Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 1324–1330

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Nanoparticles suspended in ethylene glycol thermal properties and MARK

applications: An overview
⁎
A.M. Husseina, , K. Kadirgamab,c, M.M. Noorb
a
Al-Haweeja Institute, Northern Technical University, Iraq
b
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26600 Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia
c
Automotive Engineering Centre, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26600 Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Modern nanotechnology can produce metallic or non-metallic particles of nanometer dimensions that have
Nanofluid unique optical, mechanical, magnetic, electrical, and thermal properties. The purpose of this review is to
Heat transfer summarise important published articles on the enhancement of convection heat transfer using nanoparticles
Cooling system dispersed in Ethylene Glycol (EG) and the effects on thermal properties and applications. This paper reviews all
Heat exchanger
the articles relevant to nanoparticles suspended in EG. The studies of thermal properties including experimental
Solar energy
measurement and correlations are reported. The effects of nanofluid volume fraction, temperature, and base
fluid have been included. The stability of nanofluid was shown through testing to avoid agglomeration and
clusters for many applications. In this paper, the applications of nanofluids in different types of heat exchangers,
cooling systems, and solar energies are reviewed. In the field of economics, nanotech reduces manufacturing
costs as a result of using a low-temperature process. In order to focus future studies of nanofluid applications,
the articles on this field are summarized.

1. Introduction 2. Thermal properties of nanofluids

Many industrial applications of heat transfer have aimed to both
increase and decrease temperature. The problem with thermal engi-
neering devices is the low thermal properties of conventional fluids
such as water, ethylene glycol, or oil. Nanofluids have solved this
problem because of their remarkable heat transfer abilities. A fluid that
contains nanometer-sized particles (1–100 nm) is defined as a nano-
fluid. Compared to base fluids, nanofluids enhance the rate of heat
transfer. Hence, they have a broad range of uses in industry, thermal
generation, transportation, and microelectronics.
The higher thermal properties of nanofluids compared to their base
fluids have been expected to offer significant improvements in heat
transfer capabilities. Considerable research has been going on to
develop new heat transfer fluids to enhance their thermal performance.
For forced convection, constant Reynolds number and similar hydro-
dynamic conditions yield values of Nusselt number that remain
practically unchanged. Therefore, there is considerable interest in
increasing the thermal conductivity to obtain an enhanced value of
the heat transfer coefficient.
A better understanding of using nanoparticles suspended in liquid
for many applications in thermo-fluid engineering has become a major
concern [1]. The thermophysical properties are crucial when utilised to
enhance heat transfer for heat exchangers, cooling systems and solar
collectors. Nanoparticles in EG as a base fluid have received extensive
attention from investigators due to their extensive application in heat
transfer.
2.1. Measurements and correlations
Sundar et al. [2] experimentally studied the mixture of ethylene
glycol and Al2O3 nanoparticles at 1.5% volume concentration in water:
ethylene glycol for mixtures of 80:20, 60:40, and 40:60 over a
temperature range. They found that the highest increment of thermal
conductivity of 32.26% occurred in the 80:20 ratio at 60 °C. They also
mentioned that ethylene glycol has poorer thermal conductivity than
water, and the addition of ethylene glycol will only suppress the
thermal conductivity of the base fluid. The same base fluid ratio of
40:60 (water: ethylene glycol) has also been studied by Vajjha and Das
[3] by dispersing CuO, ZnO, and Al2O3 at higher volume concentra-

