country, however, are
characterized by important variants of these general classifications. For purposes of
understanding the available water sources for a distribution system, these are better
characterized, based on the prevalent distribution of rainfall, in classifications or types
of climate shown in Figure 4.1, and summarized as follows:
• Type I: Two pronounced seasons: dry from November to April and wet during
the rest of the year. The western parts of Luzon, Mindoro, Negros and
Palawan experience this climate. These areas are shielded by mountain
ranges but are open to rains brought in by southwest monsoons (Habagat)
and tropical cyclones.
• Type II: Characterized by the absence of a dry season but with a very
pronounced maximum rain period from November to January. Regions with
this climate are located along or very near the eastern coast. They include
Catanduanes, Sorsogon, the eastern part of Albay, the eastern and northern
parts of Camarines Norte and Sur, the eastern part of Samar, and large
portions of Eastern Mindanao.
• Type III: Seasons are not very pronounced but are relatively dry from
November to April and wet during the rest of the year. Areas under this type
include the western part of Cagayan, Isabela, parts of Northern Mindanao
and most of Eastern Palawan. These areas are partly sheltered from the
trade winds but are open to Habagat and are frequented by tropical cyclones.
• Type IV: Characterized by a more or less even distribution of rainfall
throughout the year. Areas with this climate include the Batanes group,
Northeastern Luzon, Southwest Camarines Norte, Western Camarines Sur,
Albay, Northern Cebu, Bohol and most of Central, Eastern and Southern
Mindanao.
The climate types and the rainfall data can be used in assessing the average volume of
rain for a given area to determine the feasibility of rain harvesting or capacity of certain
surface sources to supply projected demands.
Generally, the east and west coasts of the country receive the heavier rainfall. The
northeast monsoon or “Amihan” brings frequent rains to the east coast of the islands,
while the southwest monsoon or “Habagat” brings rainy season in Manila and the
western coast, as well as the to the northern parts of the archipelago.
The central parts of the country, particularly Cebu, Bohol and a part of Cotabato receive
the smallest amount of rainfall. As indicated in Figure 4.1, the annual rainfall ranges
from less than 1,000 mm in Southern Mindanao to more than 4,000 mm in the eastern
Water sources are generally classified according to their relative location on the surface
of the earth. These are characterized as follows:
1. Rainwater
Rainwater, or atmospheric water, is a product of water vapor that has risen due to
evaporation and accumulated in the atmosphere, which condenses and falls on the
Earth's surface. As the water vapor that has accumulated in cloud formations condenses,
it forms drops of rain that fall to the Earth.
2. Surface Water
Surface water is exposed to the atmosphere and subject to surface runoff. It comes
from rains, surface runoff and groundwater, and includes rivers, lakes, streams, ponds,
impounding reservoirs, seas, and oceans.
The quantity of surface runoff depends on a large number of factors; the most
important of which are the amount and intensity of rainfall, the climate and vegetation,
and the geological, geographical, and topographical features of the catchment area.
The quality of surface water is determined by the amount of pollutants and
contaminants picked up by the water in the course of its travel. While flowing over the
ground, surface water collects silt, decaying organic matter, bacteria and other
microorganisms from the soil. Thus, all surface water sources should be presumed to be
unsafe for human consumption without some form of treatment.
For rural water supply systems, surface water that is determined to need treatment is
normally not a viable source because of the high cost of treatment and the general lack
of expertise for the maintenance and operation of the appropriate treatment facilities.
Where no other source is available, some form of subsidy may need to be arranged to
set up and operate the treatment facilities. For these reasons, surface water is usually a
last priority in selecting sources for rural water supply systems.
3. Groundwater
Groundwater is that portion of rainwater which has percolated beneath the ground
surface to form underground deposits called aquifers. The upper surface of
groundwater is the water table. Groundwater is often clear, free from organic matter
and bacteria due to the filtering effect of soil on water percolating through it. However,
groundwater almost always contains minerals dissolved from the soil. Groundwater is
Water Quality
This Chapter describes the parameters and limits which define potable water.
A. WATER QUALITY
“Water quality” is a measure of how good the water is, in terms of supporting beneficial
uses or meeting its environmental values. Potable water is water suitable for drinking
and cooking purposes. Potability considers both the safety of water in terms of health,
and its acceptability to the consumer – usually in terms of taste, odor, color, and other
sensible qualities.
2. Frequency of Sampling
The NWRB and the Department of Health (DOH) prescribe certain protocols for the
testing of water at the supply source and through the distribution system. These are
different for the microbiological concerns and the physical and chemical characteristics
of the product.
a. Microbiological Tests:
The minimum number of samples, which are to be collected periodically by existing
water utilities and delivered to the DOH or its authorized laboratory for examination, is
based on the mode and source of the water supply (Table 5.2). Samples are to be taken
from the distribution network.
Table 5.2: Minimum Frequency of Sampling for Drinking-Water Supply Systems for
Microbiological Examination
In accordance with the Philippines National Standards for Drinking Water, three aspects
of water quality need to be considered. These are the Chemical, Physical and
Microbiological aspects.
1. Chemical Aspects
Chemical contamination of water sources may be due to natural sources or to certain
industries and agricultural practices. When toxic chemicals are present in drinking water,
there is the risk that they may cause either acute or chronic health effects. Chronic
health effects are more common than acute effects because the levels of chemicals in
drinking water are seldom high enough to cause acute health effects.
1. Hardness – hardness is due primarily to calcium and magnesium carbonates
and bicarbonates (which can be removed by boiling) and calcium and
magnesium sulfate and chloride (which can be removed by chemical
precipitation using lime and sodium carbonate). Hardness in water is
objectionable for the following reasons:
• Calcium and magnesium sulfate have a laxative effect.
• Hard water makes lathering more difficult, and so it increases soap
consumption.
• In boilers, pots and kettles, hardness causes scaling, resulting in the
reduction of the thermal efficiency and restriction of flow.
2. Alkalinity and Acidity – the presence of acid substances is indicated by pH
below 7.0 and alkaline substances by pH greater than 7.0. Acidic water is
corrosive to metallic pipes.
3. Carbon Dioxide – the presence of appreciable quantities of carbon dioxide
makes water corrosive due to carbonic acid formation and the presence of
free CO2.
4. Dissolved Oxygen – aside from a flat taste, water devoid of oxygen may
indicate an appreciable level of oxygen-consuming organic substances.
5. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) – COD is a measure of the amount of
organic content of water. As bacteria utilize oxygen in the oxidation of
organic matter, the COD increases and the dissolved oxygen in the water
decreases.
6. Organic Nitrogen – organic nitrogen is a constituent of all waste protein
products from sewage, kitchen wastes and all dead organic matter. Freshly
produced waste normally contains pathogenic bacteria. All water high in
organic nitrogen should therefore be suspected for possible contaminants.
2. Physical Aspects
The turbidity, color, taste, and odor of water should be monitored. Turbidity should
always be low, especially where disinfection is practiced. High turbidity can inhibit the
effects of disinfection against microorganisms and enable bacterial growth.
Drinking water coloration may be due to the presence of colored organic matter.
Organic substances can also cause water odor, though odors may result from many
factors, including biological activity and industrial pollution.
Taste problems relating to water could be indicators of changes in the water source or
in the treatment process. Inorganic compounds such as magnesium, calcium, sodium,
copper, iron, and zinc are generally detected by the taste of water.
1. Turbidity – is a measure of the degree of cloudiness or muddiness of water.
It is caused by suspended matter in water like silt, clay, organic matter or
microorganisms. Even when caused by factors that do not pose a health risk,
turbidity is objectionable because of its adverse aesthetic and psychological
effects on the consumers.
2. Color – is due to the presence of colored substances in solution, such as
vegetable matter and iron salt. It does not necessarily have detrimental
effects on health. Color intensity could be measured through visual
comparison of the sample to distilled water.
3. Odor – odor should be absent or very faint for water to be acceptable for
drinking. Pure water is odorless; hence, the presence of undesirable odor in
water is indicative of the existence of contaminants.
4. Taste – pure water is tasteless, hence, the presence of undesirable taste in
water indicates the presence of contaminants. Algae, decomposing organic
matter, dissolved gases, and phenolic substance may cause tastes.
6
List of these is available at the DOH website
This Chapter deals with ways of utilizing rainwater, springs and infiltration galleries as
water supply sources.
A. RAINWATER
B. SPRINGS
Springs are outcrops of groundwater that often appear as small water holes or wet
spots at the foot of hills or along river banks. To obtain satisfactory water, it is necessary
to find the source, properly develop it, eliminate surface water intrusion, and prevent
C. INFILTRATION WELLS
Depending on the nature of the source, however, an infiltration well may also be
located at a shallow depth, above highly mineralized groundwater, such as saline water,
to collect the fresher or less mineralized water.
An infiltration system consisting of horizontally perforated or porous radial collectors
draining to a collecting well can also be designed and constructed where
hydrogeological conditions are suitable, usually under a stream bed or lake, or where a
thin water-bearing stratum exists. The infiltration area should be controlled and
protected from pollution by sewage and other wastewater and animals. Water derived
from infiltration galleries should, at the minimum, be disinfected.
Surface water supplies include water from streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, seas and oceans.
Surface water usually contains organic and inorganic minerals and needs expensive
water treatment. Unless surface water is the only option, surface water should be
avoided for rural water supplies.
Wells
This Chapter will help the readers utilize wells as sources of supply either by their direct
efforts in cases where the works involved are simple, or by selecting and overseeing the
work of professional drillers hired in the case of more complex projects. Information on
professional drillers can be obtained from the National Water Regulatory Board (NWRB),
which regulates well drillers and requires them to be registered with it.
The first step in considering the use of wells as the sources of water supply is to
calculate the total capacity of the existing wells, and compare this capacity to the
demand for water based on the population to be served.
The supply-demand analysis shows whether the existing wells can still be utilized or if
new wells are needed.
B. WELL HYDROLOGY
A well is a hole which has been dug, bored, driven or drilled beneath the ground for the
purpose of extracting ground water.
