Journal of Cleaner Production 57 (2013) 308e319

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Journal of Cleaner Production

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Use of increasing amounts of bagasse ash waste to produce

self-compacting concrete by adding limestone powder waste
Gritsada Sua-iam a, Natt Makul b, *
a
The Project Office of Consortium on Doctoral Philosophy Program of Rajabhat University, Phranakhon Rajabhat University, 9 Changwattana Road,
Bangkhen Bangkok, 10220, Thailand
b
Department of Building Technology, Faculty of Industrial Technology, Phranakhon Rajabhat University, 9 Changwattana Road, Bangkhen Bangkok,
10220, Thailand

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Bagasse ash is an abundantly available combustion by-product in the sugarcane industry. We examined
Received 12 March 2013 the effect of adding limestone powder to self-compacting concrete mixtures in which large amounts of
Received in revised form bagasse ash were employed as a fine aggregate replacement. A Type 1 Portland cement content of
6 June 2013
550 kg/m3 was maintained in all of the mixtures. The fine aggregate was replaced with 10, 20, 40, 60, 80,
Accepted 8 June 2013
Available online 18 June 2013
or 100% bagasse ash and limestone powder by volume. Mixtures were designed to yield a slump flow
diameter of 70
2.5 cm. The workability (slump flow, T50cm slump flow time, V-funnel flow time, and J-
ring flow) and hardened properties (ultrasonic pulse velocity and compressive strength) of each mixture
Keywords:
Bagasse ash
were measured, and blocking assessments were performed. The volumetric percentage replacement of
Limestone powder 20% limestone powder in fine aggregate incorporating 20% bagasse ash effectively enhanced the work-
Fine aggregate replacement ability and hardened properties of self-compacting concrete.
Self-compacting concrete Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction the use of agricultural and industrial by-products in concrete pro-

Sugarcane requires ample sunlight, warmth, and water, limiting
its cultivation to semi-tropical regions. It is a particularly important
product in developing countries (Wakamura, 2008). In 2011, the
total worldwide production of sugarcane was approximately 1794
million tons. Thailand is the fourth largest producer of sugarcane in
the world (Crop production, 2013), with a total production of
approximately 98 million tons (Office of Cane and Sugar Board,
2012). Much of the raw mass of sugarcane becomes waste during
the refining process. Since refineries are normally built in locations
where commercial power is unavailable, the factories generate
their own electricity by burning bagasse to provide steam for back-
pressure steam turbine generators as well as process heating
(Wakamura, 2008). The resulting bagasse ash (BA) represents
approximately 0.62% of the sugarcane weight (Cordeiro et al.,
2004), or 607,600 tons per year in Thailand. Fig. 1 is a flow chart
of the raw sugar production process and the resulting by-products.
In Thailand, most of the BA is deposited in landfills. The many
landfills required are rapidly becoming an environmental burden
(Chusilp et al., 2009a; Somna et al., 2012) (Fig. 2). In recent years,
* Corresponding author. Tel./fax: þ66 2 522 6637.
E-mail address: shinomomo7@hotmail.com (N. Makul).
duction has been the focus of a great deal of research because of the
pozzolanic activity of ash materials, including the ash derived from
combustion of sugarcane solid wastes (Villar-Cociña et al., 2008).
BA may be classified as a probable pozzolanic material, with the
main factors affecting reactivity being the crystallinity of the silica
present in the ash and the presence of impurities such as carbon
and unburned material (Martirena et al., 1998). Good pozzolanic
properties are obtained in BA heated between 800 and 1000  C for
20 min (Villar-Cociña et al., 2008) or treated by air calcination at
600  C for 3 h. The improved pozzolanic properties are due to the
presence of amorphous silica, low carbon content, and high specific
surface area (Cordeiro et al., 2009). Cordeiro et al. (2004) demon-
strated that the pozzolanic activity of BA may be significantly
increased by mechanical grinding in a vibratory mill. Ground BA
with a loss-on-ignition of less than 10% provided an excellent
pozzolanic material and could be used to partially replace Portland
cement in concrete (Chusilp et al., 2009b). Many researchers have
reported that BA exhibits satisfactory behavior in blended cemen-
titious materials in concrete and has great potential for use in other
applications (Alavéz-Ramírez et al., 2012). Singh et al. (2000) noted
that the addition of 10% BA increased the compressive strength of
cement paste at all ages of hydration. The chemical deterioration of
blended cement is also reduced due to the pozzolanic nature of BA
and the reduced permeability of BA-containing mixtures.

