Renewable Energy 66 (2014) 268e279

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Energyeexergy analysis and optimization of the solar-boosted Kalina

cycle system 11 (KCS-11)
Faming Sun a, b, *, Weisheng Zhou c, Yasuyuki Ikegami d, Kenichi Nakagami c, Xuanming Su b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
b
Ritsumeikan Global Innovation Research Organization, Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto 603-8577, Japan
c
College of Policy Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto 603-8577, Japan
d
Institute of Ocean Energy, Saga University, 1-Honjo machi, Saga 840-8502, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Energyeexergy analysis and parameter design optimization of the KCS-11 solar system with an auxiliary
Received 12 September 2012 superheater are studied in low-grade thermal energy conversion (LTEC). Firstly, from a thermodynamics
Accepted 11 December 2013 point of view, the corresponding calculation model is built to solve the system state points as well as the
Available online 6 January 2014
exergy input/output/loss for each system component. And then, according to the characteristics of the
KCS-11 solar system, the verification items are given to verify the correctness of the calculation model.
Keywords:
Afterward the model is proved to be correct by sampling check a set of calculation data. On that basis, the
KCS-11 solar system
corresponding parameter design optimization and system performance analysis are carried out from the
Energy analysis
Exergy analysis
viewpoint of the maximization of the exergy output in KCS-11 solar system at a certain scale. Results
Optimization design show that the mass flow rates of working fluid and solar collector subcycle and also ammonia mass
Power generation fraction are important system operation parameters that should be optimized to deduce the irreversible
behavior of the solar system for producing more useful energy. Meanwhile, the heat-transfer rate dis-
tribution ratio of the superheater should be large enough to ensure that the expanding vapor in the
turbine is superheated. Finally, an optimization calculation case is designed for illustration by using the
monthly mean solar radiation statistics in Kumejima Island of Japan. In this case, the maximum
generated power is 491 kW showing 35.6% exergy efficiency and 6.48% energy efficiency of the system
for the month of August. The size of the system in terms of power generated of each major equipment is
listed as follows: solar evaporator (370 kW), superheater (106 kW), condenser (298 kW), turbine
(491 kW), separator (43 kW), absorber (37 kW), pump (8 kW), regenerator (38 kW), and diffuser (17 kW).
And the main system exergy losses are associated with internal consumptions of exergy in turbine
(92 kW) and condenser (97 kW) due to irreversibilities. In this way, the maximum annual power gen-
eration of the KCS-11 solar system is about 553,520 kW h.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction power generation. Results showed that it has best performance

In recent years, research on the conversion of low-grade heat
from sources such as geothermal heat, waste heat, low-tempera-
ture solar thermal heat, etc. into electrical power or LTEC has
received a lot of attention [1e4]. Ammoniaewater thermodynamic
cycle is being considered as a more promising way for power
generation in LTEC. Zamfirescu and Dincer [5] have undertaken a
study to thermodynamically assess the performance of an
ammoniaewater Rankine cycle that uses no boiler, but rather the
saturated liquid is flashed by a positive displacement expander for
* Corresponding author. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kyushu Uni-
versity, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan.
E-mail address: sunfamingjia@gmail.com (F. Sun).
when compared with the ones obtained for conventional organic
Rankine cycle and a Kalina-kind cycle having a resorber instead of
the usual distillation and condensation subsystem. It is known that
the ammoniaewater Rankine cycle is in general known as Kalina
cycle after the name of its inventor [6]. KCS-11 is a well-known
Kalina cycle for low-temperature driven power generation and
using ammoniaewater as its working fluid for this purpose. Many
researchers tried their best to clear the characteristics of the KCS-11
for using various forms of low-temperature heat sources. Such as,
Hettiarachchi and Worek et al. [7] examined the KCS-11 for low-
temperature geothermal heat sources and compared with an
organic Rankine cycle (ORC). Results showed that the KCS-11 has
better overall performance at moderate pressures than that of ORC.
Lu et al. [8] also examined the KCS-11 for geothermal power

0960-1481/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2013.12.015
 F. Sun et al. / Renewable Energy 66 (2014) 268e279 269

Nomenclature c condenser
ca no difference between the collector temperature and
cp specific heat at constant pressure, 3.9 kJ/kg K ambient temperature
Ex the exergy, kJ/s cs cold seawater
h specific enthalpy, kJ/kg csc cold seawater subcycle
Io the exergy loss, kJ/s csi cold seawater at the inlet
m_ mass flow rate, kg/s cso cold seawater at the outlet
P pressure, kPa cwf working fluid side in condenser
Q_ heat-transfer rate, kW dif diffuser
s specific entropy, kJ/kg K exg exergy
t temperature,
C f inlet of the solar collector
T absolute temperature, K i heat exchanger end section (heat source inlet)
Dt temperature difference,
C ii number of the state point in KCS-11 solar system
DTm logarithmic mean temperature difference,
C in inlet
U overall heat-transfer coefficient, kW/m2 K is isentropic process
y ammonia mass fraction, kg/kg k KCS-11 solar system
W power output, kW net net
Ws,r solar radiation intensity, W/m2 o heat exchanger end section (heat source outlet)
CPC compound parabolic concentrating out outlet
ETC evacuated tube solar collector opt optimal
FPC flat plate solar collector pgc power generation subcycle
LTEC low-grade thermal energy conversion pp pinch point
OTEC ocean thermal energy conversion r solar radiation
KCS-11 Kalina cycle system 11 rg regenerator
s solar
Greek letters sc solar collector
a first order loss coefficient of the solar collector scc solar collector subcycle
b second order loss coefficient of the solar collector sds system dead state
D differential se solar evaporator
h thermal efficiency, % sewf working fluid side in solar evaporator
hsc solar collector efficiency [e] sh superheater
k heat-transfer rate distribution ratio of the superheater sl saturated liquid
[e] sp separator
x1 x1 ¼ m _ 6 =m
_ 5 [e] sv saturated vapor
Gt average monthly sunshine duration, h tbn turbine
to total
Subscripts wf working fluid
a outlet of the solar collector wfp working fluid pump
abs absorber 0 environment state

