Wall Flows in a Cyclone Separator: A Description of
Internal Phenomena*
William E. Ranz
Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, MN 55455
Liquid-like dense layers of particles are formed on the
walls of cyclone separators and on the bottom of pneu-
matic conveying channels. Such layers exhibit complex
wave forms, and in the case of a cyclone arrange them-
selves in spiral dunes. Since particles centrifuged to the
wall must leave a cyclone via wall layer flow, the nature
of this flow a f k t s performance, especially under condi-
tions of high loading and maximum separation efficiency.
NOMENCLATURE
Width of tangential inlet ( = DJ4 for
standard design), m
Drag coefficient
Cyclone diameter, m
Particle diameter (based on drag
force), m
Mechanical energy loss per unit mass
of flow attributed to wall shear,
Nm/kg
Constant relating mass and force (g,
= (kg/N>(m/s2 1)
Local acceleration of gravity, m/s2
g +
( r ) effective acceleration
acting on particles to maintain
agitated state
Height of tangential inlet ( = DJ2 for
standard design), m
Distance of travel between collisions,
m Wall shear stress, N/m2
'For presentation at the First International Aerosol
Conference, Minneapolis, Minn., Sept. 17-21, 1984.
Aerosol Science and Technology 4:417-432 (1985)
1985 Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc
'1'
Studies of this fluidized state and conditions for its
existence indicate that density is governed by random
particle velocities and by prevailing pressure. First-order
expressions, describing the mechanics of fluidized layers
maintained by a strong shear stress when there is a
transverse force on the particles, are developed. A de-
scription of associated internal phenomena and a detailed
analysis of performance parameters are also presented.
-
Number of flow turns in cyclone ( N ,
5 for standard design)
Friction factor
Local pressure, N/m2
Partial pressure of particles in
fluidized state, N/m2
Cyclonic radius ( = D,./2), m
Radial distance from cyclone axis, m
Root mean square velocity of par-
tides in fluidized state, m/s
Tangential velocity at radius r , m/s
Inlet velocity, m/s
Particle to gas mass ratio
Volume fraction of particles
Gas visccsity, kg/ms
Viscosity of fluidized particles, kg/ms
Gas density, kg/m3
True particle density, kg/m3
Wavelength, m
Other symbols are defined at their point
of use.
418
INTRODUCTION
It is remarkable that particles of size m the dune is deposited.
can be separated in a device of size 1 m with
inlet gas velocities of order 10 m/s and
mechanical energy expenditures equivalent
to about eight times the inlet kinetic energy.
Here are reported various experiments per-
formed (Tran, 1981) and analyses developed
to discover how cyclones work and how par-
ticles, concentrated near the wall by centrifu-
gation, flow out of a cyclone in a fluidized
state. Because of its high frequency of use as
a unit operation, the cyclone needs critical
assessment of its design and operational
limits for separating small particles at high
loadings. Furthermore, a detailed picture of
mechanisms is desired if the cyclone is to be
applied to chemical treatment of particles
and if heat and mass transfer, such as drying,
occur simultaneously. Previous studies have
emphasized the vortex flow of gas and pos-
tulated particle motions in such a flow, pres-
sure drop, and overall collection efficiency of
various particle-size distributions. Empirical
development characterizes present designs
and applications of cyclones.
Evidence and argument presented here
propose that a cyclone vortex should be pic-
tured primarily as a highly turbulent region
of uniform particle concentration, that is, a
completely stirred tank. Particles are centri-
fuged into a wall flow layer at the outside
boundaries of this central vortex. Here they
are swept up into a concentrated, Euidized
spiral dune of nearly stationary form. Flow
inside the dune is along the spiral, and an
axial component velocity is maintained on
the cone wall surface by an overriding sec-
ondary gas flow. Generated by an interaction
between wall shear and radial pressure gradi-
ent of the vortex, t h s secondary motion is in
the form of a boundary layer with velocities
in the direction of the cone apex. Gas and
particle motion is interactive and insep-
arable. At the same inlet flow velocity, the
mechanical energy loss is decreased by par-
ticle loading. Without forced underflow there
William E. Ranz
is an axial gas reflux from the dust bin where
The fluidized state near the wall can
be explained by a hnetic model that pre-
dicts a condensed phase when 27rp ( p -
P .'i
pg)gj,D,/27CDg,pgp < 1. A self-preserving
wave-top form for the dune can be explained
by imaginary waves whose tops have a slip
boundary condition at the wall and whose
wavelength is equal to the distance between
branches of the spiral. While the secondary
gas flow sweeps it toward the dust bin, the
dune tries to climb the cone wall because of
a centrifugal force.