0959-6526/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.06.009
 G. Sua-iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 57 (2013) 308e319
Sugar Industry
Sugar Cane
Cane milling/ Juice clarification/ Boiling /
Raw Sugar
Crushing Defecation Centrifuging
Process
By-product
Bagasse Filter Cake Molasses
Cogeneration Bio - Composting Ethanol
Bagasse Ash
Fig. 1. Sugar production process.
Replacement of fine aggregate with up to 20% BA resulted in
equivalent or higher compressive strength and reduced water
permeability and chloride diffusion (Ganesan et al., 2007; Chusilp
et al., 2009a; Amin, 2011). Cordeiro et al. (2008) reported that the
physico-chemical properties of BA are appropriate for use as a
mineral admixture and that its reactivity is mainly dependent on
particle size and fineness, concluding that it is possible to produce
high-strength concrete by using finely ground BA. Another study
reported that concrete mixtures containing up to 30% ground BA
exhibited compressive strengths of 65.6e68.6 MPa at 28 days
(Rukzon and Chindaprasirt, 2012). The cost of SCC could be reduced
by 36% by incorporating BA along with the standard concrete in-
gredients (Akram et al., 2009).
The construction of highly congested reinforced concrete ele-
ments requires the fresh concrete mixtures to be very fluid. The risk
of material separation in concrete is especially great for heavily
reinforced structures with high placement heights and excessive
vibratory compaction during consolidation (Mehta and Monteiro,
2006). The compaction procedure is normally performed by un-
trained labor and the supervision of the process is inherently
difficult. Although poorly compacted concrete may be repaired, the
overall durability of the structure is often reduced. In addition, the
normal concrete placement process involves safety and environ-
mental risks, including ‘white finger syndrome’ and high noise
Fig. 2. Landfill disposal of BA.
309
levels (Gaimster and Dixon, 2003). These factors make it important
for concrete to exhibit a low resistance to flow. The concrete must
also possess moderate viscosity to maintain homogenous defor-
mation through restricted sections such as closely spaced re-
inforcements (Khayat, 1999).
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a highly flowable, non-
segregating concrete that can spread into place, fill formwork,
and encapsulate reinforcements without mechanical consolidation.
It is often referred to as “healthy concrete” (Walraven, 2003) due to
the reduced noise pollution and decreased employee risk
(American Concrete Institute, 2007). SCC was originally developed
in 1988 to produce durable concrete structures during a shortage of
skilled construction workers in Japan (Okamura and Ouchi, 2003).
The functional requirements of fresh SCC are different from those of
vibrated fresh concrete. For instance, the RILEM technical com-
mittee (RILEM Technical Committee, 2006) stated that fresh SCC
must possess the key properties of: (i) filling ability, (ii) passing
ability, and (iii) resistance to segregation. The use of supplementary
cementitious materials in SCC could reduce material costs while
enhancing the self-compacting ability. Recent developments in SCC
research are centered on the addition of supplementary cementi-
tious materials with the objective of reducing solid waste disposal
problems. Substantial energy and cost savings are possible when
industrial by-products such as BA and LS are used in concrete
production.
Limestone powder (LS) is commonly used as a secondary raw
material in SCC formulation (Domone, 2008). This material is a by-
product of stone crushing operations and normally presents a
serious problem in terms of disposal, pollution, and health hazards.
Ground limestone is generally considered an inert filler, although
addition of limestone improves the hydration rate of cement.
Physico-chemical changes occurring during Portland cement hy-
dration are accelerated by the presence of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3), which increases the hydration rates of tricalcium silicate
(C3S) and cement and the precipitation rate of calcium carbosilicate
hydrate (Péra et al., 1999; Ye et al., 2007). Adding fillers can increase
the densities of the paste matrix and the interfacial transition zone
between the matrix and the aggregate, thereby improving concrete
performance (Shuhua and Peiyu, 2010).
In SCC mixtures, limestone fillers are associated with a small
particle size, which enhances the packing density and decreases the
amount of water entrapped in the system. When large volumes of
limestone filler were added to SCC mixtures, self-compacting
properties were achieved at a lower water-to-cement ratio of
Type 1 Portland cement mixed with CaCO3. Moreover, the volume
of the continuous phase of lubricating paste was increased. Para-
doxically, SCC mixtures must possess both high flowability and high
segregation resistance (Yahia et al., 2005; Felekoglu, 2007; Esping,
2008). Using blends of LS and mineral admixtures such as fly ash,
rice husk ash, blast furnace slag, or natural pozzolans improves the
overall performance of SCC (De Weerdt et al., 2011; Makhloufi et al.,
2012; Rizwan and Bier, 2012; Sua-iam and Makul, 2013).
With the increased production and utilization of concrete, as
well as the rapidly increasing consumption of natural aggregates
that constitute the bulk of concrete, it is important to consider the
environmental impacts of this material. The use of recycled ag-
gregates can play key roles in reducing landfill waste and
conserving natural aggregates, with many environmental benefits.
Previous studies have examined the possibility of using waste
materials as natural aggregate replacements in concrete
(Richardson et al., 2011; Bravo and de Brito, 2012; Marie and
Quiasrawi, 2012; Zhao et al., 2013). This work investigated the
interaction between LS and BA when used as partial fine aggregate
replacements in SCC mixtures. The workability (slump flow, J-ring
flow, and V-funnel flow) and hardened properties (compressive
310 G. Sua-iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 57 (2013) 308e319

strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity) of several mixtures were 1400