generation and compared with the existing Kawerau ORMAT binary
plant in New Zealand. And parametric sensitivity analysis of KCS-11
was carried out for the specific power output and net thermal ef-
ficiency by changing the temperatures of both heat source and heat
sink for a given ammoniaewater composition. Meanwhile, Lolos [9]
investigated the KCS-11 with a main heat source provided by flat
plate solar collectors and an external heat source used for super-
heating the vapor to expand in the turbine. Later, Mittelman [10]
proposed a combined Rankine/KCS-11 power block for concen-
trating solar thermal power (CSP). All their results show that the
KCS-11 is a better choice for exploiting and utilizing the low-tem-
perature thermal energy. However the heat source temperature of
the KCS-11 is assumed constant in their research. So as for solar
thermal power generation system, the optimal operation scheme of
the KCS-11 should be paid much attention for designing high per-
formance KCS-11 solar system in engineering practice, since the
solar heat source varies with time as well as operation conditions.
KCS-11 solar system is the hybrid of the power generation sub-
cycle and solar collector subcycle. The power generation subcycle is
constructed from Kalina cycle system 11. Sun et al. [11e13] have
studied the performance of KCS-11 solar system from the viewpoint
of energy analysis. Results show that the system pressure difference
is an important performance benchmark in this system. Based on
this, a real-time optimal operation scheme is given for high system
performance. However, the exergy analysis to deduce the irreversible
behavior of the solar system for producing more useful energy is still
not considered even though it is significant for designing high per-
formance solar system in engineering practice. So, in this study, en-
ergyeexergy analysis of the KCS-11 solar system with an auxiliary
superheater is studied in LTEC. The corresponding calculation model
is built to solve the system state points as well as the exergy input/
output/loss for each system component. And then parameter design
optimization is carried out in KCS-11 solar system for producing more
useful energy. Finally, an optimization calculation case is designed for
illustration by using the monthly mean solar radiation statistics in
Kumejima Island of Japan. Thus the way of high-efficiency utilization
of solar energy in KCS-11 solar system is clarified.
2. KCS-11 solar system modeling
2.1. System description
The proposed solar systems are mainly including power gen-
eration subcycle with an auxiliary superheater, solar collector
subcycle and cold seawater subcycle. And ammoniaewater mixture
is the working fluid, whose thermodynamic properties are
270 F. Sun et al. / Renewable Energy 66 (2014) 268e279
simulated by using Ibrahim’s data [14]. Therefrom, main devices of
the system are listed and described as follows:
➢ A working fluid pump, a device used in this system to allow the
flowing working fluid in liquid to overcome gravity and pressure
loss.
➢ A regenerator, a device used in this system to preheat the
compressed liquid before sending it to the solar evaporator by
using exhaust waste heat of the system.
➢ A solar evaporator, a device used in this system for the evapo-
ration of the compressed liquid to wet vapor by using solar heat.
➢ A solar collector, a device used in this system to collect heat by
capturing solar radiation.
➢ A separator, a vaporeliquid device used in this system to sepa-
rate the ammoniaewater mixture into saturated vapor and
saturated liquid.
➢ A superheater, a device used in this system to heat up the
saturated ammonia vapor to superheated ammonia vapor.
➢ A turbine, a device used in this system to extract thermal energy
from pressurized ammonia vapor and use it to do mechanical
work on a rotating output shaft.
➢ A generator, a device used in this system to convert mechanical
energy to electrical energy.
➢ A diffuser, a device used in this system to releases pressure of
the working fluid from compressed liquid state to saturated
liquid state.
➢ An absorber, a device used in this system to mix the wet vapor
with the saturated liquid.
➢ A condenser, a device used in this system for the condensation
of the wet vapor into saturated liquid.
Based on the KCS-11, which is commonly used in recovering
energy from the low-temperature heat resources, the KCS-11 solar
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the KCS-11 solar system.
system with an auxiliary superheater is proposed here, and its
schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 1. The turbine exhaust wet va-
por (10) is mixed with saturated liquid (9) in the absorber. And the
wet vapor (1) leaving the absorber is cooled in the condenser to
become the saturated liquid (2). Then it is compressed to the
compressed liquid (3) by the working fluid pump. Meanwhile, the
working fluid wet vapor (5) is separated into rich ammoniaewater
mixture saturated vapor (6) and the poor ammoniaewater mixture
saturated liquid (7), where the saturated vapor is superheated to
the superheated vapor (11) in the superheater by auxiliary heat
source, such as geothermal systems, solar concentrator module or
other similar sources etc. And then the superheated vapor is
expanded in the turbine to generate electricity by using a generator.
Moreover, the compressed liquid (8) leaving the regenerator re-
leases pressure in the diffuser to become saturated liquid. And the
compressed liquid (4) reheated by the regenerator is sent to the
solar evaporator, where it is heated to saturated liquid (40 ) and then
boiled to wet vapor by the solar heat. Furthermore, the corre-
sponding solar collector subcycle can be designed by adjusting its
solar collector area and mass flow rate.
2.2. Basic parameters and general assumption
In solar collector subcycle, the effective solar radiation energy
gain at solar collector is given as
Q_ sc;r ¼ Ws;r $Asc $hsc (1)
where Ws,r reflects solar radiation intensity, it comes from local
weather conditions of the solar system. Asc represents the area of
the solar collector and hsc means the efficiency of the solar collector,
which can be expressed as follows.
 F. Sun et al. / Renewable Energy 66 (2014) 268e279 271


