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Porosity reduction in Nd–YAG laser welding of stainless steel and inconel

alloy by using a pulsed wave

Article  in  Journal of Physics D Applied Physics · February 2005

DOI: 10.1088/0022-3727/38/5/009

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INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS PUBLISHING JOURNAL OF PHYSICS D: APPLIED PHYSICS
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 38 (2005) 722–728 doi:10.1088/0022-3727/38/5/009

Porosity reduction in Nd–YAG laser

welding of stainless steel and inconel alloy
by using a pulsed wave
T Y Kuo1 and S L Jeng2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Southern Taiwan University of Technology,
Tainan 710, Taiwan, Republic of China
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701,
Taiwan, Republic of China
E-mail: tykuo@mail.stut.edu.tw

Received 14 September 2004, in final form 19 November 2004

Published 18 February 2005
Online at stacks.iop.org/JPhysD/38/722

Abstract
This study investigates the influence of the Nd–YAG laser power wave mode
on the porosity and mechanical properties of SUS 304L and inconel 690
weldments. Initially, a rectangular laser power waveform is specified. The
output is then progressively changed from a pulsed wave mode to a
continuous wave mode by reducing the value of
P (
P = Pp − Pb , where
Pp is the peak power and Pb is the base power) to zero. Bead-on-plate
(BOP) and butt welding are performed at a constant mean output power
(1.7 kW). The BOP results demonstrate that the depth/width (D/W ) ratio of
both materials increases with
P and attains a maximum value when full
penetration just occurs. The D/W ratio and the travel speed for full
penetration are higher for SUS 304L than for inconel 690. In butt-welds of
inconel 690 and SUS 304L, the porosity ratio decreases from 7.1% to 0.5%
and from 2.1% to 0.5%, respectively, as
P increases from 0 to 2780 W.
Therefore, the tensile strength and percentage elongation are enhanced
significantly in inconel 690. The degree of porosity reduction in inconel 690
exceeds that of SUS 304L. This suggests that the viscosity of the molten
inconel 690 metal is higher than that of SUS 304L. Consequently, the effect
of porosity reduction due to the increase in molten metal fluidity caused by
increasing
P is greater for inconel 690 than for SUS 304L.

1. Introduction develop enhanced welding processes that improve the original

Austenitic stainless steels and nickel-based alloys offer
superior corrosion resistance properties and are commonly
employed in components to be utilized in corrosive aqueous
media, e.g. in nuclear power plants, or in chemical and
petrochemical processing installations, etc. [1–4]. After
prolonged operation in these attacking environments, the
components may suffer stress corrosion cracking (SCC) or
intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) as a result of
sensitization in the heat affected zone and/or poor welding
quality in the fusion zone (FZ) [5–7]. Although the damaged
parts can simply be repaired or replaced with some suitable
material or component, a more appropriate solution is to
welding quality and hence prevent, or at least limit, the
occurrence of such damage.
Austenitic stainless steels and nickel-based alloys are
generally welded using conventional shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW), gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), or gas
metal arc welding (GMAW) processes [8–11]. Compared to
these arc-welding processes, the high power density of laser
beam welding provides a higher depth/width (D/W ) ratio
bead, a lower heat input, and a more rapid solidification.
These welding characteristics are beneficial since they yield
low distortion and excellent mechanical properties [12–15].
However, laser beam welds are characterized by porosity
within the FZ since the rapid welding speed causes the

0022-3727/05/050722+07$30.00 © 2005 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK 722

 Porosity reduction in Nd–YAG laser welding in stainless steel

Table 1. Chemical compositions (wt %) of SUS 304L and inconel 690.

Ni Cr Fe C Si Mn P S Cu Co Ti
SUS 304L 8.18 17.93 Bal. 0.021 0.60 1.69 0.024 0.003 — — —
Inconel 690 59.05 29.45 Bal. 0.019 0.33 0.29 0.01 0.001 0.02 0.014 0.28

shielding gas and environment air to be blown into the keyhole, Table 2. Mechanical properties of SUS 304L and inconel 690.
which prevents the complete expulsion of the evaporated Yield Tensile
materials from the keyhole tip. Some of the gas, air, strength strength Elongation Hardness
and evaporated materials that remain subsequently become (MPa) (MPa) (%) (HV)
trapped within the solidifying weld pool. Furthermore, the SUS 304L 268 621 54 168
short solidification times associated with laser beam welding
Inconel 690 279 629 59 169
can prompt hot cracking if the welding parameters are
inappropriately specified [16–21].
The current study adopts the Nd–YAG laser beam as a
power source and initially specifies a rectangular pulse power (a) (b)
waveform. Over a series of welding trials performed on