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: adnanphd2012@gmail.com, muhamad@ump.edu.my (A.M. Hussein).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.12.047
Received 26 June 2015; Received in revised form 24 November 2016; Accepted 6 December 2016
Available online 10 December 2016
1364-0321/ © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A.M. Hussein et al.
tions of up to 10% in a temperature range of 298–363 K. They also
observed that the thermal conductivity increases with the increase of
particle size. Apart from particle size, the effects of other factors such as
temperature, nanoparticle shape, base fluid materials, additives, and
aggregation on the thermal conductivity of nanofluid have also been
reviewed by Philips and Shima [4]. Most of the research done in this
area has focused on thermal conductivity in the calculation of nano-
fluids because scholars believe that when the thermal conductivity of
nanofluids increases, their heat transfer property increases too [5–8].
The viscosity of nanofluids is the second important issue from
scientists' point of view. This is because adding solid particles to the
fluid will cause a pressure drop in the system, and the power
consumption of the pump will increase. Hemmat Esfe et al. [9] have
studied the heat transfer capacity of functionalized carboxyl (COOH)
double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWCNT)/water nanofluids and
obtained the friction factor and pressure drop for different Reynolds
numbers in the experiment. Fuoc et al. [10] have also studied multi-
walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) nanofluids which are suspended in
chitosan. They presented their results based on the cut rate and
concluded that this nanofluid shows non-Newtonian behaviour.
Various studies have been led on the issue [11–13], but these have
thus far been proposed for predicting the thermal conductivity and
viscosity of nanofluids. The another method of predicting nanofluids
behaviour involves using an artificial neural network for the conduc-
tivity fraction and viscosity of nanofluids. Hojjat et al. [14] conducted
an experimental study on the thermal conductivity of three different
nanofluids: alumina, titania, and CuO. Then, they modelled the
experimental data using the neural network. They used three fac-
tors—temperature, volume fraction of nanoparticles, and thermal
conductivity of nanoparticles. In another study, Hemmat Esfe et al.
[15] measured the thermal conductivity of magnesium oxide-ethylene
glycol nanofluids and modelled the experimental data using an artificial
neural network. Their variables in this experiment were temperature,
volume fraction, and the diameter of the nanoparticles. Some models
have been used to calculate the thermal conductivity of nanofluid [16],
as presented in Table 1. Some well-known models have been proposed
to evaluate the viscosity of nanofluids [17–20], see Table 2.
2.2. Effect of nanofluids volume fraction on thermal properties
The effect of the nanoparticle volume concentration on thermal
properties has been studied in a wide range of base fluids. In particular,
the thermal properties of nanofluid have been enhanced with the
increase of the nanoparticles volume fraction, for alumina (Al2O3)
[21–28] and copper oxide (CuO) [23–32]. Many researchers have
focused on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluid due to
the effect of heat transfer enhancement and pressure drop respectively
[33–37]. Raykar et al. [38] reported on the thermal and rheological
behaviour of acetylacetone-stabilized ZnO nanofluids. Yang et al. [39]
obtained ZnO hexagonal pyramids in hydrophilic media without any
traditional stabilisers and found a satisfactory model system that allows
for both theory and experiment, and their work described the synthesis
mechanism of ZnO nanoparticles in detail. Venerus et al. [40]
Table 1
Thermal conductivity models.
Model Expression Remarks
Maxwell, 1904 knf kp + k f +2∅(kp − k f ) Spherical particles
=
kf kp + k f +∅(kp − k f )
Hamilton- kp ⎛ kp ⎞ n=3 for spheres and
+ (n − 1) − (n − 1)⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟∅
Crosser, knf kf ⎝ kf ⎠ n=6 for cylinders
=1+ ⎛
1962 kf kp kp ⎞