 In addition, leave the influence of solar collector subcycle pump

Dtsc Dtsc 2
hsc ¼ hsc;ca  a b (2) to the temperature out of consideration, which means
Ws;r Ws;r
ta ¼ tb ¼ tc ¼ td and tf ¼ te. And then the temperature tf is solved as
following
Dtsc ¼ tsc  t0 (3)
UA  Q_ 
se
 . $ t5 þt4
tsc ¼ ta þ tf 2 (4) t5  t4 $e Q_ se m_ scc $cp _
 m_ Q se$c
tf ¼ !scc p (13)
UA  Q_
se
in which, ta and tf represent the outlet and inlet temperature of the $  t5 þ t4
solar collector, respectively. And t0 is the ambient air temperature; 1e Q_ se m_ scc $cp
hsc,ca is the solar collector efficiency value when there is no differ-
ence between the collector temperature and ambient temperature; thus, ta ¼ Q_ se =m
_ scc $cp þ tf and Q_ se is assumed to be same with Q_ sc
a and b are loss coefficients of the solar collector. In addition, the here. And a calculation model is necessary for solving state points
useful energy gain at solar collector is in KCS-11 solar system, the corresponding calculation flow chart is
shown in Fig. 2. Then based on the given initial condition of Tables 1
Q_ sc ¼ m
_ scc $cp $Dt (5)

_ scc is the mass flow rate of the solar collector subcycle, cp

in which, m
represents the specific heat at constant pressure, Dt ¼ ta  tf means
the temperature difference of the solar collector. According to heat
_ scc can be expressed as
balance in solar collector, the m


2 !
ðta þtf Þ=2t0 ðta þtf Þ=2t0
Ws;r $Asc $ hsc;ca  a$ Ws;r  b$ Ws;r
_ scc ¼
m  
cp $ ta  tf
(6)
Meanwhile, in power generation subcycle, heat rate supplied to
the cycle (solar evaporator) is shown below

Q_ sewf ¼ m
_ wf $Dhk;se (7)

Heat rate rejected from the cycle (condenser) is given as

Q_ cwf ¼ m
_ wf $Dhk;c (8)

where, m_ wf is the mass flow rate of the working fluid. Dhk,se and
Dhk,c respectively represent the enthalpy difference of the solar
evaporator and condenser in KCS-11 solar system.
Also it is noticed that heat conduction of the heat exchanger is

Q_ ¼ UADTm (9)

where Q_ is the rate of heat transfer; U is the overall heat-transfer

coefficient; A is the cross-section area normal to the direction of
heat transfer; DTm is called the logarithmic mean temperature
difference (LMTD) and gives
Dti  Dto
DTm ¼ (10)
lnðDti =Dto Þ

in which, Dti represents the temperature difference of heat

exchanger end section (heat source inlet), Dto shows the temper-
ature difference of heat exchanger end section (heat source outlet).
Therefore, the heat-transfer rate in the condenser is

Q_ c ¼ ðUAÞc ðDTm Þc (11)

where
Dti  Dto ðt  tcso Þ  ðt2  tcsi Þ
ðDTm Þc ¼ ¼ 1   (12)
lnðDti =Dto Þ ln t1 tcso
t2 tcsi

In the same way, the LMTD of the evaporator and regenerator

can also be given here. Fig. 2. Flow chart of the KCS-11 solar system.
272 F. Sun et al. / Renewable Energy 66 (2014) 268e279

Table 1 Thus based on aforementioned discussion, the KCS-11 solar

Weather data of the Kumejima Island [20,21]. system thermal efficiency is given as
Month tcsi [
C] t0 [
C] Ws,r [W/m2] Gt [h]
hk ¼ hpgc $hsc (15)
January 4.5 16.4 334 77.92
February 4.5 16.7 336 88.68 Furthermore, based on the researches [15e17], the exergy effi-
March 4.5 18.0 408 115.41 ciency of the power generation subcycle in KCS-11 solar system is
April 4.5 21.7 412 116.58
May 4.5 23.6 422 138.47
given as
June 4.5 27.3 473 144.67 P
Exin  I o
July 4.5 29.1 612 253.02 hexg ¼ (16)
August 4.5 28.4 651 235.62 Exin
September 4.5 27.3 573 197.85
P
October 4.5 25.0 516 160.56 where the item Exin  I o represents the exergy output of the
November 4.5 20.8 388 105.42 solar system, in which, Exin ¼ Exin,se þ Exin,sh þ Exin,c is the sum of
December 4.5 18.0 365 98.760
the exergy input at solar evaporator (Exin,se), superheater (Exin,sh)
and condenser (Exin,c). In which, the definition of exergy input at
solar evaporator, superheater and condenser is given in Table 4,
Table 2 P o
Initial condition for simulation. respectively. In addition, T0 ¼ tsds þ 273.15, I is the sum of the
exergy losses in all the components, tsds is the temperature of the
Environment pressure P0 ¼ 0.10135 [MPa]
system when it is in the dead state, here it is assumed as ambient
Performance of the solar evaporator ðUA=Q_ Þ ¼ 0:2 ½1=
C
se;c
and condenser air temperature t0. And the exergy of each state point ii in KCS-11
Turbine isentropic efficiency htbn ¼ 85 [%] solar system considers only the physical exergy and the chemical
Pump isentropic efficiency hwfp ¼ 75 [%] exergy of water and ammonia cancels out in the exergy balances as
Solar collector area Asc ¼ 1.0 [ha] entering and leaving quantities are the same [18]. Thus it can be
Mass flow rate of cold seawater m_ cs ¼ 150 ½kg=s
expressed as Exii ¼ m _ ii $½ðhii  h0 Þ  T0 ðsii  s0 Þ. In this way, the
Ammonia mass fraction y5 ¼ 0.95 [kg/kg]
Performance of the regenerator ðUA=Q_ Þrg ¼ 0:2 ½1=
C exergy loss in each component of the power generation subcycle is
Heat-transfer rate proportion for superheater k ¼ 2% [e] given in Table 3.
Mass flow rate of working fluid m_ wf ¼ 6:5 ½kg=s According to aforementioned discussion, the KCS-11 solar sys-
Efficiency of the CPC solar collector hsc ¼ 60 [%]
tem exergy efficiency is given as
Sampling month August
hk;exg ¼ hexg $hsc (17)
and 2, t4 and t5 can be solved here. Thus by combining with Eqs. (2) Finally, it should be noted that the following assumptions
and (6), the value of mass flow rate of solar collect subcycle m _ scc should be applied to the system.
could be found.
Moreover, the basic equations obtained from the conservation ➢ Based on the research of Uehara [2,19], turbine and pump
law for energy in the components are given in Table 3. isentropic efficiencies are separately given in 85% and 75% as an
example.
➢ The piping and other auxiliary are considered no heat losses in
2.3. System performance
the system.
The overall KCS-11 solar system performance can be evaluated
Based on the above assumptions, initial condition of KCS-11
by its thermal efficiency, exergy efficiency and exergy output. In
solar system is given in Tables 1 and 2. Meanwhile, the data of
power generation subcycle of the solar system, the thermal effi-
Table 1 comes from the weather conditions of Kumejima Island
ciency is
(Lat. 26-20N, Lng. 126-48E) in Japan since it is the planned con-
W struction site of the OTEC (ocean thermal energy conversion) plant
hpgc ¼ _ net (14) and the deep-sea cold seawater can be supplied therefrom [20,21].
Q to
And in solar collector subcycle, the applicable solar collectors
The corresponding net power output is Wnet ¼ m _ wf $ include, but not limited to, FPC (flat plate solar collector), ETC
ðx1 ðh11  h10 Þ  ðh3  h2 ÞÞ, where x1 ¼ m _ 5 . Meanwhile, Q_ to ¼
_ 6 =m (evacuated tube solar collector), CPC (compound parabolic
Q_ se þ Q_ sh represents total heat-transfer rate. And Q_ se with Q_ sh concentrating), etc. Here it takes CPC solar collector as an example
represent the heat-transfer rate in solar evaporator and super- since it can supply heat sources with good performance, all year
heater, respectively. And their relationship is introduced as round. Thus reference [22], the parameters of the solar collector are
k ¼ Q_ sh =Q_ to  100%. given as hsc,ca ¼ 0.7035, a ¼ 2.5896 and b ¼ 7.4878.

