Molecular theory of magnet

- It is given by Weber
- Each atom behaves like a tiny bar magnet, called molecular magnet
- The molecular magnet are randomly oriented so that the resultant magnetic field (magnetic
moment) is zero.
- If we apply external magnetic field the molecular magnets align in the direction of applied
field.
- When all atomic magnets align in the direction of magnetic field then it is called saturation.
Few terms in Magnetism:
1. Intensity of Magnetization:
It is defined as the net magnetic moment per unit volume of a magnet
along the direction of applied magnetic field. It is a vector quantity.
𝐌𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 (𝐌)
I=
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 (𝐕)
Unit: ampere per meter (Am-l).
 In a bar magnet, M = m.2l, where, m is magnetic pole strength and 2l is
length of the magnet.

 The volume of bar magnet (V) = A× 2l, where A is the cross-sectional

area of magnet.
m.2l 𝑚
 Intensity of magnetization, I = =
A.2l 𝐴
 It can also be defined as the pole strength per unit area.
Magnetic Permeability: absolute permeability
The magnetic permeability describes how much amount a magnetic material can be
magnetized in the external magnetic field (H).
𝐵
𝜇=
𝐻
Thus, the magnetic permeability can also be defined as the magnetic induction per unit
𝐻
magnetic intensity. It’s unit is or 𝐴/𝑚2 .
𝑚
Relative Permeability: 𝝁𝒓
The ratio of absolute permeability of a medium to permeability constant is called relative
𝜇
permeability. Relative permeability (r) =
𝜇0
It is a unit less and dimensionless quantity. The relation between absolute permeability and
magnetic susceptibility is,
Magnetic Susceptibility: 
It is the ratio of intensity of magnetization (𝐼) to the magnetic intensity (𝐻)., It has no
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐼)
unit.  =
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐻)
• Magnetic susceptibility  measures how much extent the materials can be magnetized.
• The magnetic materials which can be magnetized strongly, have the value of  high
positive value. This type of materials are called ferromagnetic materials.
• The magnetic materials which are weakly magnetized have the value of  small
positive value. This type of materials are called paramagnetic materials.

• Likewise, the magnetic materials which are weakly magnetized in the opposite of
applied field are called diamagnetic materials. The value of  is small negative for
these type of materials.
• 𝜇𝑟 = (1 + 𝜒)
 Curie Law: Relation between susceptibility and temperature
The intensity of magnetization (I) of a paramagnetic substance is
i. directly proportional to the magnetic induction produced by the magnetizing field in free space,
i. e. I B, where, B= H
i. Inversely proportional to the absolute temperature T of the material
1
i. e. , I
T
Combining above equations,
𝐵 H
I 
T T
This law was first discovered by Madam Curie and hence the law is called Curie law in magnetism. Since,
0 is constant.
H
I 
T
I 1 1
 ⇒𝜒∝
H T T
Thus, the magnetic susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature.
Curie temperature for iron is 1000 K, for cobalt 1400 K and for nicked 630 K.
 Magnetic Substances
The substances which are influenced by the magnetic field are known
as magnetic substances. Magnetic substances are divided into three
categories:
1. Diamagnetic substances
2. Paramagnetic substances
3. Ferromagnetic substances
Properties Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
Behavior in move from stronger to weak move slowly from Move fastly from
magnetic field part of the external magnetic weaker to stronger weaker to stronger
field part of the external part of the external
magnetic field magnetic field

When They aligns itself in a direction They aligns parallel to They also aligns
suspended in perpendicular to the magnetic the field direction parallel to the field
magnetic field field. direction

Magnetization They lose their magnetism as They lose their They retain their
after removal soon as the magnetization magnetism as soon as magnetism even after
of field field is removed. the magnetization field the magnetizing field is
is removed. removed.

Interaction They repeals the magnetic They attracts the They also attracts the
with magnetic lines of force magnetic lines of magnetic lines of
lines of force force. force.
Properties Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Feromagnetic
Intensity of small, negative and positive, small and varies very large, positive and varies non-
magnetization varies linearly with field linearly with field. linearly with field.
(I)
Magnetic small negative value less than one but has Large and positive. The magnetic
susceptibility and temperature positive value. susceptibility of ferromagnetic
independent. The magnetic substance obeys Curie-Weiss law
susceptibility is inversely 1
 , Tc is Curie temperature.
𝑇−𝑇𝑐
proportional to
1
temperature, i.e., 
𝑇
Induced dipole small negative value small positive value large positive value.
moment
Curie law They do not obey They follow the Curie law. They obey Curie's law.
Curie's law.
magnetic Less than one. slightly greater than one. extremely large as compared to the
permeability permeability of free space.
 Domain Theory of Ferromagnetic Material

- Ferromagnetic substances consists of small domain in which the magnetic dipoles are
lined up parallel to each other, called domain.
 Domain Theory of Ferromagnetic Material

- Ferromagnetic substances consists of small domain in which the magnetic dipoles are
lined up parallel to each other, called domain.
- An ordinary unmagnetized ferromagnetic substance consists of many domains.
- A strong permanent dipole moment is associated with each domain.
- The domains are oriented in different directions.
- In the presence of an external magnetic field, the domain change the orientation of
their permanent moments, lining them up with the external field.
- When the external field is sufficiently large, all magnetic moments are parallel in the
direction of external field. This limit is called ‘Saturation’.
 Magnetic Field
• The region near the magnet in which the effect of magnet is felt is called the magnetic field.
The magnetic field is represented by a line is called magnetic lines of force.
• There are two ways to produce the magnetic field. One way is to use moving electrical
charge particle. The current in a wire can produce magnetic field around it. This is called
electromagnet.
• The second source of magnetic field is elementary particles, such as electron, proton, etc.
These particles have their intrinsic magnetic field around them. The magnetic field is basic
characteristics of charge particles just as mass and charge are basic characteristics.
• The unit of magnetic field is Tesla (T) or weber/m2. The equivalent unit in terms of
fundamental unit in SI system is given as,
𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
1 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 = 1
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
⇒ 1 𝑇 = 1𝑁. 𝑠 /(𝐶. 𝑚)
• Another unit of magnetic field is gauss (G), which is defined as;
1𝑇 = 104 𝐺
 Magnetic Lines of Force

A magnetic lines of force is a line, straight or curved, the

tangent drawn at any point of which represents the
direction of magnetic field at that point.