+ (n − 1) − ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟∅
kf ⎝ kf ⎠
Pak - Cho, 1998 knf Spherical and non-
=(1 + 7.74∅)
kf spherical particles
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 1324–1330
examined the influence of particle concentration on the viscosity of
eight kinds of nanofluids and compared the data with predictions from
classical theories on suspension rheology. They concluded that nano-
fluids with lower concentrations (vol% 0.01) were a Newtonian fluid,
while those with higher concentrations (vol% 0.03) were non-
Newtonian fluid. Ghanbarpour et al. published an article on the
experimental investigations and theoretical studies of the viscosity of
Al2O3–water nanofluids [41]. In their work, the viscosity enhancement
is in the range of 18.1–300% for mass concentration and temperature
in the range of 3–50% and 293–313 K, respectively.
2.3. Effect of temperature on thermal properties
In general, in a conventional suspension (fluid plus milli/micro-
metric particles), the thermal conductivity is more sensitive to varia-
tions in temperature than the base fluid. In the case of a nanofluid,
however, variation in temperature dramatically influences the
Brownian motion and clustering of nanoparticles, modifying the value
of thermal conductivity [41]. Although the effect of temperature has
been widely studied in the literature by testing several kinds of
nanofluids, the results reported are very inhomogeneous due to the
inhomogeneity of the other parameters involved in the experiments
(size, material, base fluid, temperature range, etc.); and often the
experimental data appear contradictory. Masuda et al. [21] were the
first to measure the viscosity of some water-based nanofluids at
temperatures varying from ambient to nearly 340 K, which was
followed by some other researchers [31,32]. Wang et al. [42], using
three different dispersion techniques, obtained some data on Al2O3–
water and Al2O3–ethylene glycol mixtures at ambient temperature.
Putra et al. [43] provided some limited data showing the temperature
effect on Al2O3/water nanofluid viscosity. Recently, Maré et al. [44]
have obtained some new temperature-dependent viscosity data on
Al2O3–water nanofluid with relatively high particle concentrations.
Ojha et al. [45] reported that ZnO–water nanofluid prepared without
any surfactant showed differences in viscosity at the same temperature
during the heating and cooling cycles.
2.4. Effect of base fluid on thermal properties
According to conventional thermal conductivity models (Maxwell
[30]), as the heat conductivity of the base fluid of a mixture decreases,
the (kmixture/kf) ratio increases. When the mixture becomes a
nanofluid, the situation becomes more complex because of several
phenomena that can influence the nanofluid's thermal conductivity
(e.g. Brownian motion) [31]. Furthermore, Lee [32] has examined the
effect on thermal conductivity of the bilayer, which was formed around
the nanoparticle and has shown that both the thermal conductivity and
the thickness of the bilayer depend on the base fluid. Kwak and Kim
[46] used CuO nanoparticles dispersed in ethylene glycol; Zhang et al.
[47] used Al2O3, TiO2, CuO, and CNT nanoparticles dispersed in
distilled water; and Timofeeva et al. [48] used Al2O3 nanoparticles
dispersed in ethylene glycol. Pang et al. [49] used Al2O3 and SiO2
nanoparticles dispersed in methanol and observed 10.74% and 14.29%
thermal conductivity enhancement at 0.5% volume concentration
respectively. Lee et al. [50] observed 7.2% thermal conductivity
enhancement with SiC/water nanofluid at 3.0% volume concentration.
Hwang et al. [51] considered MWCNT/water, CuO/water, SiO2/water,
Ref.
and CuO/ethylene glycol based nanofluids and found thermal con-
[30] ductivity enhancement of water-based MWCNT nanofluid increasing
up to 11.3% at a volume fraction of 0.01%.
[31]
3. Stability of nanofluids
Nanofluids prepared by the dispersion method, however, have
[75]
commonly shown a stability problem [52–56]. These nanofluids
gradually start to settle after a period, depending on the properties of
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Table 2
List of classical models used for viscosity of dispersion.