Table 3
Basic equations and exergy loss items in the components of the KCS-11.

Components Basic equations Exergy loss items

Solar evaporator Q_ se ¼ Q_ sewf ¼ m _ se $ðh5  h4 Þ Iose ¼ Exin,se,scc  Exout,se,scc þ Exin,se,pgc  Exout,se,pgc

Separator m_ 5 h5 ¼ m _ 6 h6 þ m _ 7 h7 , m
_5 ¼ m _ 6 þm _7 Iosp ¼ Exin,sp,pgc  Exout1,sp,pgc  Exout2,sp,pgc
Superheater Q_ sh ¼ m _ sh $ðh11  h6 Þ Iosh ¼ 0
Turbine Wtbn ¼ m _ tbn $ðh11  h10 Þ, htbn ¼ (h11  h10)/(h11  h10,is) Iotbn ¼ Exin,tbn,pgc  Exout,tbn,pgc  Wtbn
Regenerator m_ 4 ðh4  h3 Þ ¼ m _ 7 ðh7  h8 Þ Iorg ¼ Exin1,rg,pgc þ Exin2,rg,pgc  Exout1,rg,pgc  Exout2,rg,pgc
Diffuser h8 ¼ h9 Iodif ¼ Exin,dif,pgc  Exout,dif,pgc
Absorber h1 m _ 1 ¼ h10 m _ 10 þ h9 m _1 ¼ m
_ 9, m _ 10 þ m_9 Ioabs ¼ Exin1,abs,pgc þ Exin2,abs,pgc  Exout,abs,pgc
Condenser Q_ c ¼ Q_ cwf ¼ m _ c $ðh1  h2 Þ Ioc ¼ Exin,c,csc  Exout,c,csc þ Exin,c,pgc  Exout,c,pgc
Working fluid pump Wwfp ¼ m _ wfp $ðh3  h2 Þ, hwfp ¼ (h3,is  h2)/(h3  h2) Iowfp ¼ Wwfp þ Exin,wfp,pgc  Exout,wfp,pgc
 F. Sun et al. / Renewable Energy 66 (2014) 268e279 273

Table 4
Definition of exergy input at solar evaporator, superheater and condenser, respectively.

Solar evaporator Superheater Condenser

Exin,se ¼ Exin,se,scc  Exout,se,scc Exin,sh ¼ Exin,sh,pgc  Exout,sh,pgc Exin,c ¼ Exin,c,csc  Exout,c,csc

Exin;se;scc ¼ m _ scc ððhd  h0 Þ  T0 ðsd  s0 ÞÞ Exin;sh;pgc ¼ m _ sh ððh11  h0 Þ  T0 ðs11  s0 ÞÞ Exin;c;csc ¼ m_ cs ððhcsi  h0 Þ  T0 ðscsi  s0 ÞÞ
Exout;se;scc ¼ m _ scc ððhe  h0 Þ  T0 ðse  s0 ÞÞ Exout;sh;pgc ¼ m _ sh ððh6  h0 Þ  T0 ðs6  s0 ÞÞ Exout;c;csc ¼ m _ cs ððhcso  h0 Þ  T0 ðscso  s0 ÞÞ