Beneath the ground, most rocks and soil contain voids, pores or fissures. Subsurface
water, which fills these voids and pores, occurs in two zones. One zone is called the
The saturated zone is also called the aquifer. There are two main types of aquifers. One
is the unconfined aquifer or water table aquifer whose upper limit is the water table.
Unconfined aquifers are often shallow and the hydraulic pressure at its surface water
level or water table is equal to atmospheric pressure.
Where an aquifer is sandwiched between an upper impermeable layer and a lower
impermeable layer, the aquifer is said to be a confined aquifer or an artesian aquifer.
One difference between a confined and unconfined aquifer is that the hydraulic
pressure in a confined aquifer is greater than the atmospheric pressure. This hydraulic
pressure, sometimes called artesian pressure, will cause the groundwater in a well to
rise above the confining layer or even above the ground surface.
1. Shallow Wells
Generally, a well is considered shallow if it is less than 20 meters deep. Shallow wells tap
the upper water-bearing layer underground. This permeable layer, however, usually has
limited safe yield due to its great dependence on seasonal rainfalls. Therefore, the
supply capacity of shallow wells could be unreliable and sometimes intermittent. Also,
the water extracted from the upper strata is usually more affected by contamination
since the aquifer being tapped is near the ground surface where possible sources of
contamination abound. Protection against contamination is therefore one of the main
considerations in constructing a shallow well.
2. Deep Wells
Deep wells, which are over 20 meters deep, tap the deeper unconfined aquifer. This
aquifer is not confined by an overlying impermeable layer and is characterized by the
presence of a water table. A deep well is less susceptible to surface contamination
because of the deeper aquifer. Also, its yield tends to be more reliable since it is less
affected by seasonal precipitation.
3. Artesian Wells
Artesian wells are much like the deep wells except that the water extracted is from a
confined aquifer. The confining impermeable layers are above and below the aquifer.
Groundwater recharge enters the aquifer through permeable layers at high elevations
causing the confined groundwater at the lower elevations to be under pressure. In some
cases, the hydraulic pressure of the aquifer is sufficient for a well to flow freely at the
well head.
Existing wells may have capacities that could contribute substantially to the total
required production for the planned water system. Existing sources should be
investigated to assess whether they could be viably utilized. Existing wells whose output
has diminished might possibly be rehabilitated/improved depending on several factors,
among them the ground formation where the well is drilled, the construction or drilling
method used, and the reasons its flow has been reduced.
a. Mechanical Blockage
There are two types of mechanical blockage that commonly restrict the movement of
groundwater into a well. The first type involves the movement of fine grained soil
materials from the natural formation to the borehole face or the face of the screen. The
second type is caused by corrosion by-products of the metal portions of the well which
act to cover the openings of a well screen.
The movement of fine particles is typically caused by improper well design or by over
pumping a well. An improper well design may include the selection of a gravel pack that
is too large to effectively filter fine formation materials, or selection of an inappropriate
screen slot size. Also, a well screen could be placed opposite layers of sand that are
significantly smaller or more graded in particle size than the other aquifer materials.
Over-pumping a well will cause a turbulent flow in the formation near the well screen
and promote the movement of fine grained materials. These same materials may not
migrate at pumping rates that maintain laminar flow throughout the formation. The
migration of fine materials reduces the effective porosity and restricts water flow,
increases head loss in the immediate vicinity of the well, and often results in sand
pumping.
The corrosion of well casings or screens can cause holes to develop in a casing and cause
the screen slot size to increase, allowing sand and/or gravel pack to enter the well.
Corrosion by-products can also cover portions of the screen and cause higher entrance
velocities through the remaining open area, thus increasing head loss across the screen.
b. Chemical Encrustation
Chemical encrustation is the deposition of minerals on the well screen or gravel pack
which act to restrict the movement of water into a well. Chemical encrustation is caused
by the precipitation of minerals dissolved in the groundwater due to changes in flow
and/or pressure conditions at the well. Well encrustation typically consists of iron and
manganese oxides or of calcium and magnesium carbonates or sulfates.
c. Bacteriological Plugging
Microorganisms, such as bacteria, can cause clogging problems in wells, pipelines, and
treatment facilities. This includes the types of iron-related bacteria which utilize
dissolved iron as an energy source and others which cause iron precipitation in a
secondary manner. These bacteria are not believed to cause health concerns but are a
nuisance in the production and transmission of groundwater. These bacteria have been
characterized by their unusual capacity for accumulating ferric (iron) hydrate around
their cells. A relatively small number of bacteria are able to clog a well because they can
accumulate many times more ferric hydrate than the actual bacterial cell material.
There are two methods by which these bacteria can infest a well. The bacteria may
either be native to the aquifer or they may be introduced directly by man. Bacteria are
known to exist in the ground as active organisms or inactive spores. It is also possible to
introduce new or additional bacteria into an aquifer during drilling or when a pump or
other equipment is serviced or operated.
a. Chemical Treatment:
The selected chemicals are placed in the well and agitated frequently for 24 to 72 hours.
The well is then pumped with water before a water test is given to see if the well system
is ready to be put back in service.
1. For iron bacteria and slime, a liquid bacteria acid is effective.
2. For clogs with carbonate scale, sulfamic acids are used with inhibitors and
modifiers.
3. If the bacteria problem is persistent, some of the more aggressive
chemicals are muriatic acid and hydroxyacetic acid.
4. Disinfectants are chemicals which are used to kill bacteria present in the
immediate vicinity of a well. Chlorine compounds are the most widely
b. Physical Methods:
1. A well drilling rig is used. A brush is attached to the drill and used in the
well to mechanically remove incrustations.
2. High-pressure jetting features a tool with an adjustable, multi-head,
water-powered jet that lowers into the well and injects water at a high
pressure, dislodging debris from the well. The water removes debris from
the clogged perforations in the casing and can crack the formations
underground to create new sources of water.
3. Well surging is the repeated injecting and flushing out of water in a well
system. With repeated flushing, the debris is washed away.
4. Other Methods
Another method of increasing the well yield is to deepen an existing well. This method
should be discussed with an experienced driller.
The structural parts of the well should also be looked into. Sand pumping may have any
of several possible causes. Corroded casings or screens could be the cause. The well can
still be rehabilitated by inserting smaller diameter casings and screens. Needless to say,
this is possible only with large diameter wells (wells over 150 mm diameter) and, while
the sand pumping may be solved, the well yield will be reduced.
Wells can be designed and constructed in a number of ways depending on the geologic
condition, budget for the construction, and desired capacity of the well. The following
are the types of wells based on the construction method employed.
1. Dug Wells
Dug wells are holes or pits dug manually into the ground to tap the water table. The dug
well may be up to 15 meters deep, with diameter usually ranging from 1 meter to 1.5
meters. The well is lined usually with concrete masonry, bricks, stones, or reinforced
concrete to prevent the wall from caving in. At depths of the aquifer layer, the wall is
embedded with slots; or pre-fabricated concrete caisson rings are installed for the
passage of groundwater into the dug well.
Dug wells are normally circular in shape. This type of well is sometimes capable of
drawing sufficient supplies of water from shallow sources but is easily polluted by
surface water.
2. Driven Wells
Driven wells are like dug wells, in the sense that they tap the shallow portion of the
unconfined aquifers. They are easy and relatively inexpensive to construct in locations
with unconsolidated formations that are relatively free of cobbles or boulders. The wells
are constructed by driving to the ground an assembly of G.I. pipe and a pointed metal
tube called a “well point”. The pointed end of the well point, which is the penetrating
end, has screens or holes to allow the passage of water. The upper end of the G.I. pipe is
hit at the top with a heavy weight, usually suspended from a block attached to a tripod.
As the driving progresses, the well point sinks further into the ground and lengths of G.I.
pipes are added at the top. Wooden blocks or steel caps should be placed at the top to
protect it from being damaged by the impact of the driving weight.
3. Bored Wells
Bored wells are constructed with hand or power augers, usually into soft cohesive or
non-caving formations that contain enough clay to support the boreholes. The depth of
bored wells could be up to 15 meters. Before the boring reaches the water table, the
auger is raised out of the hole from time to time to remove bored soils from the auger
bit. But once the boring operation reaches the water table, the auger is lifted out and
the sand and soil have to be removed from the borehole by a bailer or sand pump. As
the boring goes deeper, sections of rod are added to the auger stem. Also, a temporary
steel casing of similar diameter as the borehole may be necessary to prevent the
borehole from collapsing. After the boring has reached the final depth, preferably 2
meters below the dry season water table, a perforated PVC pipe is installed inside the
temporary casing. The temporary casing is then gradually pulled out while gravel is
poured in-between the PVC pipe and the temporary casing. When the casing has been
retracted to 3 meters below the ground surface, cement grout will be used on top of the
gravel packing up to the ground level, to protect the well from surface contamination.
Bored wells are very prone to surface contamination. The well construction method is
not applicable on hard consolidated materials and is not advisable on predominantly
boulder formations.
4. Drilled Wells
Wells drilled by professional drillers7 with the appropriate experience and equipment
can extract groundwater from a much deeper level than the other types of wells.
Various well drilling methods have developed because geologic conditions range from
hard rock such as granite and dolomite to completely unconsolidated sediments such as
alluvial sand and gravel. Particular drilling methods have become dominant in certain
areas because they are most effective in penetrating the local aquifers, thus offer cost
advantages.
Well construction usually comprises four or five distinct operations: drilling, installing
the casing and screen, placing the filter pack, grouting to provide sanitary protection,
and developing the well to insure sand-free operation at maximum yield.
There are 2 common types of drilling methods, namely: cable tool and rotary drilling
methods.
7
The NWRB requires professional well drillers to register with it. It is not advisable to hire drillers who
may not be qualified or lack the necessary experience to undertake the drilling and well development
work for the utility.
This method is used to construct wells by repeatedly lifting and dropping a heavy string
of drilling tools into the borehole as illustrated in Figure 7.2. The drill bit breaks or
crushes consolidated rock into small fragments, whereas the bit primarily loosens the
material when drilling in unconsolidated formations. In both instances, the reciprocating
action of the tools mixes the crushed or loosened particles with water to form a slurry
or sludge at the bottom of the borehole. Slurry accumulation increases as drilling
proceeds and eventually it reduces the impact of the tools. When the penetration rate
becomes unacceptable, slurry is removed at intervals from the borehole by a bailer or
sand pump.