The present point of view is still too nar-
row to give a model that serves all of the
many purposes of cyclone application, but it
does give a model with some of the necessary
internal detail. Separation efficiency now be-
comes less than an ideal value because of
reentrainment from complex wall flows and
because the dune motion is limited in its
ability to carry particle material into the dust
bin.
Inside a Test Cyclone
Liquid-like dense layers of particles are
formed on the walls of cyclone separators
and on the bottom of pneumatic conveying
channels. Such layers exlubit complex wave
forms, and in the case of a cyclone arrange
themselves in spiral dunes that move length-
wise into a dust hopper.
Although the view is obscured by a
sandstorm, a test cyclone ( D , = 0.3 m), shown
in Figure 1, was fitted with a glass top and
operated at average loadings of a fine dust
(D,= m). During normal operation the
main volume of the cyclone appears to be
relatively clear as seen through the incoming
dust stream. There is no obvious gradation
of dust concentration toward the walls.
Moreover, the walls are not uniformly
covered with a hazy cloud. They are marked
with a regular spiral pattern that screws
downward into the dust outlet and reappears
Wall Flows in a Cyclone Separator
--
Air 0.15 rn
Intake Approach
Tube
in a transparent dust bottle below. This spiral
pattern of moving "sand dunes," shown in
Figure 2, begins in the cylindrical section on
the wall at the bottom of the inlet, grows in
visibility on the core walls, and maintains an
apex-directed velocity as it moves toward the
cone outlet.
When dust feed is stopped abruptly, the
spiral pattern persists on the cone, fading
away in a few seconds. These observations
can be explained best by a strong secondary
boundary flow (Taylor, 1950; Weber, 1956)
over the cone surface and directed toward
the dust outlet. The gas part of t h s flow is
refluxed axially from the dust bottle; en-
trained dust, returned to the cyclone with the
reflux gas, can be recycled into the wall
layer. Further evidence of secondary over-
- Filter
Blower
Underflow System
f
FIGURE 1. Cyclone flow system.
flow of gas is given by thin spirals that
occasionally peel off, probably from the crest
of the dune, and move from one branch of
the main spiral to the next branch, at an
apex-directed velocity of order 1 m/s.
To the eye, the spiral pattern bounces like
a spring in tension. This is not unexpected,
since the angular momentum greatly exceeds
the axial momentum and the main vortex is
subject to axial instabilities and axial sec-
ondary flows. A more alarming and mysteri-
ous type of event is sometimes observed. For
no apparent reason the cyclone suddenly
emits a changed sound, and the field of view
is completely obscured by aroused dust. Sub-

FIGURE 2. Fluidized dust spiral on cyclone wall.
sequently, the inside volume gradually clears,
and the spiral pattern reappears on the walls.
Apparently a cyclone can be afflicted with
bursting vortices and multiple steady-flow
states, probably initiated by a disturbance in
the inlet or outlet flow.
Central Flow Field
The bulk flow within a cyclone body is found
to be primarily a turbulence-modified free
William E. Ranz
vortex outside a central rotating vortex and
inside a complex wall boundary flow. Axial
and radial velocities are more difficult to
measure than angular velocities, and are not
well known. The axial velocities are subject
to changes and oscillations. In general, the
axial velocity is downward in the outer vortex
and upward in the inner vortex. There has to
be a generally inward radial flow. However,
there is evidence of two stationary toroidal
eddies of radial velocities caused by strong
inward radial secondary flows on the end
wall and on the cone surface. Descriptions of
Wall Flows in a Cyclone Separator
this bulk flow and other details can be found
in a number of references (Stern et al., 1955;
Rietema and Vervor, 1961).
To check bulk flows in the test cyclone (a
Lapple design (Chem. Eng. Handbook, 1973)
with D, = 0.3 m), a series of radial static
pressure traverses p ( r ) were made from the
wall of the cylinder section at a point 0,/2
above the juncture of the cylinder and cone,
and also from the wall of the cone at another
point D, below the juncture. These traverses
were made when particles were being sep-
arated, and under similar conditions when
the air flow contained no particles.
It so happens that the angular velocity u,
is related to the static pressure gradient by
the relationship
s=d m . (1)
Since impact tubes plugged when particles
were present and gave similar measurements
of u, when particles were not present, this is
a fortunate equation. Static tube openings
can be kept clear of particles, and measure-
ments of u, can be made under working
conditions, provided p, is sufficiently well
known.
In the outer vortex of the cylindrical sec-
tion, and without particle loading, u, cor-
related as r p " where n = 0.60, different from
the n = 1 of an ideal vortex, but predictable
from previous correlations (Alexander, 1949).