Model Expression Remarks Ref.

Einstein (1911) μnf = (1 + 2.5∅)μf valid for relatively low particle volume [40]
fractions (60.02%).
Lundgren (1972) μnf = μf (1 + 2.5∅ + 6.25∅2 +Ο(∅3)) Taylor series [40]

Batchelor (1977) μnf = μf (1 + 2.5∅ + 6.25∅2 ) considered isotropic suspension of rigid and spherical [41]
particles
Guo et al. (2006) ⎛ ∅⎞ the effect of particle diameter [41]
μnf = μf (1 + 2.5∅ + 6.5∅2)⎜1 + 350 ⎟
⎝ dp ⎠

Graham (1981) ⎛ 4.5

⎞ the effect of separation [44]
μnf = μf ⎜⎜1 + 2.5∅+ ⎟⎟
⎝ (l / dp)(2 + l / dp)(1 + l / dp)2 ⎠

Masoumi et al. (2009) ρp VBdp the influence of Brownian velocity [44]

μnf = μf +
(72Cl )

the base liquid, surfactant or dispersant used; as well as the type of

nanoparticles and the likelihood of the nanoparticles aggregating. An
agglomerated nanofluid has distinctive properties, and may bring
about operational issues like those experienced with micron-sized
particulate suspensions: sedimentation and obstructing of the frame-
work. Unstable nanofluids, also, are undoubtedly an underlying for the
wide errors in the literature data on their heat transfer behaviour In
any study, care should be taken to avoid the agglomeration and
clustering of small particles in the bottom and walls [57]. To break
up agglomerates, ultrasonication has to be applied. The stability of the
prepared nanofluids may be inspected using some techniques as shown
below:

3.1. pH test

TiO2 samples contain a wide range of particle concentrations from

1 to 9 wt%. Table 3 shows the visual observations after two months
from the formulation. TiO2–PG and TiO2–EG nanofluids were found
to have deposits at the bottom of the vials, except for the 1 wt% PG–
TiO2 sample. Stored particles are thought to be of large agglomerates
that can't be separated into smaller sections by applying sonication.
The end goal to dispose of these large agglomerates, the outwardly
stable upper parts of the specimens were emptied into new phials,
abandoning the sediments. Out of these, exclusive the PG-based
nanofluids stayed stable following two months [57].
3.2. Zeta potential test
Titrations were performed for water in Ethylene and Propylene
Glycol (WEG and WPG) based 1 wt% TiO2 samples to find their
Table 3
Observation for TiO2 nanofluid.
wt% Basefluid pH Time (hr)
Fig. 1. Zeta potential curves for 1% suspension of TiO2 in WEG and WPG at 20 °C.
isoelectric points (IEP). As appeared in Fig. 1, the TiO2–WEG
nanofluids had a zeta potential near −40 mV, which is satisfactory for
a moderately stable suspension, in the pH score of 6.2–7.8. Review that
the underlying pH of TiO2–WEG nanofluid was 6.8. Henceforth, this
specimen is relied upon to be steady even without pH conformity.
Nearer to its IEP (pH 4.7), this nanofluid ought to be flimsy. Then
again, the zeta capability of TiO2–WPG nanofluid fell in a moderately
limit extend. Its soundness may not be accomplished by pH change
alone. The initial pH of this suspension was 6.0, which is close to its
IEP and is prone to fail immediately. The performance of zinc oxide
suspensions was studied in different base liquids by [57]. A particle size
of 1 wt% ZnO in various base liquids was measured before and after 4 h
of sonication as given in Table 4.
Observation

1 PG Not adjusted 38 Stable 3.3. TEM and SEM test

6 PG Not adjusted 38 Stable
9 PG Not adjusted 38 Stable Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is a microscopy method
1 EG Not adjusted 38 Complete sediment
in which a light emission is transmitted through a ultra-thin sample,
6 EG Not adjusted 38 1 mm sediment
9 EG Not adjusted 38 2 mm sediment communicating with the sample as it goes through. A filtering electron
1 WPG Not adjusted 24 Very little sediment
1 WPG 3 24 Very little sediment Table 4
1 WPG 7 24 Phase separated Observations for ZnO samples after 16hr of sonication.
1 WPG 9 24 Very little sediment
1 WPG 11 24 Very little sediment Particles concentration % Basefluid Results
1 WPG Not adjusted 24 Very little sediment
1 WEG 3 24 Phase separated 1 PG Stable
1 WEG 7 24 Phase separated 1 EG Phase separated
1 WEG 9 24 Very little sediment 1 WEG Phase separated
1 WEG 11 24 1 mm sediment 1 WPG 1 mm sediment

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Fig. 2. SEM image of Silver nanoparticles in ethylene glycol.