In the AIR ROTARY METHOD, air, with a small volume of water and surfactant (foam),
serves as the fluid and excavation is accomplished exactly as is done in the conventional
direct rotary method. Air drilling is used principally in semi-consolidated and
consolidated formations. This method is not recommended for drilling in
unconsolidated materials because the quality of the samples is usually poor and
inaccurate.
Another type of drilling method that uses air as its fluid is the DOWN-THE-HOLE (DTH)
DRILLING METHOD, in which the percussion mechanism – commonly called the hammer
assembly – is located directly behind the hammer bit. (See Figure 7.4) The down-the
hole drill is basically a pneumatic jack hammer that is operated at the end of the drill
pipe that rapidly strikes the rock while the drill pipe is slowly rotated. The percussion
The “down-the-hole hammer” combines the features of percussion drilling with those of
rotary drilling, using compressed air to drive a rotating pneumatic hammer at the end of
the string of tools. This type of rig is normally mounted on a truck and energy is supplied
by a powerful compressor driven by a diesel engine of up to 200 hp. Compressed air is
used to drive various motors to raise and lower the drilling string as well as to operate
the hammer.
Advantages:
• Cutting removals is extremely rapid;
• Aquifer is not plugged with drilling fluids;
• No maintenance cost for mud pumps;
• Bit life is extended;
Chapter 7: Wells Page 7.13
• Penetration rate is high, especially with down-the-hole hammer in highly
resistant rocks such as dolomite and basalt;
• An estimate of the yield can be made during drilling from a particular
formation;
• Wells can be drilled where lost circulation is a problem.
Disadvantages:
• High cost;
• Application restricted to semi-consolidated and well-consolidated formations.
The following basic tests are needed to assess whether a well is suitable as a source for
a Level II or Level III water supply system.
1. Hydro-Geological Conditions
The water resources study of the hydro-geological conditions of the project area will
indicate the viable sites for well exploration in terms of supply capacity and water
quality. Hydro-geological studies are conducted by knowledgeable professionals or
drillers, who assess available information on existing wells. These examine well data
such as water quality, well yield, seasonal fluctuations, water table depth, and well
drilling logs showing geologic layers. A geo-resistivity survey of the areas being
considered for possible well sites will indicate the depth and thickness of aquifers.
2. Environmental Considerations
Shallow ground water wells should be at certain distance from any pollutant source such
as toilets, pig or livestock farms, fertilizer-intensive farms, and the like. They should also
be away from big trees whose root systems may affect the stability of the well.
1. Well Design
In practice, well design is done in two stages, the preliminary design and the final well
design. Designing consists primarily of deciding the well depth, casing diameter, screen
type and slot size and its position in the well.
Once the well site is determined, a preliminary well design is prepared by an
experienced professional or driller based on hydro-geologic information gathered
before the drilling. The elements of a drilled well’s structure are illustrated in Figure 7.5.
This preliminary design is the basis of the well drilling contract and the cost estimates.
Figure 7.5: Sections of a Drilled Well
During the drilling period, the preliminary well design will be adjusted based on actual
observations and findings on the specific site. This adjusted design will then become the
final well design. During this stage, the design assumptions used are verified and
become actual design parameters, such as water table level, drawdown, depth and
thickness of the geologic layers, types of material of each geologic layer encountered,
and other relevant information.
3. Well Depth
The depth of the well depends on the water-bearing formation and the budgeted cost.
The well must be designed to penetrate the aquifer as deep as possible within the
budgeted cost.
During the test hole drilling, the drilling contractor will complete a formation log. Soil
and rock samples are taken at various depths and the type of geologic material is
recorded. This allows the driller to identify aquifers with the best potential for water
supply. Some drillers also run an electric or gamma-ray log in the test hole to further
define the geology.
Generally a well is completed to the bottom of the aquifer. This allows more of the
aquifer to be utilized and ensures the highest possible production from the well.
4. Casing Diameter
The well casing could be either a straight casing or telescopic casing. The diameter of a
straight casing is the same from top to bottom of the well. Telescopic casing is a
combination of a larger diameter casing/screen portion and a smaller diameter lower
casing/screen portion.
The casing serves as a housing for the pumping equipment and as a conduit for the flow
of groundwater from the screen opening to the suction of the pump. The housing
portion of the casing should be located such that the pump will always be submerged in
5. Well Screen
The well screen is the intake portion of the well. The yield of a well depends greatly on
the design and location of the screen. Wells can be screened continuously along the
bore or at specific depth intervals. This depends on the depths and thickness of aquifer
layers encountered.
The screen openings keep sand and gravel from entering the well, while allowing water
to flow into it. Screens are installed in the productive formations of the borehole. The
first screen section from the wellhead (top) should be installed below the estimated
deepest pumping water level.
Basically, the well screen should as much as possible (a) prevent movement of sand into
the well, (b) provide optimum opening for groundwater inflow, (c) be corrosion-
resistant, and (d) be structurally strong to withstand collapse. Well screens are typically
installed in wells where the aquifer is composed of loose or unstable material. The
screen prevents rock fragments from entering the well, helps support the wall of the
well and allows water to enter slowly. Turbulent flow can more easily transport
unwanted rock particles and agitated water may release minerals and clog up the well.
Stainless steel screens are the most widely used because they are strong and relatively
able to withstand corrosive water.
6. Gravel Pack
The annular space between the well screen, well casing, and borehole wall is filled with
gravel or coarse sand (called the gravel pack or filter pack). The gravel pack prevents
sand and fine sand particles from moving from the aquifer formation into the well. The
gravel pack does not exclude fine silt and clay particles; where those occur in a
formation it is best to use blank casing sections. The uppermost section of the annulus is
normally sealed with a bentonite clay and cement grout to ensure that no water or
contamination can enter the annulus from the surface.
7. Cement Grout
A cement grout should be used to fill the upper 3 m of the annular space between the
casing and the bore hole to provide a seal against possible surface contamination. At the
surface of the well, a surface casing is commonly installed to facilitate the installation of
the well seal. The surface casing and well seal protect the well against contamination of
the gravel pack and keep shallow materials from caving into the well. Surface casing and
well seals are particularly important in hard rock wells to protect the otherwise open,
uncased borehole serving as a well.
I. WELL DRILLING
The method of construction of a borehole will depend upon the depth and diameter
required, the nature of the geological formation to be penetrated, and the amount of
backup support available.
2. Drilling
During drilling, drillers must keep a detailed log of the drill cuttings obtained from the
advancing borehole. In addition, after the drilling has been completed but before the
well is installed, it is often desirable to obtain more detailed data on the subsurface
geology by taking geophysical measurements in the borehole.
Specialized equipment is used to measure the electrical resistance and the self-potential
or spontaneous potential of the geological material along the open borehole wall. Sand
has a higher resistance than clay, while high salinity reduces the electrical resistance of
the geological formation. Careful professional interpretation of the resistance and
spontaneous potential log, together with the drill cuttings’ description, provides
important information about water salinity and the location and thickness of the aquifer
layers. The information obtained is extremely useful when finalizing the well design,
which includes a determination of the depth of the well screens, the size of the screen
openings, and the size of the gravel pack material.
3. Well Development
Well development is the process of removing fine sediment and drilling fluid from the
area immediately surrounding the perforations. This increases the well’s ability to
produce water and maximizes production from the aquifer. After the well screen, well
casing, and gravel pack have been installed, the well is developed to clean the borehole
and casing of drilling fluid and to properly settle the gravel pack around the well screen.
A typical method for well development is to surge or jet water or air in and out of the
well screen openings. This procedure may take several days or perhaps longer,
depending on the size and depth of the well.
Jetting, surging, backwashing and over pumping are methods used to develop a well.
Water or air is surged back and forth through the perforations. Any fine materials that
are in the formation become dislodged and are pumped or bailed from the well. This
procedure is continued until no fine particles remain and the water is clear.
If the aquifer formation does not naturally have any relatively coarse particles to form a
filter, it may be necessary to install an artificial filter pack. The pack is placed around the
screen or perforations so the well can be developed. For example, this procedure is
4. Well Completion
Once the well has been drilled and the equipment is in place, there are several
procedures the drilling contractor must complete before the well is ready to use. The
drilling contractor is responsible for:
• Well development
• Disinfecting the well
• Conducting a yield test.
5. Wellhead Protection
The construction of the final well seal is intended to provide protection from leakage
and to keep runoff from entering the wellhead. It is also important to install backflow
prevention devices, especially if the well water is mixed with chemicals such as fertilizer
and pesticides near the well. A backflow is intended to keep contaminated water from
flowing back from the distribution system into the well when the pump is shut off.
This Chapter presents the various methods for measuring the capacities of water
sources and the well depths needed to support their use.
A. INTRODUCTION
B. Measurements of Discharge
1. Volumetric Method
Flows can be determined by measuring volume. The equipment necessary are a wrist
watch or timer and a bucket or drum of known volume. The method consists of
determining the time required to fill the bucket. For more accurate results, the
measurement is repeated several times, and the average time of these trials is taken.
Note that using a bigger container will improve the accuracy of the measurement. In
Example 8.1, an empty oil drum is used as the container.
Data:
Volume of oil drum used : 200 liters
Number of drums used : 1
Time to fill the drum : 30 seconds
Required: Well yield
Data:
Water from the spring is discharged into an open channel and is metered
using the V-Notch Weir Method
Height of water on the weir measured with a gauging rod = 100 mm
Required: Water yield of spring
The following describes the procedure for measuring flow from a horizontal pipe as
shown in Figure 8.2. Two conditions must be met for this procedure to work:
• The pipe must be flowing full
• The pipe must be horizontal.
Example 8.3
Find the flow in a 62.7 mm (2½ inch) pipe flowing full where the drop is 0.50 m
(y axis) and the carry is 0.824 meters (x axis)
.ૠૢ×(.ૠ) ×.ૡ
Solution: ࡽ= = ૠ. ૢ ࢙
(.)⁄
The measurements of static and pumping water levels can be done electrically or
manually. The measurements provide data that reflect the condition of a well. The
particular methods commonly used are the electric sounder, the wetted tape, and the
splashing methods.