Midway in the cone, u,(r) correlated as a
linear, rather than a power, function of r.
However, u, at the boundary of the wall
layer was the u, for the same radius in the
cylindrical section. This is an important em-
pirical result for predicting flow in the wall
layers, since the sampling port was below the
so-called "natural length" (Alexander, 1949).
When particles were present, the indicated
angular velocity profiles were similar in
shape, but velocity was somewhat decreased
in value near the wall, and much decreased
at the radius of maximum tangential velocity
for pure gas flow. Since the angular or
tangential velocity completely dominates the
central flow field, and its character near the
wall boundary layers is critical to separation,
static pressure measurements on the wall and
static pressure traverses near the wall appear
to be the best method of diagnosing the
central flow field of a cyclone while separat-
ing particulates.*
*Turbulence Modified Ideal Vortex (Rietema
and Krajenbrink, 1958).
With cylindrical symmetry the equation or
tangential motion in steady incom-
pressible flow is given by
where v' is a turbulent kinematic viscosity of
nearly constant value describing stresses in
the modified vortex region. In a turbulence-
modified vortex, one finds u, = y , R : r p " ,
where n is less than unity. In an ideal vortex,
v' = 0 and u, = V,R,/r. A uniform radial
sink flow toward the cyclone axis in the same
region requires that urr be constant, say
u, = - u,,, , < , D,/4r. Thus, the equation of
motion applied to the modified vortex gives a
consistency relationship between n and v,
namely,
An experimentally measured n is therefore
an indirect measure of the turbulent kine-
matic viscosity v', which is the same as the
turbulent diffusivity for this simplest of all
turbulence models.
With dust present, n is always smaller
than the n for gas flow alone. In the cyclones
studied here, n = 0.47 for dust loadings from
5 to 40 g/m3, whereas n = 0.60 for gas flow
alone. v' is larger the smaller the n. How-
ever, larger mechanical energy losses should
not be attributed to larger v'. In a cyclone,
maximum u, is smaller the larger the v'. The
ideal pressure drop not recoverable in the
turbulent flow expanding into the core out-
flow is more nearly a measure of mechanical
energy dissipation.

Axial flow outside the wall layers is best
described as beginning in an annular flow
confined between the outside wall of the
outlet tube extension inside the cyclone and
the inside wall of the cylindrical section. This
directed axial motion persists into the cone
section where it is, in part, accelerated into a
secondary boundary flow on the cone wall.
Radial flow in the outer vortex can be de-
scribed as a nearly uniform sink flow di-
rected toward the open length of a cyclone
axis between the entrance to the outlet tube
and the cone end. Reversal to an outlet axial
flow occurs, in the cylindrical section, near a
radius that is the same as that of the outlet
tube and, in the conical section, near the
radius of a continuing cone with the same
apex as the conical section itself. Because
angular momentum is conserved, flow in the
outlet pipe is swirling intensely. Further-
more, here the axial flow is annular in pro-
file. Static pressure measured along the axis
in the cyclone, in the dust bin, and in the
outlet pipe is nearly uniform and is the lowest
pressure in the system. Low flow on the axis
of the outlet pipe, perhaps even a reverse
flow, makes a cyclone vulnerable to down-
stream disturbances if the swirl is not dis-
sipated in the outlet pipe. A reversed axis
flow would be the same as that in the funnel
cloud of a tornado.
Mechanical Energy Losses and Order of
Magnitude of Wall Shear Stresses
The mechanical energy loss per unit mass of
fluid flowing, as measured by static pressure
on the walls of the 0.15-m approach and exit
pipes of the test cyclone, is seven times
g , K, = 28 m/s and with no dust
~ , ~ / 2when
load. This is the expected loss. Since swir!
energy in the exit pipe is not recovered, the
effective energy loss is of order 7.5 to 8
~ , ~ / 2 per
g , unit mass of fluid processed.
It is interesting to determine how much of
this energy loss can be attributed to the shear
action of flow on the walls of the cyclone.
For turbulent pipe flow at velocity v., the
William E. Ranz
shear stress can be estimated by
= N/ ( &/4) c 2 / 2g, > (2)
where N, is a friction factor of order 2 x
for usual wall roughnesses. Assuming a con-
stant shear with tangential velocity y, over a
side wall area of 3 7 7 ~ 2 the
, wall work rate on
the fluid is approximated by
<
7 ( 3 a ~ , 2 ) =P g ~ c ~ c ~ $ , (3)
where @T is the mechanical energy loss per
unit mass of flow attributable to wall shear.