magnifying instrument (SEM) is a sort of electron magnifying instru-

Fig. 3. TEM images of Cu nanoparticles.
ment that produces pictures of a specimen by checking it with an
engaged light emission. The electrons associated with atoms in the
samples, creating different signs that can be identified and that contain
data about the specimen's surface topography and composition [58].
TEM produce images that have higher magnification and greater
resolution than images produced by SEM. On another hand, SEM
produces three-dimensional (3D) pictures while transmission electron
microscopes only produce flat (2D) images. 3D images provide more
information on the shape of features and also about the location of
features about each other. The nanoparticle suspension was centri-
fuged at 14,000 rpm for 90 min, and the resulting pellet was lyophi-
lized for SEM analysis by [59]. The gelatin and polyethene glycol (PEG)
polymer chains (PEGylated) gelatin nanoparticle samples were
mounted on an aluminium sample mount and sputter coated with
gold-palladium to minimise surface charging. The samples were
observed for surface morphology with an AMR-1000 (Amray
Instruments, Bedford, Massachusetts) scanning electron microscope
at an accelerating voltage of 10 kV. Polyethene glycol (PEG)-coated
silica nanoparticles were prepared at room temperature and charac-
terised for the purpose of biomedical applications by [60]. SEM images
of the silver nanoparticles products developed in an ethylene glycol and
n-butyl alcohol medium were conducted by [61]. The image of silver Fig. 4. Electrical conductivity of the nanofluid with weight fraction.
nanoparticles in an ethylene glycol medium is shown in Fig. 2. The
effect of Trioctylphosphine oxide (TOPO) on the morphology of silver with the loading of GONs until 0.07 wt%. Then, it rose slightly with a
nanoparticle products can be explained by the selective adsorption of weight fraction of 0.10%. The electrical conductivity enhancements can
capping agents on the surface of the silver nanoparticles. Notably, the be estimated based on the following Eq. (1):
TOPO and different solvents play a major role in the growth of silver
⎛ σnf − σf ⎞
nanoparticles. The silver nanoparticles framed were overwhelmingly Enhancement %=⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
cubical with a uniform shape. It is realised that the states of metal ⎝ σf ⎠ (1)
nanoparticles extensively change their optical and electronic proper-
ties. This demonstrates the arrangement of silver nano tests in the Electrical conductivity enhancement was reported by other re-
ethylene glycol medium is noteworthy and uncovers that the measure searchers for different types of nanofluids. For example, Baby and
of the silver wire is in nano shape. Structural characterization of the as- Ramaprabhu [64] examined the electrical conductivity of the nanofluid
synthesized Cu nanoparticles to establish their organic phase and containing graphene/W and graphene/EG. Enhancements of about
crystallinity was performed by [62]. Fig. 3 shows a typical TEM 1400% and 220% for graphene/W and graphene/EG were achieved
micrograph of a much-diluted sample of the nanofluid. The TEM respectively. Furthermore, Kole and Dey [65] inspected the electrical
image of particles indicated an average primary particle size of about conductivity of W/EG containing functionalized graphene nanosheets
200 nm. Particles with much smaller dimensions can be seen as well. (f-HEG). Their results showed that the electrical conductivity improved
by 8620% compared to the base fluid. The electrical conductivity of the
nanofluid depends on the electrical double layer (EDL), weight frac-
3.4. Electrical conductivity tion, nanosheet size, nanosheet concentrations, and nanosheet charge.
By dispersing the GONs in DW/EG, electrical charge will develop on
Fig. 4 shows the electrical conductivity of graphene oxide na- their surfaces. This is due to the presence of a diffuse charge layer
nosheets (GONs)-W/EG as a function of weight fraction by [63]. It is around the GONs when ions with a charge opposite to that of the
evident from the graph that the electrical conductivity rapidly increased particle surface are attached. This layer is defined as an electrical

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A.M. Hussein et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 69 (2017) 1324–1330