The data obtained could be interpreted as follows:
3. Splashing Method
In the splashing method of measuring water levels in wells, a cord or rope with a weight
can be lowered into the well until the weight is heard splashing on the water surface.
The string is held or marked at the ground surface and then withdrawn. The length of
the lowered cord when splashing is heard is the depth of water level in well.
Example 8.4: Determining Static Water Level, Pumping Water Level and Drawdown of Well
Data:
Measuring Device: Electric Depth Gauge
Indicator: Bulb lights when electrodes at the end of a
lowered cord touch water
Before Pumping: Bulb lit when cord measured 12 m
While pumping, water table stable: Bulb lit when cord measured 14 m
Required:
1. SWL (Static Water Level) = the depth of water table from the ground surface
before pumping:
ࡹࢋࢇ࢙࢛࢘ࢋࢊ ࢇ࢚
2. PWL (Pumping Water Level) = the depth of water table from the ground surface
during pumping operation when water table is stable:
ࡹࢋࢇ࢙࢛࢘ࢋࢊ ࢇ࢚
3. D (Drawdown) = the difference between the static water level and the pumping
water level.
Calculate the drawdown:
ࡰ = ࡼࢃࡸ − ࡿࢃࡸ
ࡰ = 14 − 12 =
This Chapter discusses the commonly encountered risks of pollution of water sources
and the measures that can be taken to protect our water sources from such risks.
There are several possible ways by which pollution and contamination of our water
sources can happen. These are from:
• Industrial/Commercial Pollution
• Municipal and Rural Pollution
• Private Pollution Sources.
1. Industrial/Commercial Pollution
Contamination of both groundwater and surface water sources by industrial and
commercial firms is often the result of ignorance, carelessness or demand for business
profit. Many rivers in the country are beginning to be “biologically dead” and are
already unsuitable for use in potable water schemes.
Groundwater sources were once considered safe from contamination due to overlying
layers of earth. But now many wells which are not properly protected have been found
to be contaminated by surface water pollutants.
Solid waste landfill Heavy metals, chloride, sodium, wide variety of organic & inorganic
compounds
Liquid waste storage
ponds Heavy metals, solvents and brines
Septic tanks/leach fields Organic solvents, nitrates, sulfates and microbiological contaminants
Agricultural activities Nitrates, herbicides and pesticides
Infiltration of urban
runoff Inorganic compounds, heavy metals and petroleum products
B. PROTECTING WELLS
8
Used in rotary drilling to aid in formation of mud cakes
Spring water suitable for drinking is normally located on a hill or mountainside. The
spring water is collected by placing perforated drains in the aquifer. After installing
these pipes, the aquifer should be enclosed in clay so that polluting surface water will
not infiltrate. In constructing the spring box, all surfaces in connection with clay should
be sealed with cement grout.
D. UNDERGROUND POLLUTION
If the water source is safely protected against surface contamination but is still
supplying polluted water, there are 2 possible major causes of pollution:
1. The groundwater is infiltrated by contaminated ground water.
2. The water source is contaminated by a septic tank or leachate water from a
dumpsite.
There is growing awareness of the environmental legacy of mining activities that have
been undertaken with little concern for the environment. The impact on the country’s
water resources have been costly, and shall be paid not only by the present generation
but also future generations to come.
Mining by its nature consumes, diverts, damages the condition of the earth, and can
seriously pollute water sources, as the following summaries of its extensive impacts on
water quality describe:
Water Treatment
This Chapter provides the basic parameters and methods for the design of simple water
treatment facilities.
A. GENERAL
In case treatment cannot be avoided, the financial capacity of the users, including the
technical ability of the persons who will operate and maintain the facilities, have to be
taken into account. It must be considered that the structures needed to treat water are
costly, and thus could result in water costs that the users cannot afford. It is for this
reason too that for Level II facilities, it is vital to draw the participation and cooperation
of the residents in the operation and maintenance of water treatment facilities; but this
may be difficult to do successfully if the facilities entail complex mechanisms.
The general description of the raw water characteristics of these sources which may
require treatment are briefly summarized in the following sections.
1. Groundwater Sources
Groundwater originally comes from rain and water runoffs that pick up a lot of
impurities while on the ground. These impurities may include inorganic and organic soil
Disinfection:
Groundwater sources that tap aquifers with high organic matter content will have raw
water containing a high amount of carbon dioxide. Such a condition will deplete the
water’s oxygen content. Water without or with very low oxygen will dissolve iron,
manganese and heavy metals from the underground. These dissolved substances and
minerals could be removed by aeration.
3. Pollution Sources
Sources of pollution to the water obtained from ground water surface water sources are
discussed in Chapter 9.
The designer of a water treatment facility for a rural water supply project should strive
to achieve the following design features:
1. Keep the facility simple to operate and maintain; avoid as much as possible
complex operation and maintenance methods as these will only cause
problems in the future.
2. Minimize utilization of electro-mechanical equipment, and ideally adopt or
develop processes that do not require the use of mechanically or electrically
operated equipment.
3. Employ as much as possible natural methods of treatment. If the use of
chemicals cannot be avoided, adopt methods that minimize their use.
The type or method of treating raw water depends mainly on the degree of
concentration of unwanted qualities in water. Table 10.1 on the next page presents the
different treatment methods or processes and the corresponding impurities that are
effectively removed or reduced.
1. Preliminary Treatment
Pre-treatment is generally used when the raw water contains large amounts of floating
debris (e.g. sticks and leaves) as well as gravel, sand and soil sediments. The preliminary
treatment process may include one or a combination of the following sub-processes: (a)
screening/sieving, (b) pre-sedimentation, and/or (c) pre-chlorination.
2. Aeration
This process is aimed at prolonging the contact time of the raw water and air in order to
improve the chemical and physical qualities. There are many types of aerators, some of
them are:
Aeration methods are utilized where the following physical and chemical properties are
found to be unacceptable or over the permissible limits:
1. Taste and odor caused by dissolved gases like hydrogen sulfide;
2. Iron and manganese which are removed by oxidation. Dissolved iron and
manganese, upon contact with free oxygen from air will form an insoluble
precipitate which could be removed by subsequent filtration;
3. Obnoxious gases like H2S and CO2. Excessive carbon dioxide makes the water
corrosive and dissolves iron in the piping system.
Typical air-water ratios for removal of volatile organic chemicals range from about 6:1 to
100:1.
3. Sedimentation
Water can contain suspended solid matter consisting of particles of many different sizes.
Sedimentation, or clarification, is the process by which suspended materials settle by
gravity. Suspended materials may be particles such as clay or silt originally present in the
source water.
While some of the suspended materials will be large and heavy enough to settle rapidly
to the bottom of a container, very small particles will settle only very slowly or not at all.
These small solid particles cause the liquid to appear turbid.
Sedimentation is accomplished by decreasing the velocity of the water being treated to
a point below which the particles will no longer remain in suspension. When the velocity
no longer supports the transport of the particles, gravity will remove them from the
flow.
In designing sedimentation tanks, the required detention time determines the
dimensions of the tank. A rectangular tank is the simplest design to use. Detention time
is calculated as Volume/Flow rate (Q). The detention times based on the average daily
flows are usually from about 45 minutes to 3 hours depending on turbidity.
The ideal inlet reduces the entrance velocity and distributes the water as uniformly as
possible across the depth and width of the tank. Outlets are usually weirs which are
sufficiently long to reduce the flow velocity, and so avoid the re-suspension of the solids
in the water.
A slow sand filter is basically a large tank containing the sand bed. Water is introduced
at the top. It trickles down through the sand bed to the underdrains and goes to the
storage tank. The impurities in the water are retained at the upper layers of the sand
bed. In the process, a slimy layer (called sludge) consisting of bacteria and microscopic
plants grow. The sludge removes the organic matter and most of the pathogenic
microorganisms in water which might be smaller than the pores of the sand.
Slow sand filters can achieve the following:
• Reduce bacterial count of raw water by 85% to 99%
• Reduce turbidity of the raw water by about 90% or more
• Reduce the concentration of color in raw water.
Applied Hydraulics
This Chapter deals with characteristics of water as it passes through the pipelines of
distribution systems, and the basic calculations of pressure and friction losses in pipes
and appurtenances.
Hydraulics is concerned with the properties and behavior of fluids when at rest and in
motion. The factors that affect the flow of water in pipes are as follow:
• Cross sectional area;
• Roughness of the pipe’s inner surface;
• Condition and type of flow;
• Obstructions; and
• Energy head
Figure 11.1: Pipe Flow and HGL
B. WATER PRESSURE
1. Basic Principles
The force represents the weight of a column of water above a certain point. The weight
then is equal to the volume of the column of water multiplied by the specific weight of
water. Specific weight of water equals 1 kgf/liter or 1,000 kgf/m3.
C. FRICTION LOSS
Friction loss is the loss of pressure caused by water flowing through the pipe in a system.
Flow in pipes is usually turbulent and the roughness of the inside walls of pipes have a
direct effect on the amount of friction loss. Turbulence increases and consequently
friction loss increases with the degree of roughness.
Friction loss is thus determined by the type, size and length of the pipe and the amount
of water flowing through it.
Friction loss in plastic pipes and galvanized (G.I.) pipes can be estimated using Table 11.1
and Table 11.2, respectively. The information necessary to determine the pressure loss
are the pipe size and the discharge rate, Q. Also, Table 11.1 and Table 11.2 can be used
to determine pipe sizes if the discharge rate and friction loss are given.
Furthermore, when water flows past valves, fittings and public faucets, there is a loss in
energy due to friction. This loss of energy can be calculated by the use of Table 11.3. The
pipe fittings, valves and public faucets are first reduced to an equivalent length of
straight pipe using Table 11.3 and then the corresponding friction loss is determined
using Table 11.1 or Table 11.2.