For B, = 0,/4 and H, = DJ2,
Since 6aNf is of order less than unity, it is
apparent that the mechanical energy loss for
a cyclone flow is due primarily to turbulent
dissipation in the main vortex flow. Since all
of the flow passes through a condition of
maximum vo at the inner radius of the mod-
ified free vortex, this maximum velocity is a
measure of at least one-third of the kinetic
energy dissipated by turbulent mixing in the
cyclone.
With dust loading, mechanical energy loss
is immediately less (Yuu et al., 1978) than
the number of y2/2gc's that represent the
loss when there is no dust loading. The de-
crease is as much as one-quarter, and ap-
pears to grow larger for larger particles and
larger loadings. Since the tangential veloci-
ties are also smaller near the wall and in the
modified free vortex, for the same inlet veloc-
ity, it is apparent that the fluid mechanics of
the core is remarkably affected by the fluid
mechanics of the wall layer, in particular by
the fluid mechanics of the particles held up
in the dune flow. Moreover, the dune cannot
be treated as additional "roughness" because
that would cause an increase in mechanical
energy loss at the same V,.
Turbulent Mixing in the Central Flow
The central flow in a cyclone is highly turbu-
lent and should be uniformly mixed with
regard to small enough particle sizes. The
Wall Flows in a Cyclone Separator
intensity of turbulence is at least lop1
(Schowalter and Johnstone, 1960), and the
scale of turbulence will be of order DJ4.
The eddy dispersion coefficient is then of
order 10P2yD,, say as h g h as l o p 1 m2/s,
and diffusional distances for the apparent
holdup time are of an order D, or larger.
In an attempt to measure dispersion in the
test cyclone, concentrations from a CH,
source (1-mm size, 0.1 cm3/s) were point-
sampled and cross-profiled downstream (at a
distance of 25 and 50 mm). Analysis was
made by gas chromatography with a flame
ionization detector. An excess concentration
wake, measurable above l o p 4 volume frac-
tion, was never detected. Concentrations
measured everywhere, including the flow in
the outlet pipe, gave a value of concentration
that was expected for uniform mixedness.
Since the dispersion coefficient D = Q/4aCz
-where Q is source strength, z is distance
downstream on the centerline of the con-
centration wake, and C is excess concentra-
tion-D was found only to be larger than
3x m2/s. A source of major size and
flow rate would be needed to measure cyclone
dispersion coefficients by this method. Such
a device inside a cyclone would probably
disrupt its already sensitive axial flow re-
gimes.
A criterion for mixed conditions can nev-
ertheless be based on a turbulent fluctuating
velocity of 10P1l/,, whch is larger than a
terminal relative radial velocity based on the
centrifugal acceleration 2y2/D,. That is,
when
one should expect mixed concentrations in
the central flow.
For the standard design of cyclone used
(Chem. Eng. Handbook, 1973), t h s criterion
can be rearranged in the form
for N,= 5.
Comparison of this modified criterion with
Figure 3, which gives wall layer collection
efficiencies for simple models, shows that
even h g h efficiency particles reach the wall
layer in a diffusive fashion and that a trajec-
tory model is physically naive. Considering
the fact that particles in the wall layer must
somehow leave the cyclone body and be iso-
lated outside, one realizes that collection
efficiency analysis is not complete when a
particle reaches the wall layer.
Simple Theories for Wall
Collection Efficiency
Figure 3 is based on the premise that par-
ticles centrifuged to the wall are eventually
separated from the gas flow. In the trajectory
model, a spiral flow of gas of rectangular
cross section (height H, = DJ2 and width
B, = Dc/4 for the standard design) and finite
unwound length (NpD, for the standard
design) is acted on by a force per unit mass
(assumed to be 2 y . 2 / ~ c g ,for the standard
design) directed toward the wall. Particles in
the gas have immediately a relative velo-
city toward the wall equal to U,,, =
pp D,2y2/9~,D, when Stokes law resistence
to this motion applies. The particles are in
the separating field for time N p DJV,, and
the fraction reaching the wall during that
time is
N, ( Dp ) = ( U,, )(Time in Spiral)/Bc
The trajectory model is further illustrated in
Figure 3 for cases where the drag coefficient
for spheres is used. The additional param-
eterization is not needed for cyclone condi-
tions, but it may be useful in hydroclone
applications.
 William E. Ram

1
1.0 + I I I
Trajectory Model 1 1 /
" 1
= o lo2 lo3

V
H
Turbulently
P
Mixed Model
h

- S
3
0
r(
0.6 -
VI
u4

8 0.4 -

3 0.2 -

+-'

FIGURE 3. Collection efficiencies for simple balance,

cyclone models. p,, = true particle density; D, =
particle diameter; p, = gas density; p, = gas
viscosity; N, = 5 = number of flow turns in
cyclone; D,= diameter of cyclone; B, = DJ4
(standard design); V, = entrance velocity (tangen-
tial).