LS P Portlandite, syn – Ca(OH)2
measured. The use of as-received BA eliminated the cost and energy A Anhydrite, syn – CaSO4
1200 C
consumptions associated with grinding and increased the feasi-

Intensity (arb unit)

L C Calcite – CaCO3
bility of using BA in concrete production. 1000 L Lime – CaO

A
800
2. Materials and methods
600 L
L
P
2.1. Materials 400 P C P
C
200
Type 1 Portland cement (OPC) complying with ASTM
C150(American Society for Testing and Materials, 2009) was used in 0
all compositions. BA was obtained from a sugar plant in the Singburi
140 Q
province of Thailand. Ash that had originally been dumped in an
BA Q Quartz, syn – SiO2
open area was collected, dried, and homogenized. LS was obtained 120

Intensity (arb unit)

from an industrial rock crushing plant located in Saraburi province,
100
Thailand. The chemical compositions and physical properties of the
cement, as-received BA, and LS are listed in Table 1. The mineral- 80
ogical compositions of the BA and LS were determined using X-ray 60
diffraction (Fig. 3). The major phases were quartz in BA and calcite in
40 Q
LS. The surface characteristics of the materials were examined using
Q Q
a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), and images obtained at 20 Q Q
approximately 1000 magnification are provided in Fig. 4. 0
A polycarboxylic ether-based high range water reducing 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
admixture (HRWR) conforming to ASTM C494(American Society for
Fig. 3. X-ray diffraction patterns for LS and BA.
Testing and Materials, 2011a) standard type F with a specific gravity
of 1.05 and a solid content of 42% was also used in the mixtures. The
particle size distributions of the OPC, BA, and LS were measured cement, to provide the desired fluidity. The various SCC mixtures
using a Malvern Instruments Mastersizer 2000 particle size were identified using notations of the form BAx, LSy, and BAxLSy in
analyzer. The average particle size of the LS was slightly smaller which x and y are the volume percentages of river sand replaced
than that of the OPC (Fig. 5), whereas the BA particles were sub- with BA and LS.
stantially larger (Fig. 6). A continuously graded coarse aggregate
with a specific gravity of 2.76 and a water absorption of 1.52% was
2.3. Test methods
used in all mixtures. The fine aggregate was river sand with a
specific gravity of 2.67 and a water absorption of 0.71%. The
A 35-liter batch of each mixture was prepared using a tilting
aggregate materials were graded using sieve analysis (American
mixer. The addition sequence included sand, coarse aggregate, BA,
Society for Testing and Materials, 2011b).
LS, and OPC. Effective mixing was critical to concrete performance.
The addition of superplasticizer was delayed until 1e2 min after
2.2. Mixture proportions the addition of water, resulting in a higher flowability mixture (Liu,
2011). The procedure is illustrated in Fig. 7.
The compositions of the SCC mixtures are presented in Table 2. The mixture was adjusted to maintain a slump flow diameter of
Mixtures were prepared containing various fine aggregate com- 70
2.5 cm. The unit weight of the freshly-prepared SCC was
positions. The OPC and coarse aggregate contents were maintained measured as specified in ASTM C138 (American Society for Testing
at 550 kg/m3 and 708 kg/m3, respectively, in all mixtures. BA and LS and Materials, 2011c). The slump flow, T50cm flow time, J-ring flow,
were used to replace the river sand in amounts of 0, 10, 20, 40, 60, and V-funnel flow test procedures are illustrated in Figs. 8e10.
80, or 100% by volume. The water-to-cement (w/c) ratio was The maximum deformability of the concrete was evaluated us-
minimized by adding HRWR at a concentration of 2.0% by weight of ing slump flow testing, which measures the time required for the

Table 1
Chemical composition and physical properties of Type 1 Portland cement (OPC), bagasse ash (BA) and limestone powder (LS).

Type 1 Portland cement (OPC) Bagasse ash (BA) Limestone powder (LS)

Chemical composition (% by mass)

Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 16.39 65.26 8.97
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 3.85 6.91 1.02
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 3.48 3.65 0.37
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 0.64 1.10 2.38
Calcium oxide (CaO) 68.48 4.01 46.77
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.06 0.33 0.02
Potassium oxide (K2O) 0.52 1.99 0.13
Sodium oxide (SO3) 4.00 0.21 0.33
SiO2 þ Al2O3 þ Fe2O3 23.72 75.82 10.36
Physical properties
Loss on Ignition (% by mass) 1.70 15.34 39.54
Particle size distribution, D50 (mm) 23.32 107.9 15.63
Specific gravity 3.20 2.35 2.76
Specific surface area (cm2/g) 610 274 1300
 G. Sua-iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 57 (2013) 308e319 311