Power (w)

Power (w)
3090
SUS 304L and inconel 690, the value of
P is gradually 2590
reduced while maintaining a constant mean power. The effects
of different
P levels on the porosity ratio, FZ shape, and 1700 1700
mechanical properties of the resulting welds are examined and
discussed. 810
310

2. Experimental procedure 5 10 15
Time (ms) 5 10 15
Time (ms)
PW1 PW2
The inconel 690 used in the present study was supplied by (c) (d)
Sumitomo Metal Technology, Hyogo, Japan, in plate form.
Power (w)

The as-received alloy had been solution heat treated at 1050˚C
for 5 min and then quenched in water. The as-purchased SUS
304L was heat treated at 1050˚C for 2 h and then allowed to cool
in air. The chemical compositions and mechanical properties
of the two base metals (BMs) are presented in tables 1 and 2,
respectively.
Welding was performed using a Rofin-Sinar CW025,
2.5 kW Nd–YAG laser system operating at a mean laser source
power of 1.7 kW. By gradually reducing the value of
P ,
the output power was changed progressively from a pulsed
wave (PW) mode to a continuous wave (CW) mode. As
shown in figure 1, four specific power modes were adopted,
namely PW1 (
P = 2780 W), PW2 (
P = 1780 W), PW3
(
P = 970 W), and CW (
P = 0 W). The frequency and
duty cycle of the rectangular modulated beam were maintained
at 100 Hz and 50%, respectively, throughout. The laser beam
was delivered to the workstation via an optical fibre of diameter
600 µm. A welding focal length of 120 mm was employed
with a focus spot size of 600 µm. The laser was set up such
that it was focused on the upper surface of the welding plates.
To prevent accidental damage to the optics by back reflection,
the laser beam was oriented at a forward angle of 75˚ to the
workpiece. Meanwhile, the plasma above the keyhole was
controlled by a jet of pure argon (flow rate: 20 litre min−1 )
directed at the top of the keyhole and oriented at a forward
angle of 30˚ to the workpiece, and a second pure argon jet
(flow rate: 10 litre min−1 ) was blown at the back surface.
Initially, a series of bead-on-plate (BOP) tests was
performed to investigate the effects of the
P level and
travel speed on the resultant weld shape and D/W ratio.
During these tests, the travel speed was adjusted continuously
until full-penetration welds were achieved. The travel speed
Power (w)
2185
1700 1700
1215
5 10 15 5 10 15
Time (ms) Time (ms)
PW3 CW
Figure 1. Laser power output modes and
P level: (a) PW1,
(b) PW2, (c) PW3, and (d) CW.
corresponding to the full-penetration weld was utilized in the
subsequent butt-welding of two plates without filler metal.
The configuration of the butt-welding design and the layout
of the weldment are shown schematically in figure 2(a). As
shown, the two plates were positioned without a joint gap in
a rigid hold-down fixture. Figure 2(b) shows the design of
specimens for tensile testing. Tensile testing was performed
at room temperature using an MTS 810 universal tensile
test machine operating with a crosshead speed of 0.05 mm s−1 .
The microhardness of the FZ was measured by a Vickers
automatic microhardness tester using a load of 200 g.
The probability of porosities in the FZ was evaluated by the
porosity formation ratio Pr (Pr = sum of porosity area/area
of the weld metal). These measurements were on longitudinal

723
T Y Kuo and S L Jeng

(a)

80
Hardness

80

160

(b) 3
50 R13
24
12.5

60
30
140 3

Figure 2. Schematic diagrams of: (a) weldment design and

(b) tensile test specimen design (mm).