Answer:
At Point A, the static Pressure = 0
At Point B, the static Pressure = 6m
At Point C, the static Pressure = 6m
At Point D, the static Pressure = 9m
At Point E, the static Pressure = 9m
At Point F, the static Pressure = 8 m (9 – 1)
At Point G, the static Pressure = 5 m (6 – 1)
At Point H, the static Pressure = 8m
* When the length of pipe is greater than 1,000 times its diameter, the loss of head due to valves and fittings maybe disregarded.
Page 11.7
Example 11.2
A pipe 200 m in length and 19 mm in diameter carries water at the rate of 0.20
liters per second. How much head or pressure would be lost due to friction if PVC
pipe is used? If GI pipe is used?
Required: Friction Loss
1. If PVC Pipe is used
2. If GI Pipe is used
Solution:
1. If the pipe material is PVC:
Determine the friction loss per 100 m
Referring to Table 11.1 locate Q = 0.2 lps and move horizontally
until the column for 19 mm diameter is reached. Read the figure.
From the table, the friction loss is hf = 3.8 m/100 m of pipe
length.
Calculate the friction loss, HL of 200 m length of PVC pipe
. ૡ
ࡴࡸ = ࢎࢌ × ࡸ = × = ૠ.
2. If the Pipe Material is GI:
The friction loss, HL for GI pipes is determined using Table 11.2,
with Q = 0.20 lps and D = 19 mm.
hf = 7.6 m/100 m (from Table 11.2)
ૠ.
ࡴࡸ = × = .
A 240 m length of pipe will be used to convey water from a spring located at top
of the hill to the barrio reservoir. The elevation of the spring is 3.0 m higher than
the maximum water surface elevation of the reservoir and therefore, the water
can be transported through gravity flow. If the desired flow is 4 lps, what size of
pipe should be used if PVC pipe is used?
Given: Length of pipe = 240 m
Pressure Head Available Hp = 3 m
Q = 4 lps
Required: PVC Pipe Size
Solution: The pipe material is PVC.
The minimum pipe size can be obtained when the available head or
pressure will equal to friction losses when water is flowing at the
desired Q = 4 lps. Total friction loss is 3 m which over a 240 m
pipeline would have an hf = 1.25 m per 100 m.
Referring to Table 11.1, locate Q = 4 lps and move horizontally
until hf/100 m = 1.25 is found in or any value found in Table 11.1
which is nearest to 1.25. Find the column of pipe size having this
friction loss. From Table 11.1, the nearest value to 1.25 m is 1.15
which is found in the column of pipe size with the size of 75 mm.
Therefore, a 75 mm PVC pipe can transport water from the spring
to the reservoir.
Example 11.4
A gravity storage tank shown is located on a hill. The minimum water surface
elevation of 9 m is above the faucet and requires 100 meters of pipe, two 90°
elbows, a gate valve, and a 13 mm faucet. The desired flow at the faucet is 0.12
liters per second. What size pipe should be used if a minimum residual pressure of
3 m is to be attained at the faucet?
Given: H = 9 m of storage tank
L = 100 m
(Continued on next page)
Calculate the total length. The total length is the sum of the straight pipe and the
equivalent length of valves, fittings, etc.
ܶݐ݃݊݁ܮ ݈ܽݐℎ = 100 + 7.07 = 107.09 ݉
1.50 ݉
ℎ݂ ݂19 ݉݉ ݐ݅ݓℎ ݂ ܮ107.09 ݉ = × 107.09 ݉ = 1.6 ݉
100 ݉
19 mm diameter pipe was found to be satisfactory because the total head loss
(1.6 m) incurred is smaller than the available head (6 m)
A. INTRODUCTION
Transmission and distribution systems vary in size and complexity but they all have the
same basic purpose, which is to deliver water from the source(s) to the customer.
In general, most of existing rural water distribution systems were originally designed
and constructed as Level II public faucet systems. The lower capital cost and lower tariff
requirements were primary considerations, particularly at the inception of projects.
Eventually, however, most of the consumers realized the value of household
connections, and preferences shifted to Level III service levels. As a result, many Level II
facilities upgraded their services, although in many cases, they maintained their public
faucets even as they provided Level III connections. The combined Level II/Level III
options allowed customers who could not afford a home connection to continue to rely
on the public faucet.
With this experience, it is recommended that in establishing Level II distribution and
transmission systems, these should already be designed to allow future expansion and
eventual upgrading to a higher level of service.
The design of the rural water system also needs to take into account the nature of
operation. Most rural water utilities are remotely located and are operated and
maintained by part time staff. Therefore, it is important that the systems be relatively
simple to operate and maintain.
Water can be transported from the source to the treatment plant, if any, and the
distribution system, and eventually reach consumers through one of the following
methods:
• Through gravity flow: This is the ideal set-up when the location of the water
source is at a considerably higher elevation than the area to be served. The
operation cost of a gravity system is very low, as it does not require energy
cost.
• Through pumping with storage: Water is either (a) pumped to a distribution
pipe network, then to consumers, with excess water going to a storage tank,
or (b) pumped to a storage tank first, then water is distributed by gravity
from the tank to the consumers. The maintenance and operation cost of this
system is higher than a gravity system.
Chapter 12: Transmission and Distribution Systems Page 12.1
• Through direct pumping to the distribution system: In this system, water is
pumped directly from the source to the distribution system to the consumers.
Where capital cost for a reservoir is not affordable at the initial stage of the
water system, direct pumping to the distribution is usually resorted to.
Variable speed or variable frequency drive pumps are most ideal for direct
pumping operations, but the capital costs for such equipment are higher
than for conventional water pumps.
C. PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
1. Pressure
Pressure is a force applied perpendicular to a body that is in contact with a fluid, in this
case, with water. In the English system, pressure is generally expressed in lb/in2
abbreviated as psi. In the SI system, pressure has units of N/m2, also called Pascal.
Because of the level or amount of pressure in a water supply system, pressure is
commonly expressed in kilopascals (kPa) or simply in meters (m).
Pressure increases linearly with the depth of water. For water at rest, the variation of
pressure over depth is linear. The pressure exerted by a column of water is called
pressure head, and can be calculated using the formula below:
ܲ
ℎ=
ߛ
Where:
ℎ = ݀݁ݐℎ ݉ݑݐܽ݀ ܽ ݁ݒܾܽ ݎ݁ݐܽݓ ݂
ܲ = ݁ݎݑݏݏ݁ݎ
ߛ = ݃݅݁ݓ ݂ܿ݅݅ܿ݁ݏℎݎ݁ݐܽݓ ݂ ݐ
From the above formula and using the specific weight of water at 62.4 lb/ft3 the
following conversion factor can be used:
1 = ݅ݏ2.31 ݂ ݁ݎݑݏݏ݁ݎ ݐℎ݁ܽ݀ (ݏ݈݅݃݊ܧℎ
)݉݁ݐݏݕݏ, ݎ
1 ݇ܲܽ = 0.102 ݉ ݁ݎݑݏݏ݁ݎℎ݁ܽ݀ (ܵ) ܫ
2.
Head Losses
Shear stress is developed between the water and the pipe wall when water is flowing.
The shear stress is the result of friction, and is dependent on the flow rate, the
roughness of the pipe, and the length and diameter of the pipe. The commonly used
formulas for computation of head loss due to friction (also called friction loss) are the:
• Darcy-Weisbach formula
• Hazen-Williams formula
• Mannings formula
• Combined Darcy-Weisback and Colebrook-White equation.
300 mm 150
Plastic
< 300 mm 140
300 mm 140
Iron
< 300 mm 130
Another contributing component of total head loss is the head loss from turbulence due
to pipe fittings and appurtenances. This category of loss is sometimes called minor
losses. The total minor losses in a distribution network is usually insignificant compared
with the total head loss of the system, thus, the designer may ignore this component in
network analysis computation.
D. TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
The transmission system’s function is to transport water from source to the reservoir, if
any, and to the distribution point. Water conduits for the transmission system may be
canals, aqueducts or tunnels, free-flow pipelines, or pressure pipelines. The
transmission of water will either be under gravity or pumping.
Pressure pipeline is generally the type of water conduit used in the Philippines for water
supply transmission systems. Thus, this Manual confines its discussion to pressurized
piping systems.
3. Maximum Pressure
The pipe material must be selected to withstand the highest possible pressure that can
occur in the pipeline. For a gravity system, the worst-case scenario is for pressure to be
at its maximum during shut-off conditions (shut-off at downstream end) when the static
pressure is too high. Normally, however, operators shut off transmission lines at the
source facility during major repairs and emergency situations, practically draining the
line of water and minimizing whatever static pressure remains in the line. For the
transmission line design, a maximum computed HGL based on a minimum supply rate
equivalent to 0.3 times the average day demand should be examined. At any point in
the transmission line, this maximum HGL should not be over the allowable maximum
pressure of the line (70 m head).
To limit the maximum pressure, break pressure tanks or chambers could be installed
along the main. The break pressure tank or chamber will limit the static pressure by
providing an open water surface at certain points of the transmission line.
One way of designing the transmission line is by the use of hydraulic computer software,
which is discussed in the succeeding sections.
E. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
2. Looped System:
A distribution network is looped when there are only few or no pipe dead-ends, such
that water can move through the system freely. The advantages of a looped system are:
• The lower water velocities in the main reduce head losses, resulting in
greater capacity.
• Main breaks can be isolated, minimizing service interruptions to consumers.
• Usually better chlorine residual content is achieved.
The disadvantage is generally more costs because of the need for more pipes to create
the loops.
A major transmission design consideration is to ensure that if any section of the
distribution main fails or needs repair, that section can be isolated without disrupting
service to all or a great number of users in the network. Figure 12.2 [B] illustrates the
looped system.
Pipe network analysis involves the detailed and careful scrutiny of the fluid flow through
a hydraulic network containing several interconnected branches and loops. In the design
of a distribution system, a pipe network analysis must be done to determine the flow
rates and pressure drops in the individual sections of the network, thus giving basis for
selecting pipe diameters.
The basic principles governing network hydraulics are:
• Conservation of mass – the fluid mass entering any pipe system will be equal
to the mass leaving the system. In network analysis, outflows are lumped in
nodes. A related principle is that at each junction (node), the algebraic sum
of the quantities of water entering and leaving the node is zero.