Fig. 4. SEM micrographs (1000) of (a) OPC, (b) BA, and (c) LS.

uncompacted concrete to reach a spread of 50 cm from the time an funnel. A V-shaped funnel was filled with fresh concrete and the
inverted mould is first raised. This measurement provides a relative time taken for the concrete to flow out of the funnel was measured
indication of the confined flow rate of the concrete mixture and and recorded as the V-funnel flow time, according to the procedure
was performed in accordance with ASTM C1611 (American Society outlined in the EFNARC standards (EFNARC, 2002).
for Testing and Materials, 2011d). The reported spread diameters The typical workability acceptance criteria for self-compacting
are the averages of four measurements. concrete mixtures are listed in Table 3.
The passing ability was tested using a J-ring apparatus according The hardened properties were determined using ultrasonic
to the procedure in ASTM C1621 (American Society for Testing and pulse velocity (UPV) and compressive strength tests. Triplicate test
Materials, 2011e). The difference between the slump flow and J-ring specimens were prepared in the form of 150 mm
flow is an indicator of the passing ability of the concrete. diameter  300 mm tall cylinders without compaction. The
The filling ability and deformability rate of the concrete mix-
tures when flowing through restricted areas were tested using a V-
Fine Aggregate Upper gradation Lower gradation
Coarse aggregate Limestone Bagasse ash
100
100
90
90
80
Cumulated finer (%)

80
Cumulated finer (%)

D = 23.32 m D = 15.63 m
70
70
60 60

50 50
D = 107.9 m
40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

Diameter size ( m)
Diameter size ( m)
Fig. 6. Gradations of fine and coarse aggregates and particle size distributions of BA,
Fig. 5. Particle size distribution of OPC. and LS.
312 G. Sua-iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 57 (2013) 308e319

Table 2 words, the unit weights of SCC mixtures containing LS and BA were
Compositions of SCC mixtures. higher than those of the SCC mixtures mixed with BA alone, but
No. Mixture Materials (kg/m3) HRWR lower than those of SCC mixtures mixed with LS alone. The lower
codes (%by weight unit weight of mixtures containing BA is due to an increase in
OPC Fine aggregate Coarse
of cement)
aggregate porosity and the higher unit weight of LS mixtures is due to the
Sand BA LS
greater density of the LS particles (2.76 vs. 2.67 for river sand and
1 Control 550 813 0 0 708 2.0 2.35 for BA) (Akram et al., 2009; Sua-iam and Makul, 2013).
2 BA10 550 731 72 0 708 2.0
3 BA20 550 650 144 0 708 2.0
4 BA40 550 488 288 0 708 2.0 3.1.3. T50cm slump flow
5 BA60 550 325 432 0 708 2.0 The slump flow diameter of the SCC mixtures was maintained at
6 BA80 550 163 577 0 708 2.0 an average of 70
2.5 cm, which is an indication of good work-
7 BA100 550 e 721 0 708 2.0 ability. Slump flow time testing is the simplest and most commonly
8 LS10 550 731 0 85 708 2.0
9 LS20 550 650 0 169 708 2.0
adopted test method for evaluating the flowability of self-
10 LS40 550 488 0 339 708 2.0 compacting concrete. The standard test method is described in
11 LS60 550 325 0 508 708 2.0 ASTM C1611 (American Society for Testing and Materials, 2011d).
12 LS80 550 163 0 677 708 2.0 The time required for the SCC mixtures to reach 50 cm ranged from
13 LS100 550 0 0 846 708 2.0
3 to 7 s, in accordance with EFNARC guidelines (EFNARC, 2002)
14 BA5LS5 550 731 36 42 708 2.0
15 BA10LS10 550 650 72 85 708 2.0 (Table 3). The slump flow time increased monotonically with
16 BA20LS20 550 488 144 169 708 2.0 increasing aggregate replacement in mixtures containing both BA
17 BA30LS30 550 325 216 254 708 2.0 and LS. The slump flow time was between 4 and 6 s in mixtures
18 BA40LS40 550 163 288 339 708 2.0 containing only BA, 6e20 s in mixtures containing only LS, and 4e
19 BA50LS50 550 e 360 423 708 2.0
9 s in mixtures containing both constituents (Fig. 13). Maximum
slump flow times occurred in mixtures containing 20% BA or 60%
specimens were initially covered with a plastic sheet. Specimens LS. The higher slump flow times at these concentrations may have
were removed from the moulds after 24 h and immersed in lime- been due to increased surface area in the case of BA-containing
saturated water until testing at 3, 7, 28, and 91 days, in accor- mixtures and improved packing in LS-containing mixtures
dance with ASTM C597 (American Society for Testing and Materials, (Felekoglu, 2007). The decreased flow times in mixtures containing
2011f) and ASTM C39 (American Society for Testing and Materials, larger amounts of BA or LS may have been due to the increased
2011g). water requirement, which resulted in weaker cohesion and inter-
locking between the river sand, BA, and LS particles (Sua-iam and
Makul, 2013).
3. Results
3.1.4. V-funnel test
3.1. Properties of fresh SCC The V-funnel test measures the effects of both internal and
external friction within a gradually reducing funnel section. In this
3.1.1. Water requirement test particle shape becomes a very important flow parameter
The SCC w/c ratios producing controlled slumps of 70
2.5 cm (Rizwan and Bier, 2012). V-funnel flow times are specified in the
in diameter are plotted in Fig. 11. Mixtures containing BA required EFNARC guidelines to be 8e12 s (EFNARC, 2002) (Table 3). The
more water than those containing only LS or mixtures of BA and LS. passing time increased in proportion to the water requirement and
The water requirement increased with increasing amounts of BA fine aggregate replacement level.
mostly due to the porous nature of the particles and their greater In mixtures BA10, LS10, and LS20, the V-funnel times were
surface area, both of which enhance the absorption of water within the specified range. The flow time increased with increasing
(Chusilp et al., 2009b). The water requirements of mixtures con- amounts of BA because the particles absorbed water, resulting in
taining both BA and LS were substantially reduced. Some of the highly viscous mixtures and leading to segregation of the fine
physical effects were associated with the small size of the limestone aggregate. The flow time decreased with increasing LS content by
particles, which enhances the packing density and reduces the more than 60% due to the lack of cohesiveness and increased unit
interstitial void fraction and therefore decreases the amount of weight.
water trapped in the system (Yahia et al., 2005). SCC mixtures displayed acceptable V-funnel performance when
they contained both BA and LS in a 1:1 ratio at replacement levels of
3.1.2. Unit weight not more than 40% (Fig. 14).
The unit weights of the SCC mixtures are plotted in Fig. 12. The
unit weight decreased with increasing BA content and increased 3.1.5. J-ring test and blocking assessment
with increasing LS content. When BA was combined with LS, the Characteristics such as passing ability and segregation resis-
unit weights of SCC mixtures were decreased, and the unit weight tance are normally investigated using the J-ring test. Once the test
was more influenced by the BA than by the LS content. In other cone is lifted, the mixture is allowed to flow through a network of