Figure 3. Bead profiles of specimens obtained with various laser

metallographic sections of the welds that were digitally imaged power wave modes and travel speeds: (a) PW1, (b) PW2, (c) PW3,
using a CCD camera. For each weld, three longitudinal and (d) CW.
sections of 8 mm length were extracted from parallel positions
located 0.2 mm to the left of the FZ centre, in the centre of
Table 3. Thermophysical properties of SUS 304L and inconel 690.
the FZ, and 0.2 mm to the right of the FZ, respectively.
SUS 304L Inconel 690

3. Experimental results and discussions Specific Thermal Specific Thermal

Temperature heat conductivity heat conductivity
3.1. Effects of output wave mode with variation of
P level (˚C) (J Kg−1 ) (W m−1 ) (J Kg−1 ) (W m−1 )
on bead profiles and D/W ratio for BOP welding specimens 600 581 22.2 604 22.9
700 594 23.8 631 24.8
Figure 3 shows the bead profiles of the SUS 304L and inconel 800 609 25.4 658 26.6
690 BOP welding specimens. It is observed that the bead cap is 900 621 27.0 684 28.5
wider than the bead root. The size of the bead cap is affected to 1000 634 28.6 711 30.1
a significant extent by the formation of plasma above the FZ. Melting point—SUS 304L: 1400–1450˚C; Inconel 690:
Energy diffused from this region tends to increase the bead 1343–1377˚C.
width at the top of the weld. For a given output power mode
and a constant welding speed, the widths of the beads in inconel
690 are larger, and the penetration depths smaller, than those depth of the hole obtained during a pulse is greater for the lower
observed in SUS 304L. The fluid flow and heat transfer in the fluid viscosity case (i.e. SUS 304L) since a greater propensity
weld pool are strongly influenced by the thermal properties and exists to eject the liquid sideways. For a given welding
viscosity of the liquid metal. The thermal conductivity, specific velocity and a constant mean power, a greater penetration depth
heat, and melting point properties of the two BMs presented should lead to a smaller mean width. Therefore, the results
in table 3 [22, 23] are similar. Hence, it is assumed that the above can be explained by considering the higher viscosity
viscosity properties of the two metals have a significant effect of the molten inconel 690 compared to that of SUS 304L.
upon the fluid flow and heat transfer of the molten metal, and In other words, inconel 690 requires more energy than SUS
consequently upon the weld penetration and width. Although 304L to achieve the same penetration depth. Consequently,
both inconel 690 (59.05% Ni, 29.45% Cr, 10.54% Fe) and inconel 690 achieves full penetration with a lower travel speed
SUS 304L (8.18% Ni, 17.93% Cr, 71.55% Fe) are Ni–Cr–Fe than SUS 304L for the same
P level. In the study by
alloys, the molten metal of inconel 690 has a lower fluidity than Kaiser [24], automatic GTAW was used to deposit beads under
that of SUS 304L as a result of its relatively higher Ni content. the same welding conditions for SUS 304 and inconel 600. The
Additionally, a pulsed welding process is essentially similar to latter metal has a composition of 76% Ni, 15.5% Cr, 8% Fe
a drilling process since each pulse makes its own keyhole. The and has similar thermal and mechanical properties to those

724
 Porosity reduction in Nd–YAG laser welding in stainless steel

1900 (a) 3
SUS 304L Inconel 690 SUS 304L
1700
Critical Travel Speed (mm/min)

2.5
1500

1300

D/W
2

1100

900 1.5

700 PW1 PW2 PW3 CW

1
500 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300
CW PW3 PW2 PW1 Travel Speed (mm/min)
Wave Modes
(b) 3
Figure 4. Effect of wave mode on critical travel speed (for full
penetration) for Nd–YAG laser welding of inconel 690 and Inconel 690
SUS 304L.
2.5

exhibited by inconel 690. It was found that inconel 600 with D/W 2
its higher viscosity revealed a lesser penetration depth than
SUS 304.
During the welding trials, it was found that spattering 1.5

of the molten metal was more significant at higher values

PW1 PW2 PW3 CW
of
P . This observation can be explained as being due 1
to the increased intense vibration of the molten metal when 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300
welding is performed with a higher laser peak power. In Travel Speed (mm/min)
addition, the degree of spattering was observed to be slightly
more pronounced in the case of inconel 690. Therefore, the Figure 5. Depth-to-width ratio (D/W ) curves for BOP welds as
function of
P level and travel speed.
surfaces of the inconel 690 welds are slightly rougher than
those of the SUS 304L welds when welding is performed at
a high
P level. The degree of spattering is influenced by the 205
viscosity. The effects on this phenomenon are also assumed SUS 304L Inconel 690
to involve the flow of vaporized metal from the keyhole and 200

the electromagnetic and surface tension gradient forces of the 195

molten metal, which are affected by the characteristics of the 190
alloying elements (e.g. the vaporization temperature, vapour
185
HV0.2

pressure, and surface activity).