In the turbulently mixed model, the mass

ratio Yp of dust to air in the outlet flow is the
same as that in the gas flow over the wall
layer. Flux of dust to the wall layer is as-
sumed everywhere to be pgYpUrel,and the
wall area is taken to be the same as in the
trajectory model (N,aD,H, for the standard
design). The mass of particles of size D,
entering the wall layer to the mass enter-
ing the cyclone is given by a steady mass
N, can be interpreted as "number of turns"
in the trajectory model or "measure of wall
collection area" in the turbulently mixed
model. For practical purposes, N, is a single
number, to be established by experiment for
each geometry. In the case of a standard
design, Eq. ( 7 ) with N, = 5 gives a fair fit of
experimental data.
Wall Flows in a Cyclone Separator
Although they are idealized upper and
lower bounds on separating ability, Eqs. (6)
and (7) are naive representations of overall
cyclone eficiency. Improvements of the
trajectory model, such as accounting for an
inward radial velocity and for turbulent vari-
ations of the trajectory, are available. How-
ever, they are unrealistic. A comparison of
the turbulent fluctuating velocity with U,,, is
not the only criterion that can be applied to
the choice of model. The characteristic time
for acceleration and deceleration after abrupt
changes in gas velocity is p p ~ ~ / 1 8 p ,which
, axial fluidized particle bed (Davidson et al.,
is usually much smaller than the reciprocal
frequency of eddy scales expected in the
cyclone flow. T h s means that the scales of
the particle random motion will be nearly
the same as the turbulent scales of the gas
motion, which unfortunately are affected by
the presence of the particles. An improved
model for collection efficiency must be based
on a turbulently mixed model modified by
reentrainment from the wall flow.
Secondary Flow on Cone Wall
A major secondary flow on the cone wall is
vital to cyclone operation. This flow is gener-
ated by an interaction between the radial
pressure gradient and wall shear. A similar
flow also occurs on the end wall of the
cylindrical section, and tends to short-circuit
some dust to the outlet pipe. Theoretical
calculations for conditions in the test cyclone,
mapping of streak lines on the walls of a
transparent test cyclone, and boundary layer
measurement in the dust outlet tube were
used to describe and predict the nature of
this flow.
A flow equal to 5-7% of that into the
cyclone was found to pass via this secondary
flow into the dust bin, from which it must be
recycled or separated as an underflow. Its
boundary layer thckness at the dust outlet
was found to be of order 1 cm. Operating
with dust separation, an underflow system
was used to confirm this secondary flow rate
by observing the flow ratio at which no re-
cycle of suspended dust could be observed.
Fluidized Particle Phase on the Cyclone Wall
For a cyclone to remove dust from a gas
flow, the particulates first form a fluidized
layer on the wall of the cyclone. The liquid-
like layer built up on the cyclone wall must
then flow from the cyclone through the cone
outlet. The layer will possess many of the
properties of the "enlulsion" phase of an
1977). In a fluidized bed, the remarkable
feature is bubble formation; on the wall of a
cyclone the complication is a spiral dune
moving lengthwise toward the cone outlet.
Measurements of particle concentration in
the wall flow of the test cyclone were made
first with an isokinetic sampling probe that
explored the layer 0 < ( y = R - r ) < 3 cm
from the wall surface. Midway on the cone
at average loadings of large particles (D, =
150 pm), and by t h s sampling method, the
layer appears to be about 2.5 mm in thick-
ness (about the diameter of the sampling
tube) and to have a concentration of under
0.2 kg/m3 (a volume fraction of lop3, much
less than the 0.5 of the emulsion phase of a
fluidized bed). One should be able to see the
wall through such a layer. The concentration
layer so measured was diffuse and appeared
to extend to about 10 mm from the wall.
However, as soon as the wave nature of the
layer was observed through a glass top, these
data became understandable because they
represent a time average along a particular
radius for a collecting layer between the
dunes.
Instantaneous particle concentrations in a
region of 1-mm scale were finally measured
by side scattering of light via fiber or quartz
rod optics and pin photo-diode circuitry with
nanosecond response. A somewhat crude
calibration is made in viscous liquid suspen-
sions of the same particulate material.
Whenever the sensor is submerged in the
426
liquid-like wall layer, the indicated con-
centration of particles appears to be nearly
uniform. When it is out of the layer, the
reading is nil. The density of the dune is
found to be much like that of the emulsion
phase of a fluidized bed.