Bagasse ash (BA)

Fine and Limestone Type 1 Portland Coarse Water Superplasticizer Stop mixing
aggregate powder (LS) cement (OPC) aggregate

0 1 4 6 9 minutes
10 15

Fig. 7. Mixing procedure timeline.

 G. Sua-iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 57 (2013) 308e319 313

Fig. 8. Slump flow and T50cm slump flow tests.

Fig. 9. J-ring test.

reinforcements. The differences between the slump flow and J-ring
flow diameters are used to obtain the blocking assessment ac-
cording to the criteria described in Table 3 and adapted from ASTM
C1621 (American Society for Testing and Materials, 2011e), in which
a difference of 0e25 mm is defined as no visible blocking, 25e
50 mm is defined as minimal to noticeable blocking, and greater
than 50 mm is defined as noticeable to extreme blocking.
Less than 50 mm of blocking was observed in samples con-
taining less than 40% BA or LS alone and up to 60% of a combination
of BA and LS (Fig. 15). Mixtures containing a combination of BA and
LS achieved adequate passing ability and maintained sufficient
resistance to segregation around congested reinforcement areas
due to the combined influence of a decrease in BA content and an
increase in water-to-cement ratio. Decreasing the amount of river
sand by replacement with the finer-grained LS could lead to
increased viscosity and hence result in lower segregation during
and after concrete placement (Khayat, 1999).
3.2. Properties of hardened SCC
The compressive strength and ultrasonic velocity of the mix-
tures were tested at 3, 7, 28 and 91 days. Reported values are the
means of tests performed on three specimens.
3.2.1. Compressive strength
The average compressive strengths of the SCC samples at each
age are plotted in Fig. 16. The compressive strength continued to
increase over the 91-day curing period. The control SCC mixture

Fig. 10. V-funnel flow test.

314 G. Sua-iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 57 (2013) 308e319

Table 3 Akram et al., 2009). The compressive strength of the mixture

General acceptance criteria for SCC mixtures according to ASTM and EFNARC containing 100% BA was not measured due to failure of the concrete
standards.
to set as a result of the high water content required to maintain
Workability Slump T50cm V-funnel Blocking assessment (mm) slump flow. The greatest compressive strength was achieved when
test flow (mm) (sec) (sec) the mixture contained a 10% fine aggregate replacement of LS.
No Minimal Extreme
Improvement stemmed from the void-filling ability of the smaller
Requirement 650e800 3e7 8e12 0e25 25e50 >50
particles and was more pronounced at lower w/c ratios (De Weerdt
et al., 2011). The main constituent of LS is CaCO3 which has an
accelerating effect on C3S and cement hydration and leads to the
1.8
precipitation of calcium carbosilicate hydrate, which may also
BA
1.6
LS
contribute to void filling (Péra et al., 1999; Esping, 2008; Shuhua
35%
1.4 and Peiyu, 2010; Makhloufi et al., 2012; Sua-iam and Makul, 2013).
Required w/c