• Conservation of energy – In any closed path or circuit in a hydraulic network,
the algebraic sum of the energy (head losses) in the individual pipes is zero.
Another way of stating it is that the difference in energy (head loss) between
two nodes in a system must be the same regardless of the path that is taken
(Bernoulli principle).
One important tool that a network designer may use is the equivalent pipe method. It is
the substitution of a complex system of pipes by a single pipe that will give an
equivalent head loss at a given flow.
a. EPANET Software
Among the current software available in the internet and from proprietary sources, the
EPANET is highly recommended. EPANET is public domain software developed by the
US Environmental Protection Agency that can be downloaded free on the internet.9
The software tracks the flow of water in each pipe, the pressure at each node, and the
height of water in each tank.
The important features of EPANET for distribution network design its ability to:
• Handle systems of any size;
• Compute friction head loss using the Hazen-Williams, the Darcy Weisback, or
the Chezy-Manning head loss formula;
• Include minor head losses for bends, fittings, etc.;
• Model constant or variable speed pumps;
• Allow storage tanks to have any shape.
The design process using EPANET usually involves the (a) layout of the system
configuration including locations of sources and storage facilities, (b) determination of
the distribution of demands to the nodes, input of network data, running hydraulic
simulation, viewing results in any of the variety of formats, modifying the model by
editing the network data, and modifying the model until the design criteria are met or
results are acceptable.
A sample systems design using EPANET is presented in Annex B.
9
To download EPANET, go to http://www.epanet.com. The software comes with a tutorial and
comprehensive User’s Manual.
The distribution pipelines must be designed to handle the peak hour demand of the
system:
1. Minimum pressure at the remotest end of the system = 3 m
2. Maximum velocity of flow in pipes
a. Transmission Line = 3.0 m/s
b. Distribution Line = 1.5 m/s
3. Minimum velocity of flow in pipes = 0.40 m/s
4. Demand Factor: varies from 0.3 (minimum demand) to 3.0 (peak-demand)
5. Allowable head loss: minimum = 0.50 m/1,000 m, maximum = 10 m/1,000 m
6. Allowable pressure: minimum = 3 m, maximum = 70 m
Please refer to Annex C for a listing of Design Criteria and Standards.
Contamination of water supplies should be avoided at all times. In most small water
supply systems, however, economic reasons prevent 24-hour daily water service. This
creates a risk of polluted water infiltrating into the pipelines through leaks in pipe joints
and service taps. To counter the health risk, 0.3 mg/L residual chlorine should be
maintained throughout the distribution system.
Other measures to preserve the quality of water are the following:
1. Install water mains using adequate separation from potential sources of
contamination such as sewers, storm water pipes, septic tanks, etc.
2. Avoid cross-connections and prevent backflow.
3. Provide at least the minimum allowable pressure and adequate flow at all
delivery points in the distribution system.
4. Avoid situations that may give rise to negative pressures.
5. Control the pressure up to the maximum allowable while avoiding pipe
breakage.
6. Minimize low-flow dead-ends to avoid stagnant water. Effective circulation
of water in the pipelines should be maintained to prevent the deposition of
sediments and minimize the growth of bacteria.
7. Install non-return valves on source facilities to prevent backflow that might
cause contamination.
8. Promptly repair leaks in pipes to keep dirty water from coming in when
pressure in the pipe is reduced.
2. Pipe Materials
a. Galvanized Iron (GI) Pipes: GI pipes are available in sizes of 13, 19, 25, 31, 38, 50,
63 and 75 mm and in lengths of 6 m. They are joined by means of threaded
couplings.
Advantages:
• Strong against internal and external pressure.
• Can be laid below or above ground.
• People in rural areas know how to install this kind of pipes.
Disadvantages:
• GI Pipes can easily be corroded, thus the service life is short.
• These have rougher internal surface compared to plastic pipes, hence,
have higher friction head losses.
Disadvantages:
Parameters GI PVC PE
Crushing strength versus
Excellent Fair Poor
superimposed loads in trench
Burst strength versus internal
Excellent Good Good
pressure
Durability Fair Excellent Excellent
Resistance to corrosion Poor Excellent Excellent
Flow capacity Fair Excellent Excellent
Resistance to external mechanical
Excellent Fair Fair
injury
Must be handled gently. Must
Ease of installation Easy
be buried
Pipe Cost High Low Low
Cost per fitting Low High High
Number of fittings High High High
NWRC RWS Volume I, Design Manual
1. Valves
One of the most important types of appurtenances is the valve. A valve is a device that
can be opened and closed to different extents (called throttling) to vary its resistance to
flow, thereby controlling the movement of water through a pipeline. Valves can be
classified into five general categories as follows:
1. Isolation Valves – Perhaps the most common valve in the water distribution
system is the isolation valve, which can be manually closed to block the flow
of water. As the term “isolation” implies, the primary purpose of these valves
is to provide means of turning off a portion of the system. Well-designed
water distribution systems have isolation valves throughout the network.
Isolation valves include gate valves (the most popular type), butterfly valves,
globe valves, and plug valves.
2. Directional Valves – Directional valves, also called check valves, are used to
ensure that water can flow only in one direction through a pipeline, Any
water flowing backwards through the valve causes it to close, and it remains
closed until the flow once again begins to go through the valve in the forward
direction.
3. Altitude Valves – Many water utilities employ devices called altitude valves
at the point where a pipeline enters a tank. When tank level rises to a
specified upper limit, the valve closes to prevent any further flow from
entering, thus eliminating overflow. When the flow trend reverses, the valve
reopens and allows the tank to drain or to supply the usage demands of the
system.
4. Air Release Valves and Vacuum Breaking Valves – Most systems include
special air release valves to release trapped air during system operation, and
air/vacuum valves that discharge air upon system start-up and admit air into
the system in response to negative gauge pressures. These valves are often
found in system high points, where trapped air settles, and at changes in
grade, where pressures are most likely to drop below ambient or
atmospheric conditions.
5. Pressure Reducing Valves – Pressure reducing valves (PRVs) throttle
automatically to prevent the downstream hydraulic grade from exceeding a
set value, and are used in situations where high downstream pressures could
cause damage. It can be used to separate pressure zones.
The design of taps should consider solutions for drainage in order to minimize the
potential impacts on increased flooding, hygienic problems and mosquito breeding
associated with stagnant/waste water
Figure 12.3, Figure 12.4 and Figure 12.5 give illustrated details of public faucets and
service connections.
Reservoirs
This Chapter discusses the factors that must be taken into account in the design of
reservoirs and illustrates the basic design of a distribution reservoir.
A. INTRODUCTION
2. Terminologies:
• Minimum Water Level – the lowest water level in the tank sufficient to give
the minimum residual pressure at the remotest end of the system.
• Maximum Water Level – is the highest water level in the tank.
• Working Pressure – the minimum pressure at which the system will operate.
• Safe Working Pressure – the working pressure multiplied by a factor of
safety.
B. TYPES OF RESERVOIRS
Reservoirs may be classified according to their function, their relative position with
respect to the earth’s surface, manner of operation, and the type of material of
construction.
1. Elevated Reservoirs
Reservoirs are constructed in elevated or hilly areas. In case of flat areas, a supporting
frame or tower is installed to support the storage tank. This is known as an elevated
reservoir. Standpipes are reservoirs with height greater than their diameter.
1. Capacity:
As a rule of thumb, the storage tank volume should be at least equal to one-fourth
(25%) of average day demand of the community. The formula is:
࢘ = (/)(ࡰࡰ)
Where:
࢘ = ݏݎ݁ݐ݈݅ ݊݅ ݕݐ݅ܿܽܽܿ ݎ݅ݒݎ݁ݏ݁ݎ
ࡰࡰ = ܽݕܽ݀ ݎ݁ ݏݎ݁ݐ݈݅ ݊݅ ݀݊ܽ݉݁݀ ݕܽ݀ ݁݃ܽݎ݁ݒ
3. Structural Design
The structural design of reservoirs must meet the standards set by the National
Structural Code of the Philippines. The reservoirs must be strong enough to withstand
all loads, such as hydrostatic pressure, earth pressure, wind loads, seismic loads and
other dead or live loads. The reservoir should be covered to avoid pollution and growth
of algae.
D. RESERVOIR APPURTENANCES
1. Inlet Line
The size of the inlet line is determined by the supply and demand requirements. The
inlet line on all reservoirs must have a shut-off valve located adjacent to the reservoir.
4. Ventilation facilities
These are provided in reservoirs to allow the air to escape fast enough to prevent
pressure from building up inside the reservoir during filling, and to prevent a vacuum
from forming when water is being drawn out. The ventilation facilities should be
designed to keep rain and surface water from entering, and they should be screened to
keep out insects. Overflow and drainage pipes should be designed with a valve chamber
to prevent rodents from entering the reservoir.
5. Overflow Line
Reservoirs should be provided with an overflow line large enough to allow the maximum
anticipated overflow (pump or spring capacity) and should be properly screened and
covered like an air vent.
8. Control Valves:
The use of reservoir control valves will depend on the type of controls and means of
operation to be employed for the system. The flow into the reservoir may be stopped
manually or automatically by a float valve, pressure switch or equivalent device.
Given Data:
Minimum Pressure at the remotest public faucet (PF) = 3 m
Average Day Demand (ADD) = 43,440 lpd
Friction head loss from tank to remotest PF = 3 m
Required:
Using an elevated tank, calculate the capacity and height of the required
minimum water level.
Analysis:
Using Elevated Tank,
Calculate the Reservoir Capacity
= ݕݐ݅ܿܽܽܥ1ൗ4 × 43,440 = 10,860 ݈݅ݏݎ݁ݐ, ݕܽݏ11,000 ݈݅ݏݎ݁ݐ
If Shape of Reservoir = Cylindrical
Assumed Height = 3 m
From Figure 13.4, Diameter = 2 m*
* The diameter was determined using Figure 13.4. Locate the height =
3 m in the figure and move horizontally to intersect V = 11,000 and
then move down on the abscissa to find the diameter, D = 2.09 m.