The spiral dune is quite regular. It was
observed and reported many years ago (ter
Linden, 1949), but as a major feature of
cyclone operation it has not received much
attention in cyclone studies. The wave seems
to be steepened in the forward direction when
it moves axially, and there may be little if
any dense layer between the spirals. On a
time average, the dune pattern appears to be
a stationary pattern with particle movement
primarily along the wave form, rather than
across it. Dune velocity is of the order of
that expected of the overriding gas flow in
the wall layers. The dune originates at the
bottom separation of the inlet flow feeding
the vortex, and it first assumes a self-preserv-
ing form in secondary flows on the wall
beyond this point (Smith, 1962).
Kinetic Model of Fluidized Layer
For an understanding of the fluidized layers,
one needs a lunetic model of its state (for
concentration) and of its ability to transfer
momentum (for effective viscosity). Both
models can be fashioned in a crude way by a
random collisional process among the par-
ticles. There is a characteristic random veloc-
ity, derived from the main flow and gravity,
and a characteristic time between collisions,
related to particle concentration. There is a
continuity of pressure at the free surface
between the gas flow and the liquid-like layer,
and the particles exert pressures akin to par-
tial pressures and vapor pressures.
A simplified equation of state for a dense
gas of bouncing balls of diameter Dp in
a square matrix is (from Eq. (1.1-6),
Hirschfelder et al., 1954)
3gcpp -
-- (a/6cpY3
ppc,ua (,7/65,)1'3 - 1
for c, < a/6 = c,,, (8)
William E. Ram
where
p, = partial pressure of the particles;
p, =density of material in spherical par-
ticles of diameter LIP;
c, =volume fraction of particles (in axially
fluidized beds, 0.2 5 c, _< 0.6 are mea-
sured);
u' =root mean square random velocity.
If in the cyclone wall layer gJg, and
uj/rg,., modified by (p, - p,)/pp and at right
angles to one another, are the forces per unit
mass imparting relative motion to the par-
ticle for an input of random energy, and if
the force of drag for relative velocity u' is
given by C , A ~ ~ , U ' ~for
/ ~random
~, energy
output, then at dynamic equilibrium for a
spherical particle, where m, = p,mDi/6 and
A, = 7TLp4,
where
p, =density of gas;
D, =spherical particle diameter;
C, =drag coefficient, which may be a
function of c, if there are inter-
ference effects of other close surfaces;
g , =local acceleration of gravity;
u, =tangential velocity of particle at
radius r.
Unless the particles have a slip velocity at
the wall of order y,, u, could have a wide
range of values in the wall layer. If there is
nearly complete slip, u, is of order Vc and
uf2/ y.2is of order (8/3C,)(pp/pg)(Dp/D,).
Under usual conditions of cyclone sep-
aration, u' can be of order V,.
At the pseudophase interface, one now
postulates that c,pp + (1 - cp)pg= p. If p,
= p , then also pp = p , the local pressure.
With pp = p , Eq. (6) combined with Eq. (7)
gives an equation of state
Wall Flows in a Cyclone Separator
where g;- is the effective acceleration acting
on the particle to maintain its agitated state.
Eq. (10) is plotted in Figure 4 to show a
phase-like transition from a dispersion "gas"
at values of the abscissa much greater than
unity to a "fluidized" dense phase at values
of unity or less. The abscissa is an intensive
parameter for the fluidized state and, in
cyclone operation, where gi can be as large
as 2Y2/D,, has a value no larger than about
lo-'. Values of this parameter in the emul-
sion phase of gas fluidized beds is even less,
say In liquid fluidized beds, or in hy-
droclones where p, and pp are of nearly the
same value and the intensive parameter has
427
FIGURE 4. Idealized equation of fluidized state.
is the maximum volume fraction of
r,,,, = 7r/6
spheres packed in cubic array. Drag coefficient
C,, with value of order 0.5, is a function of c,.
The intensive parameter is proportional to v,'/D,.
in a cyclone dune.
much larger values, one should expect the
fluidized phase to be somewhat evanescent,
or even undetectable.
Because c p does not change much with
change in d2, that is, the density of a liquid-
like substance does not change much with
temperature, prediction of an apparent vis-
cosity for momentum transfer is also a matter
428
of experimental and theoretical interest.
Here, for simplicity, we assume a random-
walk viscosity pp = cpppv'L/2, where L is the
average distance of travel between collisions.
For consistency of the model, L is taken to
be the distance of travel allowed in the square
matrix, L = Dp(l - (6~,/77)'/~). A theoreti-
cal viscosity pp, caused by random particle
motion, in terms of phase density ppcp and
v', follows.