3. Optimization design of the KCS-11 solar system
3.1. Result rationality analysis
In order to verify correctness of the solar system simulation
program, firstly we take out a set of sampling calculation data from
KCS-11 solar system with the initial condition, which is given in
Tables 1 and 2, as an example for checking. The corresponding re-
sults are shown in Table 5. In this case, the design requirements of
the solar collector in solar collector subcycle are inlet temperature
28.149 [
C], outlet temperature 75.760 [
C], solar collector subcycle
mass flow rate 21.0 [kg/s] and water as the heat-transfer medium of
the subcycle.
Based on the characteristics of the KCS-11 solar system, the
verification items are listed as follows:
1. Check whether or not ðUA=Q_ Þc ¼ lnððt1  tcso Þ=ðt2  tcsi ÞÞ=
ððt1  tcso Þ  ðt2  tcsi ÞÞ matches the specified condition
ððUA=Q_ Þc ¼ 0:2 ½1=
CÞ as given in Table 2.
2. Check whether or not ðUA=Q_ Þse ¼ lnððtd  t5 Þ=ðte  t4 ÞÞ=
ððtd  t5 Þ  ðte  t4 ÞÞ matches the specified condition
ððUA=Q_ Þse ¼ 0:2 ½1=
CÞ as given in Table 2.
3. Check whether or not ðUA=Q_ Þrg ¼ lnððt7  t4 Þ=ðt8  t3 ÞÞ=
ððt7  t4 Þ  ðt8  t3 ÞÞ matches the specified condition
ððUA=Q_ Þrg ¼ 0:2 ½1=
CÞ as given in Table 2.
4. Check whether or not k ¼ Q_ sh =ðQ_ se þ Q_ sh Þ ¼ x1 $ðh11  h6 Þ=
ððh5  h4 Þ þ x1 $ðh11  h6 ÞÞ  100% matches the specified
condition (k ¼ 2%) as given in Table 2.
5. Check whether or not the following equation is true for the
heat balance in the solar evaporator, which is
Q_ sc ¼ Ws;r $Asc $hsc ¼ Q_ se ¼ m _ wf ðh5  h4 Þ.
6. Check whether or not the following equation is true, which is
m_ 6 =m
_ 5 ¼ ðy5  y7 Þ=ðy6  y7 Þ.
7. Check whether or not the following equation is true for the
heat balance in the condenser, as shown by
Q_ c ¼ m _ cs cp ðtcso  tcsi Þ ¼ Q_ cwf ¼ m _ wf ðh1  h2 Þ.
8. Check whether or not the following equation is true for the
heat balance in the separator: m _ 5 h5 ¼ m _ 6 h6 þ m_ 7 h7 .
9. Check whether or not the following equation is true for the
heat balance in the absorber: m _ 1 h1 ¼ m _ 9 h9 þ m _ 10 h10 .
10. Check whether or not the following equation is true for the
heat balance in the regenerator: m _ 4 ðh4  h3 Þ ¼ m _ 7 ðh7  h8 Þ.
11. Check whether or not hpgc ¼ Wnet =Q_ to ¼ ðx1 $ðh11  h10 Þ
ðh3  h2 ÞÞ=ððh5  h4 Þ þ x1 $ðh11  h6 ÞÞ matches the calcula-
tion result (hpgc ¼ 7.17 [%]) as shown in Table 5.
12. Check whether or not hsc ¼ 0.7035  2.5896(Dtsc) 
7.4878(Dtsc)2 matches the specified condition (hsc ¼ 60 [%])
as given in Table 2, in which, Dtsc ¼ ((ta þ tf)/2  t0)/Ws,r.
13. Check whether or not m _ scc ¼ ðWs;r $Asc $hsc Þ=ðcp $ðta  tf ÞÞ
matches the calculation result (m _ scc ¼ 21:0 ½kg=s) as shown
in Table 5.
_ _
14. Check whether or not tf ¼ ðt5  t4 eðUA=Q Þse $ðQ se =ðm_ scc cp Þt5 þt4 Þ 
Q_ se =ðm _ scc cp ÞÞ=ð1  eðUA=Q_ Þse $ðQ_ se =ðm_ scc cp Þt5 þt4 Þ Þ and ta ¼ Q_ se =
ðm _ scc $cp Þ þ tf match the calculation results (tf ¼ 28.149 [
C],
ta ¼ 75.760 [
C]) as shown in Table 5.
15. Check whether or not htbn ¼ (h11  h10)/(h11  h10,is) and
hwfp ¼ (h3,is  h2)/(h3  h2) match the specified conditions
(htbn ¼ 85 [%] and hwfp ¼ 75 [%]) as given in Table 2.
From these results, it is proven that the simulation programs
designed for KCS-11 solar system is rational. And then based on
aforementioned assumptions (see Tables 1 and 2) and calculations
(see Tables 3 and 5), the corresponding system exergy analysis re-
sults are calculated and listed in Table 6. It should be clarified that
percentage of the component exergy loss, as shown in the table, is
defined as the ratio of exergy loss of the corresponding component
and total exergy input of the cycle. Based on this, each of the com-
ponents (i.e. solar evaporator, separator, superheater, turbine,
absorber, condenser, pump, regenerator and diffuser) is estimated.
As a result, the exergy loss is mainly in components of solar evapo-
rator, condenser and turbine. And solar evaporator exergy loss takes
up the largest proportion that is 23.1 [%]. That means that system
parametric optimization analysis should be expected to decrease the
system thermodynamic irreversibility in the following part.
In addition, it is also found that the system exergy output
(Table 6) calculated by using second law of thermodynamics is the

Table 5
Sampling results for KCS-11 solar system under condition of Tables 1 and 2.

Point t [
C] P [MPa] y [kg/kg] h [kJ/kg] s [kJ/(kg K)] v [m3/kg] _ n =m

m _ 5 ½

1 13.691 0.638 0.950000 791.028 3.199 0.0939 1.0000

2 12.493 0.638 0.950000 221.781 1.209 0.0016 1.0000
3 12.784 1.528 0.950000 223.620 1.211 0.0016 1.0000
3is 12.686 1.528 0.950000 223.161 1.209 0.0015 1.0000
4 28.102 1.528 0.950000 296.121 1.458 0.0016 1.0000
40 41.272 1.528 0.950000 360.130 1.666 0.0016 1.0000
5 42.978 1.528 0.950000 897.044 3.370 0.0016 1.0000
6 42.978 1.528 0.999738 1502.724 5.203 0.0865 0.4817
7 42.978 1.528 0.903777 334.156 1.665 0.0016 0.5183
8 13.667 1.528 0.903777 194.279 1.201 0.0015 0.5183
9 13.783 0.638 0.903777 194.279 1.206 0.0015 0.5183
10 11.305 0.638 0.999738 1433.149 5.342 0.1920 0.4817
10is 11.241 0.638 0.999738 1416.379 5.283 0.1893 0.4817
11 51.201 1.528 0.999738 1528.184 5.283 0.0903 0.4817
_ scc ¼ 21:0 ½kg=s, hpgc ¼ 7.17 [%], hk ¼ 4.30 [%], Wnet ¼ 285.606 [kW]
ta ¼ 75.760 [
C], tf ¼ 28.149 [
C], tcso ¼ 10.828 [
C], m
274 F. Sun et al. / Renewable Energy 66 (2014) 268e279

Table 6
Exergy input/output/loss for the KCS-11 solar system.