Use D = 2.0 m
Calculate the Height of Minimum Water Level, H
H =Minimum Pressure at the remotest PF + Friction Head Loss in pipeline from
tank to remotest PF, = ܪ3 + 3 = 6 ݉
Data:
Design Population : 600
Average Day Demand: 600 × 80 ݈ ܫܫ ݈݁ݒ݈݁( ݀ܿ/ = ) ܫܫܫ48,000 ܦܲܮ
PF1, found at the remotest of the system
Friction Head Loss in Pipeline: ܨ1 = 4 ݉
Elevation of PF: ܧ1 = 2 ݉
PF2, found 40 m from the storage tank
Friction Head Loss in Pipeline: ܨ2 = 2 ݉
Elevation of PF: ܧ2 = 5 ݉
Elevation of the location of Storage Tank: ܧ3 = 6 ݉
Required:
Using an elevated tank, calculate tank capacity and height of the minimum water
level.
Pumping Facilities
This Chapter describes the mechanics of pumps, the types available, how to select and
design pumps for a water system, and key considerations in their installation and
operation.
A. INTRODUCTION
Pumps are devices used to transferring water (or other liquids) from point A to point B
with pressure to overcome the resistance along its path. It is important to understand
the different types of pumps, their applications, design differences and the procedures
used to operate and maintain them.
1. Hydraulic Theory
All pumps use basic forces of nature to move a liquid. As the moving pump part begins
to move, air is pushed out of the way. The movement of air creates a partial vacuum
(low pressure) which can be filled up by more air, or in the case of water pumps, water.
This is similar to sucking on a straw. A partial vacuum is created in your mouth when you
suck on the straw. The liquid is pushed up the straw because of the pressure differences
between your mouth and the atmosphere.
2. Atmospheric Pressure
At sea level, nature exerts a pressure of 1 bar (14.7 psi) all around us. If one end of a
tube is placed in water and a perfect vacuum is applied to the other end, that 1 bar
could hold a column of water 10.3 m (33.9 feet) high. This is only obtainable at sea level
and with a perfect vacuum.
However, centrifugal pumps can lift water no more than 7.9 m (26 feet) at sea level. This
drops off approximately 0.6 m (2 feet) for each 305 m (1000 feet) of altitude above sea
level.
3. Pressure Differences
In nature, movement is from more dense to less dense. A liquid under high pressure will
move to an area of less pressure if a path is provided.
4. Centrifugal Force
A centrifugal pump works in the same way as sucking on a straw. Rotation of the
impeller forces the water around it out of the pump's discharge port. The partial
vacuum created, allows the natural air pressure to force water up the suction hose
(straw), and into the suction (inlet) side of the pump to replace the displaced water.
Chapter 14: Pumping Facilities Page 14.1
When the water hits the rotating impeller, energy of the impeller is transferred to the
water, forcing the water out (centrifugal force). The water is displaced outward, and
more water can now enter the suction side of the pump to replace the displaced water.
3. Suction Head
Atmospheric pressure at sea level limits the suction head of centrifugal pumps to 10.3 m
(33.9 feet). However, this head would only be obtained if a perfect vacuum could be
created in the pump. In reality, the suction head of centrifugal pumps is limited to about
7.9 m (26 feet). Pump performance (capacity or pressure) is highest when the pump is
operated close to the water's surface.
Increasing the suction head will decrease the discharge head and consequently the
discharge capacity of the pump. Very importantly, suction head should be kept to the
smallest value possible to reduce the likelihood of cavitation10. Cavitation can also occur
if the suction pipe is restricted. A suction hose with a smaller diameter than the suction
port should not be used as cavitation can quickly damage a pump.
4. Discharge Head
As the pump discharge head increases in height, the pump capacity decreases and the
available pressure at the end of the discharge pipe also decreases. At maximum head,
10
Cavitation means that cavities or bubbles form in the liquid being pumped which leads to loss of pump
efficiency.
5. Pipe Restrictions
When water hits any restriction (valve or a reducer), only a partial amount of the
flowing water is be allowed to pass through. Restrictions increase the friction and
decrease the discharge capacity at the end of the pipe.
1. Total Dynamic Head (TDH) – the TDH is the sum of static head, pipe friction
and velocity head at the point of discharge.
2. Static Head – The difference in elevation between suction level and
discharge level. Refer to Figure 14.1.
3. Pipe Friction – Head loss due to friction of the water as it moves along the
pipes, fittings, elbows, valves and suction entrance.
4. Velocity Head – Changes in kinetic energy of water from source to discharge
point. Velocity head is calculated as the square of the velocity divided by
twice the acceleration of gravity.
ܪ௩ = ݒଶ /2݃
D. TYPES OF PUMPS
There are three general types of water pumps in the water industry. While different in
design and application, they each basically serve the same purpose, which is to move
water from point A to point B. These are the centrifugal, positive displacement and
special pumps. The third type (special pumps) will not be taken up in this Manual as
their use in rural and other small water supply systems is not common.
a. Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal pumps (Figure 14.2) raise liquids by centrifugal forces created by a wheel
called an impeller, rotating within a pump case. Water enters at the center of the
impeller and as the impeller rotates, water in the pump is forced out by centrifugal force.
This causes a vacuum condition at the center of the impeller which provides the
necessary force to move or lift the water. Water is continuously drawn toward the
vacuum and at the same time is being discharged by the centrifugal force of the impeller,
thereby producing a smooth and continuous flow of water.
The characteristic curves of a pump describe the factors that affect its performance.
They are usually expressed graphically with the rate of discharge Q as abscissa and the
other factors plotted as ordinates such as the head and the net positive suction head
(NPSH). Typical pump performance curves are shown in Figure 14.5. The diagram shows
that as the pump discharge increases, the power required to drive the pump increases.
However the pump efficiency behaves both proportionately and inversely with the
capacity of the pump much like a parabolic curve. The pump efficiency increases as the
capacity is increased up to a certain point. The efficiency then decreases from that point
even as the capacity continues to increase.
Figure 14.5: Pump Performance Curve
3. Pump Foundation
The foundation itself and the contact area of the foundation and ground have to be
strong and large enough. Guidelines:
1. Make the weight of the foundation 3 to 5 times the total weight of the
machinery in case of motor driven types.
2. When the pump is directly coupled to the prime mover or connected to it by
a gear train, construct a single common foundation for the pump and prime
mover. This will prevent misalignment due to differential settlement.
G. PRIME MOVERS
Electric, gasoline or diesel engines are commonly used as power sources for pumps. The
electric motor is however the most favored prime mover because of its reliability,
relatively lower power cost, and environmental considerations like cleanliness, relatively
lower noise, and lower pollutant emissions.
Electric motors, however, should be protected by heat sensors installed in the windings
during manufacture. These sensors will shut the motor off in case of low voltage or
change in phase before damage can be done.
H. PUMP CONTROL
Pump controls can be manual or automatic. For small systems, manual controls can
work very well. The operators can start the pump in the morning. With some
operational experience, they will be able to estimate the time required to satisfy the
morning peak demand and to fill the tank. When the tank is full, the pump is shut off.
The pump is again started when the water level in the tank decreases to the minimum
water level. On the other hand, with automatic control, the pump’s start and shutoff is
I. DESIGN OF PUMPS
In order to obtain a pumping system that will meet your requirements in an efficient
manner, you must match the pump to the piping system and required flow rate.
A cost analysis of pumping should consider both the initial cost (capital investment), and
operating cost. The type and size of pumping equipment, pipeline size, and system
design affect not only the initial cost but also the operating cost. For example, using
large pipes may cost more but could allow the use of the less expensive, smaller
horsepower pumps which entail lower energy costs; whereas a piping system with a
smaller diameter pipe would require pumps with higher horsepower and energy
requirements.
To get the most efficient pump, an analysis should be made of all pumping requirements.
Key points to consider are:
1. Net positive suction head (NPSH)
2. Priming
3. Useful life
4. Maintenance requirements
5. Quantity pumped
6. Pumping head
7. Power source
8. Economics.
The following data are needed in order to design the pump required:
1. Pump Discharge capacity
2. Total Dynamic Head
3. Pump Efficiency.
BASE DATA
Reservoir Maximum Water Level 9m
Pump Requirement 2 lps
Pipe Length (L) 147 m
Appurtenances:
Foot valve 1
Strainer 1
90° elbow 1
45° elbow 2
Tee 2
Globe valves 3
REQUIRED
Pump TDH
Plastic pipe size
Example 14.2: Determining Pump TDH and Pipe Size (PART II: ANALYSIS – 38 mm PIPE)
1. Determine pipe size
To determine pipe sizes, assumptions have to be made. Assume a pipe
size of 38 mm.
2. Determine friction losses
Using Table 11.3, determine the equivalent pipe size for the valves,
fittings, etc. with 38mm diameter:
Equivalent
Appurtenances Dia. (mm) No. length per EQL (m)
fitting (m)
Strainer 38 1 5.49 5.49
Foot valve 38 1 2.44 2.44
90° Elbow 38 1 1.36 1.36
45° Elbow 38 2 0.61 1.22
Tee 38 2 2.74 5.48
Check valve 38 1 3.35 3.35
Globe valve 38 3 13.71 41.13
Total 60.47
3. Determine total Head loss using 38 mm pipes
Get head loss per 100 m using Table 11.1
With Q = 2 lps and 38 mm dia.
= ݂ܪ8.40 ݉⁄100 ݉
ܶݐ݈݃݊݁ ݈݁݊݅ ݁݅ ݈ܽݐℎ = 1.5 + 8.0 + 130 + 0.5 + 6 = 147 ݉ + 60.47 ݉
= ૠ. ૠ
ܶℎ݁ = ࡸࡴ ݁ݎ݂݁ݎ8.40 × (207.47⁄100) = ૠ.
4. Determine Pump TDH
ܶ ݈݁ݒ݈݁ ݎ݁ݐܽݓ ݎ݅ݒݎ݁ݏܴ݁ = ܪܦ+ ℎ݈݁ܽ݀ ݏ݁ݏݏ+ ݈݁ݒ݈݁ ݎ݁ݐܽݓ ݃݊݅݉ݑ
ࢀࡰࡴ = 9 + 17.40 + 6 = .