Figure 3 also reveals that the penetration depth increases 180
with increasing
P level for a constant mean power. In 175
other words, with a higher value of
P , a higher travel speed
170
can be used to achieve the same penetration depth as that
produced using a lower value of
P and a lower travel speed. 165
Correspondingly, as shown in figure 4, the travel speed for 160
achieving full penetration increases with increasing
P . As BM PW1 PW2 PW3 CW
stated above, pulsed welding is essentially similar to a drilling Specimen No.
process. Therefore, if
P is higher (i.e. the peak power, Pp , is
Figure 6. Average Vickers hardness of FZ and BM for butt-welded
high), then it is reasonable to assume that for a constant mean
specimens.
power, the penetration depth will increase. Consequently, full-
penetration welds can be achieved at a higher travel speed when
higher
P levels are specified. 3.2. Effects of output wave mode with variation of
P level
on the mechanical properties and porosity ratio for
Figure 5 shows that the D/W ratio of the BOP welds
butt-welding specimens
attains its greatest value when full penetration just occurs.
As the travel speed increases, the D/W ratios decrease since As shown in figure 6, the hardness values of the two BMs
the heat flux per unit weld length decreases. Besides, it is are similar, i.e. 169 HV0.2 for SUS 304L and 168 HV0.2
also observed that the D/W ratio increases as the
P level for inconel 690. However, the hardness values of the FZs in
increases. It is attributed to the higher peak power associated the SUS 304L and inconel 690 welds vary between 190–197
with high
P levels, which tends to increase the weld depth HV0.2 and 179–189 HV0.2, respectively. It is clear, therefore,
more significantly than the weld width. that the FZ is significantly harder than the BM in each of

725
T Y Kuo and S L Jeng

(a) 640 304L welds is lower than that of the inconel 690 welds, and that
SUS 304L Inconel 690 the trapped cavities are smaller. Furthermore, the porosities of
Tensile Strength (MPa)

620 both welds decrease significantly as
P increases.

600 Figure 9 indicates the porosity ratio, Pr , of the two
materials, and shows that the Pr of inconel 690 reduces from
580 7.1% in the CW mode to 0.5% in the PW1 mode. Similarly, that
of SUS 304L decreases from 2.1% to 0.5%. It is assumed that
560
the laser pulse agitates the molten pool and promotes a periodic
540 molten metal flow, which causes bubbles to float to the surface,
BM PW1 PW2 PW3 CW
hence decreasing the porosity of the weld [25]. This agitation
Specimen No.
effect is enhanced at higher
P levels. Conversely, in the
(b) 80 CW mode, there is no pulse effect, and hence more bubbles
SUS 304L Inconel 690 remain in the weld pool during solidification. As a result,
70
the porosity ratio attains its minimum value in the PW1 mode
Elongation (%)

60 and its maximum value in the CW mode in both materials.

50
40
30
20
BM PW1 PW2 PW3
Specimen No.
(c)
Figure 7. Mechanical properties of butt-welded specimens:
(a) tensile strength, (b) percentage elongation, and (c) fracture
position.
the four welding modes. In laser beam welding, the travel
speed of the laser can be an order of magnitude greater
than that of traditional welding processes, and hence the
cooling and solidification rates are higher. Consequently,
the weld microstructures are more refined, with the result
that the hardness is enhanced. In this study, the travel
speed for high
P level specimens is greater than that for
low
P level welds, and hence the hardness of the higher