Design parameters k ¼ 2% [e], hsc ¼ 60% [e], y5 ¼ 0.95 [kg/kg] k ¼ 2% [e], hsc ¼ 60% [e], y5,opt ¼ 0.94 [kg/kg]
Amount (kW) Percentage (%) Amount (kW) Percentage (%)

Exergy input Solar evaporator 295.819 49.8 301.612 50.5

Superheater 4.183 0.7 7.226 1.2
Condenser 294.328 49.5 288.793 48.3
Exergy output 285.606 48.1 374.811 62.7
Exergy loss Solar evaporator 137.482 23.1 12.906 2.2
Separator 24.926 4.2 29.012 4.9
Superheater 0 0 0 0
Turbine 55.706 9.4 74.374 12.4
Absorber 25.015 4.2 28.922 4.8
Condenser 93.884 15.8 93.456 15.6
Pump 3.920 0.7 6.749 1.1
Regenerator 12.740 2.1 26.090 4.4
Diffuser 5.080 0.8 9.157 1.5
Exergy efficiency hexg ¼ 48.1 [%], hk,exg ¼ 28.9 [%] hexg ¼ 62.7 [%], hk,exg ¼ 37.6 [%]
Operation conditions m_ wf ¼ 6:5 ½kg=s, m_ scc ¼ 21:0 ½kg=s m_ wf;opt ¼ 7:46 ½kg=s, m_ scc ¼ 40:03 ½kg=s

Design parameters k ¼ 2% [e], hsc,opt ¼ 56% [e], y5,opt ¼ 0.90 [kg/ k ¼ 14% [e], hsc,opt ¼ 56% [e], y5,opt ¼ 0.90 [kg/
kg] kg]

Amount (kW) Percentage (%) Amount (kW) Percentage (%)

Exergy input Solar evaporator 370.174 57.1 370.165 47.9

Superheater 8.494 1.3 105.661 13.6
Condenser 269.266 41.6 297.555 38.5
Exergy output 391.389 60.4 490.999 63.5
Exergy loss Solar evaporator 23.975 3.7 23.957 3.1
Separator 42.362 6.5 43.142 5.6
Superheater 0 0 0 0
Turbine 79.790 12.3 92.019 11.9
Absorber 39.622 6.1 36.908 4.8
Condenser 82.932 12.8 96.764 12.5
Pump 8.187 1.3 8.187 1.0
Regenerator 42.166 6.5 38.472 5.0
Diffuser 16.756 2.6 16.748 2.2
Exergy efficiency hexg ¼ 60.4 [%], hk,exg ¼ 33.8 [%] hexg ¼ 63.5 [%], hk,exg ¼ 35.6 [%]
Operation conditions m_ wf;opt ¼ 9:05 ½kg=s, m_ wf;opt ¼ 9:05 ½kg=s,
m_ scc;opt ¼ 42:59 ½kg=s m_ scc;opt ¼ 42:40 ½kg=s

Fig. 3. Relationship between ammonia mass fraction y5 and exergy input/output/loss.

 F. Sun et al. / Renewable Energy 66 (2014) 268e279 275

Fig. 4. Relationship between solar collector efficiency hsc and exergy input/output/loss.

same as the system net power (Table 5) calculated by using first law Based on aforementioned discussion, Fig. 3(a) shows the rela-
of thermodynamics. This thermodynamic property is known as an tionship between y5 and total exergy input of the solar system with
inherent characteristic of the proposed KCS-11 solar system in this the initial conditions (Table 2) by way of solar evaporator, super-
paper and it is proved that the designed calculation model for heater and condenser, respectively. Meanwhile, Fig. 3(b) gives
system exergy analysis is also rational. exergy inputs of the solar system in terms of a percentage. From
these figures it is known that the y5 has little effect on the exergy
inputs of condenser, superheater and solar evaporator. Fig. 3(c) il-
3.2. System parametric optimization analysis lustrates the exergy output and exergy loss of each component in
the solar system. And Fig. 3(d) displays the exergy output and
From the point of view of the maximization of the exergy output exergy losses of the solar system in percentage terms. As shown in
in KCS-11 solar system at a certain scale or size, it is observed that the two figures, it is true that the sum of the exergy output and the
the significant system operation parameters are the mass flow rates
of the working fluid in power generation subcycle, cold seawater
subcycle and solar collector subcycle (m _ wf , m
_ cs and m
_ scc ), heat-
transfer rate distribution ratio of the superheater k, efficiency of the
solar collector hsc, ammonia mass fraction y5 and weather data etc.
And then the main objective of the parametric analysis is focused
on optimization of these system operation parameters to find the
maximum value of the exergy output, and its initial conditions are
shown in Tables 1 and 2. Meanwhile, the corresponding system
constraint conditions are assumed as 0.80 [kg/kg]  y5  0.98 [kg/
kg], 0.05 [e]  hsc  0.70 [e] and 0 [%]  k  18 [%]. Furthermore, it
is worth noting that there is a convergence range for the m _ wf under
the abovementioned initial and constraint conditions in KCS-11
solar system, which means that the m _ wf should be located in a
limited range to satisfy that all the increased ammoniaewater
mixture working fluid can be converted from compressed liquid
state to wet vapor state in the solar evaporator. In addition, ac-
cording to the real productivity scale of the deep-sea cold seawater
in Kumejima Island, the mass flow rate of cold seawater subcycle is
given as m _ cs ¼ 150 ½kg=s in this case as shown in Table 2. And it
should be noted that the constraint condition 0.05 [e]  hsc  0.70
[e] can be obtained by adjusting the mass flow rate of the solar
collector subcycle m _ scc , appropriately. Fig. 5. Relationship between y5 and exergy output with hsc,opt.
276 F. Sun et al. / Renewable Energy 66 (2014) 268e279

Fig. 6. Relationship between ammonia mass fraction y5 and exergy input/output/loss with hsc,opt.

total exergy loss is equal to the total exergy input. And it is also kg], the exergy output of the power generation subcycle in KCS-11
noticed that the exergy loss of the absorber is minus. The reason is solar system are maximum, which is 374.811 [kW] (Table 6). So the
that heat is released when ammonia gas dissolves in water in the following parametric optimization analysis takes y5 ¼ 0.94 [kg/kg]
absorber. In addition, it is found that when y5 is equal to 0.94 [kg/ as an example.