5. Calculate WHP
ࢃࡴࡼ = ܳ ܪ⁄75 = 2 × 32.4⁄75 = . ૡ ࢎ
6. Calculate BHP
Assume submersible pump with e = 50%
ܹ ܲܪ0.864
ࡴࡼ = = = 1.728, ݕܽݏ. ૠ ࢎ ࢛࢙ࢍ ૡ ࢋࢋ࢙
݁ 0.5
Example 14.2: Determining Pump TDH and Pipe Size (PART III: ANALYSIS – 50 mm PIPE)
1. Determine pipe size
Assume a pipe size of 50 mm.
2. Determine friction losses
Using Table 11.3, determine the EQL of the fittings
Equivalent
Appurtenances Dia. (mm) No. length per EQL (m)
fitting (m)
Strainer 50 1 6.10 6.10
Foot valve 50 1 2.74 2.74
90° Elbow 50 1 1.62 1.62
45° Elbow 50 2 0.76 1.52
Tee 50 2 3.66 7.32
Check valve 50 1 4.27 4.27
Globe valve 50 3 16.76 50.27
Total 73.85
3. Determine total Head loss using 50 mm pipes
Get head loss per 100 m using Table 11.1
= ݂ܪ2.30 ݉⁄100 ݉
ܶݐ݈݃݊݁ ݈݁݊݅ ݁݅ ݈ܽݐℎ = 147 ݉ + 73.85 ݉ = . ૡ
ܶℎ݁ = ࡸࡴ ݁ݎ݂݁ݎ2.30 × (220.85⁄100) = . ૡ
4. Determine Pump TDH
ܶ ݈݁ݒ݈݁ ݎ݁ݐܽݓ ݎ݅ݒݎ݁ݏܴ݁ = ܪܦ+ ℎ݈݁ܽ݀ ݏ݁ݏݏ+ ݈݁ݒ݈݁ ݎ݁ݐܽݓ ݃݊݅݉ݑ
ࢀࡰࡴ = 9 + 5.08 + 6 = . ૡ
5. Calculate WHP
ࢃࡴࡼ = ܳ ܪ⁄75 = 2 × 20.08⁄75 = . ࢎ
6. Calculate BHP
Assume submersible pump with e = 50%
ܹ ܲܪ0.535
ࡴࡼ = = = 1.07, ݕܽݏ. ࢎ ࢛࢙ࢍ ࢋࢋ࢙
݁ 0.5
Example 14.2: Determining Pump TDH and Pipe Size (PART IV: DECISION)
OR
TABLE OF ANNEXES
A. a
A-I GENERAL
The detailed engineering design of the proposed potable water supply project can only
be started after screening and the preparation of the feasibility study. Only after the
feasibility study confirms the project to be technically, socially and economically viable
can the project be included in the list of candidates for detailed engineering design.
The workflow in the preparation of detailed engineering design (DED) is shown in the
flowchart on the following page.
Prior to the conduct of DED, the proposed water source location, yield, drawdown and
water quality shall be revalidated through additional data gathering and field
confirmation. The conduct of geo-resistivity shall be performed for ground water in the
target area to identify the location of the proposed well site if this was not performed
during the preparation of the feasibility study. For spring source, monitoring of spring
discharges shall continue on a regular basis starting from the planning stage to the
detailed design stage.
The topographic survey is intended for the final configuration of the facility in the
preparation of detailed design analysis and drawings. The requirements and scope of
works for topographic survey includes but not limited to the following:
1. Scope of Works
• Traverse
• Leveling
• Distance measurements
• Plan preparation with appropriate scale (1:000 ~ 1:2000).
Notice to
Proceed
Preparation of Detailed
Layout Plan and Profile of
Required Facilities and other
related Appurtenances
The system configuration refers to the general layout of the proposed system which
contains the major components of the potable water supply project. After the
completion of the topographic survey, the finalization of the proposed water supply
project configuration could commence. From this configuration, then the initial sizing of
the required components entails the conformance to the appropriate criteria of the
following:
• Hydraulic Design Criteria
• Structural Design Criteria
• Electro-mechanical Design Criteria.
The final system configuration of the proposed water supply project normally contains
the location of following proposed major facilities:
• Water source
• Reservoir or tank
• Transmission and Distribution pipelines
• Communal faucets and or service connections
The final system design should be the least cost option among other possible
alternatives in the area and should be recommended as the final system configuration.
The schematic network diagram is composed of links and nodes. The links represent the
pipes to be installed; nodes represent public faucets (demands), road intersections,
tanks or reservoirs and water source. The recommended methods on how to prepare
the schematic network diagram are as the following:
• All pipes in the system should be shown with corresponding distinct number
and length based on the output of the topographic survey.
• Each node should be given distinct number and elevation based on the
topographic survey.
The detailed design drawings or construction drawings should contain the details and
standard drawings for waterworks consisting of civil, mechanical and electrical works.
The preparation of detailed design drawings shall be based on the final selected
alternative or final configuration of the proposed water supply system. Detailed design
drawings should include at least the following:
• Cover Page
• Topographic Map
• Table of Contents with Vicinity Map and Location Map
• Legends and Symbols
• Key Plan of Delineated Area
• Plan of Water Supply Facilities
• Profile of Transmission and Distribution Pipelines
• Pipe Trench Details and Public Faucet or Service Connections Details
• Pipe Bridge, culvert and river crossing details when applicable
• Civil and electro-mechanical facility drawings when applicable such as intake
facility, tank or reservoir, pump house and deepwell construction drawings.
Part of detailed drawings when applicable will require the calculations and design
analysis for mechanical, electrical and structural facilities to complete the system.
A-VIIICOST ESTIMATES
The preparation of cost estimate requires first the completion of the detailed design
drawings and applicable specifications of all the facilities of the water system. The cost
estimates should include the costs of materials, labor, equipment and other specialty
services to complete the water supply facility. The derivation of unit costs should
consider the availability and source of construction materials and labor in the area.
Other costs of water supply items could be based on the latest “In-Place-Cost” prepared
by LWUA or on recently completed nearby potable water supply projects.
The detailed engineering design when completed should be submitted containing the
following basic documents:
• Design Report
• Hydraulic Analysis
• Program of Work (Cost Estimate)
• Design Drawings
• Construction Schedule.
Using EPANET
• Allows storage tanks to have any infinite external source to the network.
shape (i.e., diameter can vary with They are use to model such things as lakes,
categories at nodes, each with its The primary input properties are:
are:
1. Flow rate
2. Headloss
1. Start and end of nodes;
2. Diameter; Different types of valves included in
3. Length; EPANET:
4. Roughness coefficient (to determine
1. Pressure Reducing Valve (PRV)
headloss);
2. Pressure Sustaining Valves (PSV),
5. Status (open, closed, or contain
3. Pressure Breaker Valve (PBV)
check valve).
4. Flow Control Valve (FCV)
The computed output for pipes includes: 5. Throttle Control Valve (TCV)
1. Flow rate 6. General Purpose Valve (GPV)
2. Velocity
3. Headloss
The system is a conventional system using a water storage tank, distribution pipelines
and a nearby spring as source of drinking water. A 23 cu m elevated concrete tank is
located within the village with bottom elevation of 18 m and height of 3.6 m. The
nearby spring water source at elevation 40 m supplies water with a constant flow of
2.50 liters per second during the day. All the distribution pipes have a roughness
coefficient C = 120. Hazen-Williams formula is used during the calculations. Minor losses
are neglected. The water demands are tabulated below:
Notes: 1.0 Per Capita Water Consumption, 60 lpcd 4.0 Maximum Day Demand, ADD x 1.30, l/sec.
2.0 Average HH per PF = 5 5.0 Peak Hour Demand, ADD x 2.50, l/sec.
3.0 Average Day Demand (ADD); l/sec.
It is not accurate to assume a constant demand in the village. The base demands (ADD)
shown in Table 1 correspond to the average day demands. For a rural area with less
than 1000 service connections, the Peak-Hour-Demand multiplier is 2.5 x Average-Day-
Demand.
During the hydraulic simulation, nodal and link outputs should be compared and
modified until results are acceptable, and satisfy some basic design parameters listed
below:
• Water Velocity range : 0.4 m/s to 3 m/s
• Pipe Friction headloss: 0.5 m/km to 10 m/km
• Pressure: 70 m to 7 m (100 psi to 10 psi)
Demand Projections:
1. Design period: 5 – 10 years
2. Minimum Demand: 0.3 ADD
3. Average Day Demand (ADD):
• Design Population x per capita consumption/1 - NRW
4. Maximum Day Demand (MDD): 1.3 ADD
5. Peak Hour Demand (PHD):
• 3 x ADD for < 1,000 served population
• 2.5 x ADD for > 1,000 served population
6. Non Revenue Water: 15% for a new system
7. Households per public faucet: 4 – 6 HHs
Design of Pump
• Pump TDH = Depth of Pumping water level + maximum reservoir high water
level + friction losses
• Pump Capacity: = Max Day Demand / operating hours
Design of Reservoirs
• Reservoir Capacity: 25% of ADD
A.Pipelines
Cost includes fittings, jointing materials, excavation up to 1.20m, pipe bedding, backfill,
laying and jointing, warning/detection tapes, concrete thrust blocks, pressure and leakage
testing, and disinfection.
C. Butterfly Valves
Cost includes ring flange, gasket, pvc pipe, valve box with cover and concrete cover base.
E. Blow-Off Assemblies
Cost includes valves, concrete thrust blocks, fittings, concrete base and barricades.
H. Additional Tubing
Cost includes service pipe and earthwork.
I. Pavement Demolition
Cost includes labor, tools and equipment for pavement demolition and hauling of discarded
materials to appropriate dump sites.
L. Miscellaneous
Cost includes materials, labor, tools and equipment.
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in Piped Distribution Systems. World Health Organization (WHO); IWA Publishing.
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(ARISP), DAR.
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Sanitation Project Phase V. DILG.
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Center.
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Iplex Pipeline Systems.
11. Hart, W. (2003). Protective Structures For Springs: Spring Box Design,
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Cooperative Extension Program Web Site: http://groundwater.ucdavis.edu
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