Introduction to

Earth Systems
Lecture 3
Journey to the Center of the Earth
- Short version

GEO 1111
Winter 2022
Pia Pleše , Ph.D. 1
A Journey Toward Earth: The Heliosphere and Kuiper !
Belt
Heliosphere – at 200 AU – edge of the Solar System

The heliosphere
represents the outer
reach of solar winds
(charged particles from
the Sun).

55 – 30 AU:

The Kuiper Belt is a

collection of icy objects,
including the dwarf
planets Pluto and Eris.

Neptune’s orbit =
Kuiper’s belt inner edge
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Earth’s Magnetic Field
Earth’s magnetic field (the
magnetosphere) is distorted by solar
wind (stream of charged particles).

The Van Allen belts are stronger parts

of the magnetosphere that deflect or
trap the majority of solar wind charged
particles.

The magnetosphere shields us from cosmic radiation and allows life on Earth.
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The Earth System
atmosphere

hydrosphere

cryosphere

biosphere

lithosphere

The Earth System

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Habitable Zone
Hydrosphere – only Earth has liquid water!

In our Solar System, the habitable zone lies between about 0.8 and 2.5
AU. The scale is logarithmic, in astronomical units (AU).

+460°C -55°C

Different atmospheres: traps heat heat escapes

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Earth’s Surface Topography vs. bathymetry

30%

70%

This map of the Earth shows variation in elevation on both the land surface and
beneath the ocean.
Darker brown is higher elevation; lighter green is lower elevation. Darker blue is
deeper water.
But extreme highs and lows are less abundant than “average” values.
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Earth’s structure
How do we know how the Earth is built ?

Investigation methods:
Super deep Kola borehole
• Boreholes 12 262m (1970)

• Meteorites

• Volcanoes

• EARTHQUAKES
Chikyu, 2 111m (2012)

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The Geothermal Gradient
• Earth’s temperature gradually
increases with an increase in
depth at a rate known as the
geothermal gradient
• The geothermal gradient is a
measure of the increase in
temperature with depth.
Differing rates of change with
depth reflect variation in
Earth’s layers.
• varies considerably from
place to place
• averages between about
10C to 20C/km in the crust
(rate of increase is much less surface T of the Sun
in the mantle and core)
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Earthquakes - clues to the interior of the Earth

… We'll come back to earthquakes, but here's some basic info…

Earthquake: vibration (tremor) of the Earth's surface caused by the
sudden release of energy stored in stressed rocks.

Some properties that will be useful in studying the structure of the

Earth:
• The released energy travels in all
directions from its point of
origin.
• Seismic energy propagates in
the form of waves.

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Earth’s Interior
Earthquake (seismic) waves allowed geologists to refine the model of Earth’s
interior. Here, the mantle and the core are subdivided.

Information on interior
materials:

- Meteorite composition
- Igneous rock sources (volcanoes
and boreholes)
- Solid mantle fragments (volcanoes)
- Laboratory measurements of
materials under high P and T
 ! !
The layers
1. Composition (dominant chemical elements):
• crust
• mantle
• core

2. Rheology or mechanical / physical properties:

• Lithosphere (solid, cold, brittle)
• Asthenosphere (partially melted, plastic)
• Mesosphere (solid, hot, “strong”)
• Outer core (liquid)
• Internal core (solid)
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Continental and Oceanic Crust
granodiorite
•continental crust
• 4000 Ma
• 3-70 km thick (0-100+ km) average:
40 km
• Si-O, Al (K, Na, Ca)
• average: granite; ρ : 2.7 g/cm3

•oceanic crust basalt

• 180 Ma
• 3-15 km thick (0-20+ km) average:
10 km
• Mg & Fe (Si-O)
• average: basalt; ρ: 3.0 g/cm3
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Paleomagnetism
Marine magnetic anomalies are bands of normal and
reversed magnetic field signatures
Parallel magnetic bands preserved in
ocean floor rocks.
Symmetric "bar-code" anomaly pattern
reflects plate motion away from ridge
coupled with magnetic field reversals.

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Recap – Earth’s layers
Layers of Earth based on chemical & physical differences:

crust: solid, strong, rigid; 30-70 km thick

mantle: solid, weak, ductile; 2900 km thick chemistry/composition
core: outer (liquid) & inner (solid); 3480 km thick

crust + upper mantle = lithosphere (~ 100 km)

below lithosphere = asthenosphere (~ 140 km) physical/mechanical
below asthenosphere = mesosphere
core

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Recap – Earth’s layers
• lithosphere
• cool & strong; brittle
• continental: 100-200 km thick
• oceanic: 5-100 km thick
---- detached ----
• asthenosphere
• partially melted; ductile
• extends to depth of 660 km

• mesosphere
• strong & hot
• extends 660 km to 2900 km in
depth
• core
• outer: liquid, metallic Fe, 2300 km
thick
• inner: solid, Fe, 10% Ni (S, O), 1200
km radius 15