Fig. 7. Relationship between heat-transfer rate distribution ratio k and exergy input/output/loss.
 F. Sun et al. / Renewable Energy 66 (2014) 268e279 277

system. Reason resulting in such phenomena is that the larger hsc

Fig. 8. Relationship between temperature and enthalpy in KCS-11 solar system.
Fig. 4 shows the relationship between hsc and exergy input/
output/loss of the solar system by using the initial conditions of
Fig. 3 with y5 ¼ 0.94 [kg/kg]. It is known that the larger hsc within its
effective range, the larger quantity energy obtained in solar evap-
orator. However, from Fig. 4(a) and (b) it can be seen that the exergy
input of the solar system decreases with increasing hsc. The reason
is that the larger hsc, the lower temperature of the solar evaporator,
and then the smaller exergy input by way of solar evaporator. As
shown in Fig. 4(c) and (d), there is an optimal hsc (hsc,opt ¼ 60% [e])
that maximizes the exergy output (374.811 [kW]) of the solar
within its effective range, the smaller exergy input of the solar
system. Meanwhile, when the hsc gets smaller within its effective
range, the exergy loss of the solar system gets larger as shown in
the figure.
In addition, from Figs. 3 and 4 it is known that the (hsc ¼ 60% [e],
y5,opt ¼ 0.94 [kg/kg]) or (y5 ¼ 0.94 [kg/kg], hsc,opt ¼ 60% [e]) is a
locally optimal solution for maximizing the exergy output of the
solar system. To get the global optimal solution of the system, Fig. 5
shows the locally maximum exergy output of the solar system and
the locally hsc,opt for each y5. And the corresponding exergy input/
output/loss is shown in Fig. 6. Thus it can be seen from these figures
that the global optimal solution of the solar system is hsc,opt ¼ 56%
[e], y5,opt ¼ 0.90 [kg/kg]. And the global maximum exergy output is
known as 391.389 [kW]. Meanwhile, the detail data of the exergy
input/output/loss and the corresponding optimal operation pa-
rameters (m _ wf;opt ¼ 9:05 ½kg=s, m _ scc;opt ¼ 42:59 ½kg=s) in this
case are listed in Table 6. In sum, the hsc,opt and y5,opt are chosen as
an example for further discussion.
Fig. 7 shows the influence of the superheater on exergy input/
output/loss of the KCS-11 solar system in terms of heat-transfer rate
distribution ratio k. It’s worth mentioning here that the case (k ¼ 0%
[e]) means the KCS-11 solar system without a superheater. Thus,
from Fig. 7(a) and (b) it can be seen that the total exergy input of the
solar system is increasing with increasing k since the exergy input
of the superheater is increased markedly in this process. And it is
shown from Fig. 7(c) and (d) that the larger k, the larger exergy
output. Meanwhile, the exergy loss of each system component is
nearly a constant and the system exergy efficiency is increasing
slightly. Thus based on abovementioned simulation results and
analysis, it is known that the superheater (k) has little influence on

Table 7
Optimal results for KCS-11 solar system under condition of Tables 1 and 2 with k ¼ 14% [e], hsc,opt ¼ 56% [e], y5,opt ¼ 0.90 [kg/kg].

Point t [
C] P [MPa] y [kg/kg] h [kJ/kg] s [kJ/(kg K)] v [m3/kg] _ n =m

m _ 5 ½

1 13.893 0.604 0.900000 598.598 2.626 0.0720 1.0000

2 12.264 0.604 0.900000 184.442 1.179 0.0015 1.0000
3 12.777 2.354 0.900000 187.932 1.182 0.0015 1.0000
3is 12.590 2.354 0.900000 187.059 1.179 0.0015 1.0000
4 46.424 2.354 0.900000 348.531 1.713 0.0016 1.0000
40 60.230 2.354 0.900000 417.505 1.924 0.0016 1.0000
5 62.462 2.354 0.900000 751.360 2.922 0.0016 1.0000
6 62.462 2.354 0.999103 1516.378 5.069 0.0569 0.3181
7 62.462 2.354 0.853776 394.541 1.921 0.0016 0.6819
8 13.505 2.354 0.853776 159.034 1.163 0.0015 0.6819
9 13.762 0.604 0.853776 159.034 1.172 0.0015 0.6819
10 35.828 0.604 0.999103 1541.024 5.737 0.2351 0.3181
10is 23.919 0.604 0.999103 1508.989 5.631 0.2233 0.3181
11 130.512 2.354 0.999103 1722.552 5.631 0.0768 0.3181
ta ¼ 71.054 [ C], tf ¼ 49.008 [ C], tcso ¼ 10.905 [ C], hpgc ¼ 11.58 [%], hk ¼ 6.48 [%], Wnet ¼ 490.884 [kW]

Table 8
_ ½kg=s.
Optimum KCS-11 solar system operating conditions in Kumejima Island m

Month _ wf;opt ½kg=s

m _ scc;opt ½kg=s
m hsc,opt [e] Exergy output [kW] Other conditions

January 1.98 6.99 0.24 110.736 P0 ¼ 0.10135 [MPa]

February 2.08 8.44 0.25 117.981 ðUA=Q_ Þse;c ¼ 0:2 ½1=
C
March 3.64 15.49 0.36 205.145 htbn ¼ 85 [%]
April 4.08 16.03 0.40 227.458 hwfp ¼ 75 [%]
May 4.39 16.30 0.42 244.828 Asc ¼ 104 [m2]
June 5.75 26.82 0.49 320.816 m_ cs ¼ 150 ½kg=s
July 8.35 33.32 0.55 454.144 y5 ¼ 0.90 [kg/kg]
August 9.05 42.40 0.56 490.999 ðUA=Q_ Þrg ¼ 0:2 ½1=
C
September 7.53 31.24 0.53 411.909 k ¼ 14% [e]
October 6.26 23.07 0.49 342.916
November 3.56 16.70 0.37 201.559
December 2.81 10.84 0.31 157.188
278 F. Sun et al. / Renewable Energy 66 (2014) 268e279