BA+LS
1.2
27%
1.0 18%
3.2.2. Ultrasonic pulse velocity
33% 18% The average UPV results at 3, 7, 28, and 91 days are illustrated in
0.8
Fig. 17. The trends in UPV and compressive strength in these ex-
0.6 31%
30% 26% periments were similar. UPV increased with increasing compres-
0.4 24% 22% sive strength for all mixtures. The UPV of the control SCC mixture
21%
0.2 12% was 6048 km/h at 28 days, which increased to 18,720 km/h after 91
0.0 days. The variations correspond to the degree of densification
0 20 40 60 80 100 within the internal structure, and higher velocities generally indi-
Fine aggregate replacement (%) cated a better quality SCC mixture. Addition of increasing amounts
of BA decreased the ultrasonic pulse velocity due to the increased
Fig. 11. Required water-to-cement (w/c) ratios for SCC mixtures.
porosity in the hardened concrete (Rukzon and Chindaprasirt,
2012). The initially high porosity was reduced during curing due
Increased to the pozzolanic activity of BA, which produces calcium silicate
105
hydrates (CeSeH) belonging to be tobermorite family (Villar-
100 1% 2%
4% Cociña et al., 2008). Addition of LS increased the ultrasonic pulse
1% 2% 6%
velocity by decreasing the total porosity due to the filling effect of
(% control mixture)

Decreased
95
5% 11% the fine LS as well as a chemical effect in which the calcium car-
Unit weight

15%
90
9% bonate of the LS interacts with the aluminate hydrates formed
85 during OPC hydration, leading to the stabilization of the ettringite
11%
phase and resulting in an increase in the total volume of the hy-
80
BA
12% dration products (Ye et al., 2007; De Weerdt et al., 2011; Makhloufi
75 LS et al., 2012).
BA+LS
70
0 20 40 60 80 100 3.2.3. Relationship between compressive strength and ultrasonic
Fine aggregate replacement (%) pulse velocity
The relationships between the compressive strength and the
Fig. 12. Unit weight of SCC mixtures. UPV of the SCC mixtures are described in Fig. 18. The UPV increased
with increasing compressive strength for all mixtures. Good cor-
had a compressive strength of 65.0 MPa at 28 days, which increased relations were obtained between compressive strength and UPV,
to 82.8 MPa after 91 days. Addition of increasing amounts of BA regardless of the fine aggregate composition. The relationship be-
generally decreased the strength at a given age due to the greater tween the two properties was described by the equation
porosity of the material (Rukzon and Chindaprasirt, 2012) as indi- CS ¼ 3.2623e0.0002UPV, in which CS and UPV represent compressive
cated by the higher water requirement (Chusilp et al., 2009b; strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity, respectively. The correlation

24
BA LS BA+LS
Slump flow time to reach

21
diameter 50 cm (s)

18
15
12
9
6 Target range
3
0
0 10 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 40 60 80 100

Fine aggregate replacement (%)

Fig. 13. Time required for mixtures to reach slump flow diameter of 50 cm.
 G. Sua-iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 57 (2013) 308e319 315

56
52 BA LS BA+LS
48

V-funnel flow time (s)

44
40
36
32
28
24
20
16
12
8 Target range
4
0
0 10 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 40 60 80 100

Fine aggregate replacement (%)

Fig. 14. V-funnel flow times.

20
BA LS BA+LS
Slump flow and J-ring flow (cm)

15
Difference between

10

Blocking
5
No blocking

0
0 10 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 40 60 80 100

Fine aggregate replacement (%)

Fig. 15. Differences between slump flow and J-ring flow for SCC mixtures.

90
At 3 days At 7 days At 28 days At 91 days
80
Compressive strength (MPa)

70

60

50

40

30

20

10
BA LS BA+LS
0
0 10 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 40 60 80 100

Fine aggregate replacement (%)

Fig. 16. Compressive strength of SCC mixtures.

coefficient (R2) for this equation was 0.8327, similar to the results
obtained in previous studies examining SCC mixtures containing
rice husk ash or ground glass (Liu, 2011; Sua-iam and Makul, 2013).
The relationship between compressive strength and UPV for the
individual compositions is presented in Fig. 19. The best-fit equa-
tion for BA-containing mixtures was CS ¼ 4.525e0.0002UPV, with a
correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.9089. For LS-containing mixtures,
the best-fit equation was CS ¼ 2.5888e0.0002UPV, with a correlation
coefficient (R2) of 0.8107. For mixtures containing both BA and LS,
the best-fit equation was CS ¼ 1.4672e2.6838UPV, with a correlation
coefficient (R2) of 0.9289.
4. Discussion
The use of LS with increasing amounts of BA waste in the pro-
duction of SCC has advantages and disadvantages when compared
316 G. Sua-iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 57 (2013) 308e319

20000
At 3 days At 7 days At 28 days At 91 days
18000

Ultrasonic pulse velocity (km/h)

16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000 BA LS BA+LS

0
0
10
20
40
60
80

10
0

20
40
60
80

0
10
20
40
60
80

10
0

20
40
60
80
100

100

100

100
Fine aggregate replacement (%)

Fig. 17. Ultrasonic pulse velocities of hardened SCC mixtures.