-
If v' Vc and cp = lop1, pp will have a
centipoise value for usual conditions of
cyclone separation.
Although they must survive definitive tests,
the above expressions give reasonable results
in terms of what is now known. Since
p,Dpu'/p, is probably of order unity or
greater, C, will be of order unity. Because
particles are always crossing randomly di-
rected wakes, the average C, may not be a
strong function of c,, even though c, may be
of order 0.5. Because the Stokes number
pp~$'/18y,L is much greater than unity,
the particles are undergoing hard collisions,
and a kinetic theory of a dense array of balls
should be applicable to an understanding of
the behavior of the wall layer.
These equations of state, which predict a
liquid-like cp of order 0.1 to 0.5 for cyclone
conditions, are related to similar semitheoret-
ical equations proposed for the concentra-
tion state of the emulsion phase in a fluidized
bed (Furukawa and Ohmae, 1958; Saxton
et al., 1970). All theories and semitheories
tend to differ by statistical factors, which
arise from methods of averaging, and in the
functional form for c,. The present theory
can be improved by adapting modern treat-
ments of the theory of dense fluids (Davis
and Luks, 1965; Reiss, 1965) and by assum-
ing encounters are modified by viscous ac-
tion.
William E. Ram
Dynamics of Fluidized Layer
Some of the mechanical features of the
fluidized particle layer on the wall of a
cyclone can be predicted by classic theories
of surface waves. See Figure 5, which
pictures the dune cross section and the asso-
ciated imaginary ideal wave form. The self-
preserving wave forms are only tops of
mathematical waves, whose y = R , - r is
measured from an imaginary undisturbed
surface at R > R ,. Conditions of the the-
ory, many of which are not met by real
liquids, may be better met by the dune flow.
Ratio a/X of wave amplitude to wave length
is small. The fluid is essentially inviscid. Mo-
tion parallel to the body force g a g , is not
allowed at y = h = R , - R ,, where there is a
solid boundary. However, sideways motion
or slip does occur at the same boundary.
Considering the dune cross section to be
like the top of a wave progressing in a cross
dune direction, the predicted wave-top veloc-
ity (Lamb, 1953, p. 367), equal to the ap-
propriate component of the dune velocity
when the wave tops do not appear to move,
is
for cyclone conditions. Here c and g i can be
determined experimentally. h is a scale that
is of the order of the amplitude of the wave
model; A can be interpreted as the distance
between branches of the spiral.
The surface contour ys(x) is given by
yx= a sin(2mx/A) for ys 2 h. (13)
The surface in contact with the wall is given
+
by y = h. The stream potential becomes
@u/gia = cosh(k(y - h))
x cos(kx - ut)/cosh(kh), (14)
Wall Flows in a Cyclone Separator
Dune
,,,,, #,,,,/
I /
F I
where
a -2g k~t a n h ( k h )
1 and k=2m/X.
The dune cross section has a maximum
depth of ( a - h) and a width of ((A/2)-
2 x h )= (X/T)COS-l(h/a). If h is known from
c, g;, and A, and if x, can be measured,
then a is also known. Thus, the fictituous
quantities h and a can be established experi-
mentally. Furthermore, the dune cross sec-
tion has an area equal to
A complete, but highly simplified, predic-
tion of dune flow can now be developed for
the standard design. Fluidized particles in
the ideal dune are moving at tangential
velocity y. and axial velocity I/',H,/mD, =
V;./2m along with the idealized gas flow. The
velocity of the dune normal to the dune cross
+
section is (1 1 / ( 2 ~ ) ~ )=~V,/. , To keep the
Real forms
,.,,,,,,,cr,,,,r<r,r,,,,, /,.rr;4,,,,,,/
\ Mathematical forms
\ 1
FIGURE 5. Dune configuration. Vertical scale is
exaggerated with respect to the horizontal scale
bv factor 2 7 ~ .
dune spiral stationary, c = V,/277. Motion in
the dune cross section is distorted elliptical,
and the diffuse concentrated layer on the
wall between dunes is moving in under the
dune on the upwind side. How this flow is
concentrated to dune densities and becomes
part of the dune is not considered here, but
this is a major step in the separation process.
If g; = 2y2/D,., then h = c ' / ~ ; =
(y.2/27r)2/(2y.2~,)=D,/8a2. Since h ap-
pears to be decreed by the size of the inlet
flow, X = H, = DJ2, then 2mh/A = 1/2a,
for which the condition tanh(2mh/h) =
2mh/A is well satisfied. However, h is rather
small, 3.8 mm for D, = 0.3 m.