double layer (Debye length, K_1) [66,67]. The surface charge of the analysts to searched liquids with higher thermal conductivities.
GONs, together with an ion cloud that strengthens the electronics Therefore, nanofluids have been used instead of the commonly used
double layer, will actively aid the enhancement in conduction mechan- base fluids [88–90]. The enhancement of car radiator heat transfer
isms through the dispersion [68]. Also, the presence of nanoparticles in using TiO2 and SiO2 nanoparticles dispersed in both water and EG as
the base fluids with the reduced equivalent particulate masses leads to base fluids were studied experimentally by Hussein [91]. The test rig
enhanced electrophoretic mobility, consequently improves the effective was set up as a car radiator with tubes and container. The results
electrical conductivity of the nanofluids [69]. The conducting pathways showed that the heat transfer increases with the growth of nanofluid
will rise in the solution with increased loading of the additive. This volume fraction. It has been demonstrated that the addition of
leads to enlargement of the overall electrical conductivity of the nanoparticles to the base fluid significantly enhanced the heat transfer
solution [70–72]. Based on the experimental data, a correlation is in the cooling system.
developed to estimate the electrical conductivity of the GONs-DW/EG
by limiting of the weight fraction to 0.01–0.10 wt% and temperature
4.3. Solar energy systems
25–50 °C.
In recent years, the use of solar energy has had a remarkable edge.
4. Applications of nanofluids
The perceived shortage of fossil fuels, as well as environmental
considerations, will constrain the use of fossil fuels in the future.
Nanofluids have been experimentally and theoretically shown to
Therefore, researchers are motivated to find alternative sources of
possess improved heat transport properties and higher energy effi-
energy.
ciency in a variety of thermal exchange systems for different industrial
The Earth receives about 1 h more energy from the Sun than that
applications, such as transportation, electronic cooling, military, nucle-
consumed by the entire world for 1 year. Most solar energy applications
ar power and space.
are financially viable, while small systems for individual use require
One of the primary objectives of delivering nanofluids is to enhance
just a few kilowatts of power [92,93]. It is important to apply solar
the thermal conductivity attributes of the base liquid. Suspended
energy to a wide range of applications and provide solutions through
nanoparticles have higher conductivity than base liquid, in this way
the modification of the energy proportion, improving energy stability,
the compelling thermal conductivity and convective heat transfer
increasing energy sustainability, and enhancing system efficiency [94].
exchange coefficient of nanofluids are upgraded. Recently, various trial
This paper presents a review of previous studies on the application of
examinations on nanofluids convection have been performed, in both
nanofluids in solar thermal engineering systems. The former works on
laminar and turbulent regimes [73–77].
the requests of nanofluids in solar energy are mainly related to their
applications in collectors. Therefore, this review mainly investigates the
4.1. Heat exchangers
effects of nanofluids on the efficiency improvement of solar collectors,
as well as on economic and environmental considerations regarding the
Mojarrad et al. [78] studied the hydrodynamic and thermal
use of these systems. Other applications of nanofluids in thermal
behaviours of alumina/water and alumina/water–ethylene glycol 50/
energy storage, solar cells, and solar stills are also being reviewed.
50 by volume (WEG50) nanofluids in the thermal entrance region of a
Some suggestions are also made for future works in this field.
circular tube with constant wall temperature. The effects of the base
Also, the real challenges of using nanofluids in solar energy
fluid, nanoparticles loading, and Reynolds number on the convective
applications were discussed. It should be reiterated here that, as this
heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop were studied. The outcomes
is the first systematic review paper on this subject, it is desirable to
show that the normal convective heat transfer and normal Nusselt
provide the fullest possible details. However, in an attempt to reduce
number increment with expanding volume portion and also Reynolds
the overall length of the journal, without compromising the technical
number. Likewise, it is found that alumina/WEG50 nanofluids have a
quality, only some critical questions for problems of practical applica-
more heat transfer increment contrasted with alumina/water nano-
tions have been briefly described. Tyagi et al. [95] theoretically
fluids. Maiga et al. [79] studied the heat transfer enhancement in
investigated the effects of different parameters on the efficiency of a
turbulent tube flow using an Al2O3 nanoparticles suspension.
low-temperature nanofluid-based direct absorption solar collector
Buongiorno [80] presented a critical analysis of convective transport
(DAC), where the working fluid is a mixture of water and aluminium
in nanofluids using non-dimensionalization. This study has laid the
nanoparticles. A glass covered the upper side of this collector, while the
foundations for numerous subsequent analytical and numerical inves-
lower side was well insulated, so it was adiabatic. The efficiency of the
tigations, including those by Kuznetsov and Nield [81,82]; Kolade et al.
collector was obtained by the following Eq. (2):
[83]; Kakaç and Pramuanjaroenkij [84]; and Bachok et al. [85]. Uddin
et has considered More complex nanofluid transport processes al. [86], usefulgain MCp(Tout − Tin )
η= =
who employed Lie group algebra and numerical methods to compute availableenergy AGT (2)
the influence of nanofluid rheology on thermofluid and mass transfer
An experimental study to investigate the effect of Cu nanoparticles
characteristics in heat-generating boundary layer flows.
on the efficiency of a flat plate solar collector was performed by [96].
The trials were performed in various volume stream rates of the
4.2. Cooling systems
nanofluid from 0.016 to 0.050 kg/s and the ASHRAE 93 standard
was utilised to test the solar collector's performance. It was found that
The heat transfer performance of pure water and pure EG has been
by expanding the nanoparticle weight part, the proficiency of the
compared with their binary mixtures by [87]. Furthermore, different
collector was improved.
amounts of Al2O3 nanoparticles have been added to these base fluids,
and their effects on the heat transfer performance of a car radiator have
been determined experimentally. The results demonstrated that nano- 4.4. Future work
fluids clearly enhance heat transfer compared to their base fluid. In the
best conditions, a heat transfer enhancement of about 40% compared It is vital to study on how to develop correlations of thermal
to the base fluids has been recorded. Base liquids, for example, water, properties of nanoparticles suspended in EG. Also, the effect of the
ethylene glycol, and glycerol have been utilised as customary coolants volume fraction, temperature, and size diameter on the friction factor
as a part of car radiators for a long time. Notwithstanding, these liquids and heat transfer need to be cleared. Furthermore, the use of
have low, warm conductivities, which has in this manner provoked nanoparticles suspended in EG in more industrial applications should