140
percentage of BA replacement in the fine aggregate. This high
120
water content (and, thus, high w/c ratio) led to decreased
y= 3.2623exp0.0002x
Compressive strength (MPa)

R² = 0.8327 compressive strength and density of the SCC, as illustrated by the

100 UPV results. This effect could be compensated by mixing BA with
LS. The LS powder acts as a filler to pack the internal structure,
80
reduce the interstitial voids, and, consequently, enhance the
60 density and strength of SCC. Moreover, high percentage replace-
ment of BA in fine aggregate (>40% by volume) can lead to
40 blocking when the SCC flows though obstructions, such as con-
gested reinforcements, when compared to control SCC. To solve
20
this problem, LS can be added to improve the flowability of SCC,
0 allowing BA to be used as a fine aggregate replacement in amounts
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000 of up to 60% by volume.
The use of BA as a fine aggregate replacement required large
Ultrasonic pulse velocity (km/h)
amounts of water to achieve the desired slump flow diameter of
Fig. 18. Relationship between compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity. 70
2.5 cm and to meet the flowability requirements specified by
EFNARC and others (EFNARC, 2002). The high water requirement
was due to the large particle size and high surface area of the BA
to the use of SCC prepared with OPC alone. An important advantage particles (Chusilp et al., 2009a,b). Addition of large amounts of
is that the unit weight of SCC containing BA and LS is lower than water has negative effects on the properties of fresh concrete,
that of the control SCC, which reduces the long-term repair and leading to segregation, bleeding, and blockage when flowing
maintenance costs when this SCC is employed in practical concrete through narrow spaces between reinforcements. In addition, the
buildings. hardened SCC concrete mixed with BA was of lower strength, due to
One disadvantage is that SCC containing BA required high the increased capillary porosity and loss of interfacial adhesion
water content compared to the control SCC, according to the between the cement paste and the aggregate (Khayat, 1999;
Felekoglu, 2007).
On the other hand, the angularity, irregular shape, and high
130 porosity of the BA particles resulted in increased friction be-
120 BA tween the cement particles and BA particles (Somna et al., 2012).
y = 2.5888e0.0002x
110 The chemical reaction rate on the surface of the pozzolanic
Compressive strength (MPa)

LS R² = 0.8107
100 particles was slower than the diffusion rate of the reactants
BA+LS
90 through the product layer formed around the nucleus. This may
y = 1.4672e2.6838
80 R² = 0.9289 have been due to the high porosity of the reaction product layer
70 in BA, which facilitates quick diffusion in pozzolanic/CH systems
60 (Villar-Cociña et al., 2008). Addition of LS improved the work-
50 ability of SCC (Fig. 20). LS is commonly used as a filler to improve
40 the workability and stability of fresh concrete. When added to
y = 4.525e0.0002x
30 R² = 0.9089 SCC mixtures, LS may fill voids and improve the particle
20 arrangement in the system, ensuring better distribution of the
10
mixing water to achieve adequate mixture fluidity, bind excess
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000
water, and increase the volume of the continuous phase of
lubricating paste.
Ultrasonic pulse velocity (km/h)
The SCC must simultaneously possess two disparate proper-
Fig. 19. Relationship between compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity ties: high flowability and high segregation resistance (Yahia et al.,
when BA, LS, and BA/LS mixtures are considered separately. 2005; Esping, 2008). Another possible reason for the difference in
 G. Sua-iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 57 (2013) 308e319 317

24
Control BA LS BA+LS
21

Slump flow time to reach

18

diameter 50 cm (s)
15
12
9
6
3
Target range
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56

V-funnel flow time (s)

Fig. 20. Relationship between slump flow time and V-funnel flow time.