The magnetic lines of force of a bar magnet is shown in the

figure.

 Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force

Magnetic lines of force originates from North Pole and ended at South Pole when viewed
external part of magnet. But at internal part of magnet they go from South Pole to North Pole.
They repeal laterally (sideway) to each other. Due to this reason like pole repeal to each other.
The tangent drawn at any point of magnetic lines of force gives the direction of magnetic field at
that point.
 Magnetic lines of force originates from North Pole and
ended at South Pole when viewed external part of
magnet. But at internal part of magnet they go from
South Pole to North Pole.
 They repeal laterally (sideway) to each other. Due to this
reason like pole repeal to each other.
 The tangent drawn at any point of magnetic lines of force
gives the direction of magnetic field at that point.
 Magnetic lines of force never intersect to each other. If they
intersect at any point then we could draw two tangent at a
point corresponding to two curve. Which implies two
direction of magnetic field at a point, which is impossible.
 Magnetic lines of force are crowed near the pole of magnet as the magnetic field is strong there and are widely
spaced at farther point from pole where the magnetic field is weak.
 The uniform magnetic field is represented by parallel lines whereas the non-uniform magnetic is represented
either by diverging or converging lines as shown in the figure.
 Magnetic Flux
The total number of magnetic lines of force crossing through the surface perpendicularly is
called magnetic flux. It is denoted by Greek letter Phi (Φ) or Phi with suffix B (Φ𝐵 ).
Magnetic flux is measured by flux--meter

• If the magnetic field at every point of surface is constant,

then we can write,
𝜙𝑚 = 𝑩. 𝐴
• If the magnetic field is not constant, then, 𝜙𝑚 = 𝑆
𝑩. 𝑑𝒔

• Magnetic flux can also be defined as the scalar product

between the magnetic field and the area of the surface.
• It is a scalar quantity.
• Its SI unit is Weber (Wb) or T. m2 or Kg.s-2.A-1 or Volt –
seconds (V.s). Since, 1 𝑊𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 1 𝑇. 𝑚2 . Its CGS unit is
Maxwell.
Q.N. 1.Magnetism in a substance is caused by;
(a)orbital motion of electron
(b)spin motion of electron
(c) both orbital and spin motion of electron
(d)hidden magnet
Q.N. 2. The source of magnetic field is;
(a) an isolated magnetic dipole
(b) static electric charges
(c) magnetic substances
(d) current loop
Q.N. 3. A permanent magnet;
(a) attracts only ferromagnetic substances
(b) attracts magnetic substances and repeals all others
(c) attracts all substances
(d) attracts some substances and repeals others
Q.N. 4.For protecting a sensitive equipment from external magnetic field, it should be;
(a) placed inside an iron can
(b) wrapped with insulated with through which a current is passed
(c) surrounded with copper guaze
(d) placed inside an aluminum can
Q.N. 5. If the magnetic moment of the atoms of a substance is zero, the substance is called;
(a) diamagnetic
(b) ferromagnetic
(c) paramagnetic
(d) antiferromagnetic
Q.N. 6. An isolated magnetic pole is;
(a) a fictitious quality
(b) is made of soft iron only
(c) is made of any ferromagnetic material
(d) is made of any diamagnetic material
Q.N. 7. In bar magnet, the magnetic lines of force inside a bar magnet;
(a) depends upon the area of cross section of the bar magnet
(b) are from south pole to north pole of a magnet
(c) are from north pole to south pole of a magnet
(d) do not exist
Q.N. 8. Magnetic lines of force;
(a) can not intersect al all
(b) intersect within the magnet
(c) intersect only at south and north pole
(d) intersect at neutral point
Q.N. 9. Magnetic susceptibility is small and positive for
(a) paramagnetic substance
(b) ferromagnetic substance
(c) diamagnetic substance
(d) non – magnetic substance
Q.N. 10. Magnetic susceptibility is large and positive for
(a) paramagnetic substance
(b) ferromagnetic substance
(c) diamagnetic substance
(d) non – magnetic substance
Q.N. 11. Magnetic susceptibility is small and negative for
(a) paramagnetic substance
(b) ferromagnetic substance
(c) diamagnetic substance
(d) non – magnetic substance
Q.N. 12. Which of the following is a diamagnetic material
(a) Nickel
(b) Iron
(c) Copper
(d) Aluminum
Q.N. 13. Which of the following is a ferromagnetic material
(a) Nickel
(b) Water
(c) Copper
(d) Aluminum
Q.N. 14. Iron is ferromagnetic:
(a) at all temperature
(b) at NTP only
(c) above 770oC
(d) below 770oC
Q.N. 15. Which of the following substance the susceptibility obeys the Curie law:
(a) diamagnetic
(b) paramagnetic
(c) ferromagnetic
(d) superconductor
Q.N. 16. The susceptibility of independent to temperature for:
(a) diamagnetic
(b) paramagnetic
(c) ferromagnetic
(d) superconductor