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A.M. Hussein et al.
be included in future works and the ability to apply it practically.
Additionally, the utilising of nanoparticles suspended in the mixing of
water and EG with proper volume fraction can be considered in the
future for heat transfer enhancement.
5. Conclusions
Recently, significant theoretical and experimental research works
on convective heat transfer have appeared in the open literature on the
Enhancement of heat transfer using suspensions of nanometer-sized
solid particle materials, metallic or nonmetallic in EG. Thus, this paper
presents an overview of the recent investigations in the study of the
thermal characteristics of nanofluids and applications.
General correlations for the effective thermal conductivity, viscos-
ity, and Nusselt number of nanofluids were reported in the literature.
Most of the experimental and numerical studies show that nanofluids
exhibit an enhanced heat transfer coefficient compared to their base
fluid and this increases significantly with increasing concentration of
nanoparticles as well as Reynolds number. The enhancement of the
heat transfer capability of nanofluids makes their applications in many
industries an interesting option; leading to a better system perfor-
mance and advantage in energy efficiency. On the other hand, nano-
fluids stability and their production cost are major factors that hinder
the commercialization of nanofluids. Further theoretical and experi-
mental research investigations on the effective thermal conductivity
and viscosity are needed to demonstrate the potential of nanofluids and
to understand their heat transfer characteristics; as well as to identify
new and unique applications for these fields. Nanofluid Thermal
conductivity increases linearly with nanoparticle volume concentration.
However, in some cases, the increase was non-linear. Thermal con-
ductivity enhancement for nanofluids is temperature-independent.
Clustering has a major role in influencing thermal conductivity. The
use of additives and surfactants modifies nanofluid pH values, and
there are thus discrepancies in the thermal conductivity data reported
in the literature. The use of nanoparticles suspended in base fluid has
given possible enhancements for car cooling systems. Based on the
literature, the improved thermal conductivity of nanofluid is the most
important factor for enhancing the efficiency of solar systems, but a
higher solid volume fraction does not always enhance efficiency.
Utilising nanofluid in solar systems involves many environmental
and economical beneficial aspects, such as reducing CO2 emissions
through enhancing the efficiency, and also reduced emissions from the
manufacturing process of nanofluid-based collectors. As the pH value
of nanofluid diverges positively or negatively from the iso-electric
point, less agglomeration appears, and this consequently leads to better
thermal conductivity.
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