55
50 Slump flow
45 V-funnel
Flow time (s)

40
35
30
25
20
Target range
15
10
5
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Water-to-cement (w/c) ratio
Fig. 21. Relationship between slump flow/V-funnel flow time and water-to-cement (w/c) ratio.

relative flow times for mixtures containing BA and LS may be the
improved packing obtained when using fine spherical particles
(Felekoglu, 2007). However, close packing occurs at a critical LS
content, and a substantial increase in viscosity is expected at
greater concentrations of LS. The increase in viscosity and flow
time beyond this critical limit may be explained by the increase in
interparticle friction due to the increase in solidesolid contact
(Yahia et al., 2005). Slump flow and V-funnel flow tests have been
proposed for testing deformability and viscosity (American
Concrete Institute, 2007). Reducing the w/c ratio can limit the
deformability of the cement paste (Fig. 21). Increasing the w/c
ratio can ensure high deformability, reduce the cohesiveness of
the paste and mortar, and lead to the segregation of the fine and
coarse aggregate particles, causing flow blockage. Therefore, de-
Fig. 22. The correlation coefficient (R2) was above 0.94 for all curing
times and mixtures. The compressive strength decreased with
increasing w/c ratio and increased with increasing cure time. The
need for a higher w/c ratio in BA-containing mixtures resulted in
lower compressive strength (Chusilp et al., 2009a), although the
slow pozzolanic reaction of the BA improved the compressive
strength of concrete over long curing times. In suitable proportions
pozzolanic secondary raw materials such as BA and LS can increase
the strength through physical or chemical effects. Some of the
physical enhancements are associated with the small size of the LS
80
y = 94.545e-1.327x
3 days
70 R² = 0.9483
Compressive strength (MPa)

7 days
creases in the w/c ratio to enhance deformability must be y = 78.929e-1.469x
60 28 days
accomplished without substantial reductions in cohesiveness R² = 0.9562
(Khayat, 1999). 91 days
50
y = 70.379e-1.6x
Felekoglu (2007) examined the relationship between the V- R² = 0.9542
40
funnel time of fresh concrete mixtures and the surface pore con-
centration of the hardened concrete. When the viscosity of the 30
mixture was extremely high, the pores in the concrete could not be
20
collapsed and were trapped in the final concrete structure, leading y = 54.351e-2.009x
to observable porosity on the mould surfaces of the concrete. When 10 R² = 0.9611
the viscosity was sufficiently low, the air bubbles escaped easily
0
from the concrete surface, and an improved surface appearance 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
was obtained.
Water-to-cement (w/c) ratio
The relationship between compressive strength and water-to-
cement ratio of the SCC at 3, 7, 28, and 91 days is depicted in Fig. 22. Relationship between compressive strength and water-to-cement (w/c) ratio.
318 G. Sua-iam, N. Makul / Journal of Cleaner Production 57 (2013) 308e319
particles, which can enhance the packing density of the powder
and reduce the interstitial void volume, thus decreasing the
amount of water entrapped in the system (Yahia et al., 2005). LS
powders can chemically react with the aluminate phase of cement
to produce calcium carboaluminates. During the hydration of the
silicate phases, small amounts of filler are incorporated into the Ce
SeH through the formation of carbonated hydrated calcium silicate.
Addition of limestone filler supplies ions to the phase solution, thus
modifying the kinetics of hydration and the morphology of the
hydration products (Péra et al., 1999; Yahia et al., 2005; Felekoglu,
2007). The addition of limestone also reduces the compressive
strength of concrete due to dilution of pozzolanic reactions (De
Weerdt et al., 2011; Rizwan and Bier, 2012), affecting the dura-
bility of the finished concrete (Makhloufi et al., 2012).
5. Conclusions and future work
In the present study, increasingly high volumes of BA waste
obtained from the sugar industry were used as fine aggregate
replacement materials in the production of high-performance SCC,
which was obtained by adding LS powder waste obtained from the
stone-crushing industry. The goal was to maximize the amount of
unprocessed or as-received BA content as a new fine aggregate. For
the performance of SCC with controlled flowability conditions
(slump flow diameter of 70
2.5 cm), there were advantages to
using BA and LS powder in the workability of the concrete. For
instance, SCC mixtures containing LS and BA required lower w/c
ratios than SCC containing only BA, leading to higher flowability.
However, some blocking occurred in mixtures containing 40% LS
and 40% BA (“high-volume” BA content) during V-funnel and J-ring
tests. The unit weight of the SCC decreased with increasing BA
content and increased with increasing LS content, allowing a type
of lightweight SCC to be obtained. The resulting concrete structure
had a decreased weight and low long-term maintenance costs.
In terms of the hardened properties of SCC combinations, BA
and LS could be employed to decrease the w/c ratio by more than
24%. The compressive strength of SCCs comprised of BA and LS
mixtures increased when lower w/c ratios were used, compared to
SCCs mixed with BA alone. Incorporation of suitable levels of BA
and LS improved the early-stage compressive strength develop-
ment, due to filling effects and pozzolanic reactions. The optimal
SCC, which contained 20% LS and 20% replacement of the fine
aggregate by BA, showed improved properties compared to normal
SCC and met the requirements of the European Federation of Na-
tional Associations Representing Producers and Applicators of
Specialist Building Products for Concrete (EFNARC) guidelines. To
conform to the performance-based design of SCC, future studies
should systematically investigate the effects of LS powder use on
the durability of SCC incorporating large amounts of BA waste.
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