Fig. 9. Exergy input/output/loss of the KCS-11 solar system in Kumejima Island for a year.

the system optimal solution (hsc,opt, y5,opt) from a thermodynamics
point of view. Therefore from the point of view of system economy
and device safety, the further discussion still takes the hsc,opt and
y5,opt as an example to find the appropriate scale of the superheater
(k) to satisfy the superheated vapor expansions in the turbine. It can
be seen from the temperatureeentropy diagram (Fig. 8) of the KCS-
11 solar system that k ¼ 14% [e] (the real line with star mark) is the
appropriate value to avoid damage to turbine since the superheated
vapor expansion process does not contain the liquid particles.
Meanwhile, the real line with cycle mark represents entropy flows
of the initial conditions (Table 2) for comparison. Obviously, in this
expansion process, the superheated vapor will condense out to
liquid particles. As a result from the parametric optimization
analysis, the following system case design in Kumejima Island for
power generation will take k ¼ 14% [e] for an example. In addition,
the corresponding detail data of the exergy input/output/loss of the
optimal KCS-11 solar system and its state points in this case are
listed in Tables 6 and 7.
optimization analysis results for sampling month (August) in
Kumejima Island. And from the viewpoint of economics, the system
y5 is set to a fixed value as 0.90 [kg/kg], which is the optimal value
for August. As a result, parameters (m _ wf and hsc) need to be opti-
mized for the maximum annual power generation in the Kumejima
Island. In which, the different hsc can be gotten by adjusting the
mass flow rate of the solar collector subcycle m _ scc . Finally, the
corresponding optimum solar system operating conditions can be
calculated with aforementioned method and listed in Table 8.
Fig. 9 shows exergy input/output/loss of the KCS-11 solar system
in Kumejima Island for a year with its corresponding optimum
operation conditions (Table 8). Concurring with expectations, the

4. An application case designed in Kumejima Island

Based on the above discussion, suggestions could be given on

selection of the system parameters for the maximum annual power
generation with the help of the Kumejima Island weather data
(Table 1) as follows. It is known that the larger the solar system
scale, the larger the power generation. However, from an economic
point of view and because of the limited conditions of the local area,
the solar system should be in a certain scale. Therefore, as
mentioned above, most system parameters are designed as shown
in Table 2 as an example except some operating parameters, such as
ammonia mass fraction y5, heat-transfer rate proportion for su-
perheater k, mass flow rate of working fluid m _ wf , efficiency of the
solar collector hsc, etc. In which, the k for the annual power gen-
eration is given as 14 [%], which is based on the abovementioned Fig. 10. Power generation of the KCS-11 solar system in Kumejima Island for a year.
 F. Sun et al. / Renewable Energy 66 (2014) 268e279
total exergy input of the solar system is largest in summer as shown
in Fig. 9(a). It is also noted from Fig. 9(b) that percentage of exergy
input in the solar system by way of condenser is largest in the
summer months. Reason resulting in such phenomena is the
temperature difference of the ambient air and cold seawater, which
varies with seasons. Meanwhile, it can be seen from Fig. 9(c) that
the exergy output of the solar system in August is the largest, which
is about 491 kW. And the main system exergy losses are associated
with internal consumptions of exergy in turbine (92 kW) and
condenser (97 kW) due to irreversibilities. Further, from Fig. 9(d),
we know that the exergy efficiency and percentage of the exergy
loss in each component are almost constant under their respective
optimum operation conditions (m _ wf;opt , m
_ scc;opt ). Meanwhile, it also
shows a basis for the performance estimation of the optimum solar
system. Based on this, the generated electrical energy for each
month using the KCS-11 solar system under the optimum operation
conditions of each month (Table 8) and weather data of Kumejima
Island (Table 1) is shown in Fig. 10. In which, the dot line with ‘cycle’
mark and dash dot line with ‘square’ mark show the relationship
between m _ wf;opt , m_ scc;opt and months, respectively. And then, the
corresponding annual power generation of the KCS-11 solar system
can be calculated therefrom, which is about 553520 kW h.
5. Conclusions
The KCS-11 solar system with an auxiliary superheater is
analyzed in the present study from both the first and the second
law point of view providing a rational procedure for producing
more useful energy in LTEC. Here, some concluding remarks have
been summarized as follows:
 The system state points as well as the exergy input/output/loss
for each system component are solved and proved to be correct
with the help of the verification items in KCS-11 solar system.
 The parameter design optimization and system performance
analysis are carried out and shown that the key operating pa-
rameters, which affect the system as a whole, have been iden-
tified as the mass flow rates of working fluid (m _ wf ) and solar
collector subcycle (m_ scc ) and also ammonia mass fraction (y5).
And, they all have an optimum value for a set of other operating
parameters to realize the maximum exergy output of the
system.
 The heat-transfer rate distribution ratio of the superheater (k)
should be large enough to ensure that the expanding vapor in
the turbine is superheated from the viewpoint of the device
safety.
 An optimization calculation case is designed for illustration by
using the monthly mean solar radiation statistics in Kumejima
Island of Japan. In this case, the maximum generated power is
491 kW showing 35.6% exergy efficiency and 6.48% energy ef-
ficiency of the system for the month of August. The size of the
system in terms of power generated of each major equipment is
listed as follows: solar evaporator (370 kW), superheater
(106 kW), condenser (298 kW), turbine (491 kW), separator
(43 kW), absorber (37 kW), pump (8 kW), regenerator (38 kW),
diffuser (17 kW). And the main system exergy losses are asso-
ciated with internal consumptions of exergy in turbine (92 kW)
and condenser (97 kW) due to irreversibilities.
279
 The exergy efficiency and percentage of the exergy loss in each
component for each month are almost constant under their
respective optimum operation conditions. Meanwhile, it also
shows a basis for the performance estimation of the optimum
solar system.
 The maximum annual power generation of the KCS-11 solar
system is about 553,520 kW h in Kumejima Island of Japan.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of this
work by the AY2012 Research Promotion Program (Young Scientist)
(Ritsumeikan University).
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