P level specimens exceeds that of the lower
P level
specimens.
Figures 7(a) and (b) demonstrate the tensile-testing results
of the SUS 304L and inconel 690 weldments. As
P
increases, it shows that the tensile strength and percentage
elongation properties of inconel 690 are enhanced from
573 MPa and 32% to 612 MPa and 46%, respectively.
However, they are only a little improved in SUS 304L.
Figure 7(c) shows that all of the SUS 304L specimens
ruptured in the BM. Conversely, inconel 690 ruptured in
the BM for PW1, in the FZ or the BM for PW2, and in
the FZ for PW3 and CW. As discussed below, the differing
influence of the
P level on the tensile properties of the two
materials can be attributed to the porosity characteristcs of their
respective FZs.
Figure 8 presents photographs of longitudinal sections of
the butt-welds extracted from the vicinity of the weld centres
of the two materials. It can be seen that the porosity of the SUS
Figure 9 also indicates that Pr is higher for the inconel 690
welds than for the SUS 304L welds and shows that this
ratio decreases rapidly for inconel 690 as the level of
P
increases. This observation is attributed to the relatively poorer
fluidity (greater viscosity) of molten inconel 690. Previous
CW studies have reported that PW power modulation provides an
effective means of reducing porosity formation provided that
adequate pulsed frequency, pulsed duration, or duty cycle
parameters are specified [17, 18, 26, 27]. According to the
analysis presented in these studies, the reduction of porosity
can be attributed to the fact that the holes formed in the
previous pulse wave are effectively removed from the keyhole
formed by the subsequent pulse (in continuous welding) or by
the tailing pulse (in spot welding) if appropriate parameters
are adopted. In the present study, it is found that when the
rectangular PW power is modulated at a high
P level, the
degree of porosity reduction in the weld pool of a molten
material with poor fluidity is greater than that of a weld
pool of a molten material with good fluidity. This finding
is attributed to the fact that the PW has a greater effect in
prompting bubbles to float to the surface in high-viscosity
molten metals than in low-viscosity molten metals. Hence,
increasing the level of
P enhances the degree of reduction
in porosity of the inconel 690 more significantly than in SUS
304L. In recent studies, Kawaguchi et al [28] used a high
power 20 kW CO2 laser facility and attempted to optimize
the power modulation waveform and frequency in order to
suppress porosity. Their results demonstrated that, under
an appropriate pulsed frequency, the porosity suppression
effect provided by a triangular wave power modulation was
greater than that achieved using a square wave or CW power
modulation.
The present results suggest that porosity has a significant
effect on the tensile properties and behaviour of inconel 690.
In the PW3 weld (Pr = 4.2%) and the CW weld (Pr = 7.1%),
specimen rupture occurred in the FZ. However, at values of Pr
equal to or less than 1.7% (i.e. PW2 and PW1), the inconel 690
specimens failed in the BM region, which suggests that they
had a similar tensile strength to that of the BM.
4. Conclusions
1. In BOP welding, under each wave mode, the D/W ratio
of both materials attains a maximum value when full-
penetration welds just occur. As
P increases, the

726
 Porosity reduction in Nd–YAG laser welding in stainless steel

High
∆P=2780 W

∆P=1780 W
∆P Level

∆P=970 W

∆P=0 W
Low

(a) SUS 304L (b) Inconel 690

Figure 8. Porosity in longitudinal sections of butt-welded specimens: (a) PW1, (b) PW2, (c) PW3, and (d) CW.

9 4. Finally, as stated above, the porosity reduction effect of

SUS 304L Inconel 690 the laser pulse is more significant in inconel 690 than in
8
SUS 304L and the tensile strength of inconel 690 increases
7
significantly as the level of
P increases. Consequently,
6 it can be inferred from this study that in the Nd–YAG
5 laser welding process, the increase in tensile properties
Pr (%)

prompted by higher
P levels will be more significant

4
in materials that demonstrate poor fluidity in their molten
3
states.
2

1
Acknowledgment
0
PW1 PW2 PW W The current authors gratefully acknowledge the support
Specimen No.
provided to this study by the National Science Council,
Figure 9. Influence of
P level on porosity formation ratio Pr of Republic of China (Taiwan) under Contract No NSC 89-2216-
butt-welded specimens. E-218-005.

enhanced laser energy efficiency causes the D/W ratio to References

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molten metal.
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P increases, the rupture position of
inconel 690 moves from the FZ to the BM, and the tensile
strength and percentage elongation increase. Conversely,
the SUS 304L specimens all rupture in the BM and there
is little variation in the mechanical properties as
P
increases.
3. For both materials, the porosity ratio, Pr , decreases as the
level of
P increases. It is assumed that the laser pulse
agitates the molten metal and causes bubbles to float to
the surface of the weld pool, hence decreasing the weld
porosity. Inconel 690 demonstrates a more significant
reduction in weld porosity with increasing
P level than
SUS 304L due to the relatively poorer viscosity of its
molten metal.
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