If c j , EL, and c,, are, respectively, the
volume fraction of particles in the inlet gas
flow, in the mixed vortex, and in the fluidized
dune flow, then the volumetric flow rate in
the dune cross section at axial distance z

from the top of the cyclone will be
= -
VXh
7
(((o/h)2 - 1y2 cos-l(h/a))
-
an expression predicting the value of (a/h)
and dune depth (a - h) = ((a/h) - 1)h. The
bracketed quantity, which is only a function
of (a/h), has a value of nearly unity at what
are considered maximum loadings, r j =
For such a value of unity, a/h = 2.4 and
(h - a ) -- 1.4h = 1.4Dc/8n = 5 mm for D,. =
0.3 m. At the same time, the dune width
is predicted to be (X/n)cos-'(h/a) =
(~,/2n)cos-'(h/a) = 5 cm; that is, the pre-
dicted dune is about ten times as wide as it is
deep.
Dune depth in terms of (a - h)/h versus
n ~ , z ~ , c ~ / ~ , h is
h rplotted
~, in Figure 6.
Remembering that h = Dc/8n2, dune depth
is seen to increase very rapidly when the
abscissa exceeds a value of unity; that is, the
dune flow becomes incapable of moving
"collected" particles from the cyclone. At
small values of the abscissa, one expects that
the dune velocity is smaller than the y, as-
sumed here, because it is moved by gas flow
near the wall, and that a real (a - h)/h
would be larger than the predicted value.
Nevertheless, predicted maximum loading for
this kind of cyclone operation is of the same
order as that reported from practice.
Experiments with an interrupted dune and
measures of the time for the interruption to
reach the dust bin indicated that the holdup
time of particles in the dune flow is some-
William E. Ram
(rate of wall collection down to z)
(in terms of inertial parameter)
(in terms of collection efficiency N , )
(in terms of N, and loading 6):
(in terms of dune flow velocity and
dune cross section), (16)
what more than twice the residence time of
gas in the cyclone. These times are of order
0.1-1 s and are fast enough to make their
precise measurement difficult. Liquid streak
lines, as a measure of gas flow direction on
the cone wall, crossed the dune and indicated
that the gas in the secondary flow sweeps the
dune toward the cone apex. A ping-pong
ball, which should have been collected in the
dust bin according to Figure 3, was not so
swept, and ended up rolling around the cy-
lindrical section of the cyclone.
Observed vibration of the dune spiral in-
dicated a dynamic balance involving the drag
force of the wall layer flow, a radial centri-
fugal force, and a normal force applied by
the containing wall. The effect of a slip fric-
tion force on a dune containing dry particles
appears to be measurable, but it was smaller
than the forces already cited. Gravitational
forces also should be considered under some
conditions, but the resolution of phenomena
developed above explains why orientation of
the axis often has little effect on cyclone
operation.
A few tests were made on the separation
of fine spray drops. While collected liquid on
the inner walls flowed as spiral streaks and
bands to the cone outlet, a single band was
not formed. This behavior is assumed to be
due to the fact that the band wetted the wall
Wall Flows in a Cyclone Separator
Loading Parameter, nN zB COIN Ah,
and could not slip along it radially or axially.
However, a band of some depth could "flow"
in such a direction. With heavy spray load-
ing, a rotating collar or dam of liquid was
seen suspended high on the cone wall. A
highly agitated, continuous, spirally streaked
film of liquid flowed over this collar from the
cylindrical to the conical wall. The cyclone
would have choked if the collar had risen
into the cylindrical section.
Refinements of Cyclone Model
The simplified analysis presented above
serves only as a first-order model for under-
standing what a cyclone is, how it operates,
and what it can and cannot do. Internally, a
cyclone is much more complex than anyone
wants to recognize. For developing new ap-
I c p e pb
FIGURE 6. Effect of loading on dune flow cross
section. E: = volume fraction particles inlet gas
flow; (a - h ) = dune depth; h = D,/8?r2 (see Fig-
ure 5); N, = efficiency of particle collection (see
Figure 3); z = axial distance from top of cyclone;
B, = D,./4; N, = 5; X = H,. = D,/2; E, = volume
fraction particles in dune flow (see Figure 4).
plications and for retrieving failed applica-
tions, better models and better experiments
to test those models must be devised.
The geometry of a cyclone, which pro-
duces a bewildering array of additional vari-
ables, has evolved into what may be nearly
an optimum design for normal applications.
For any further refinement of cyclone
description, including geometric variations, a
mechanical principle not used here must be

used, namely, conservation of moment of
momentum. If the strength of the vortex is to
be deduced from inlet configuration and for
various loadings, if the apex-directed sec-
ondary flow on the cone wall is to be esti-
mated, if the real dune flow velocities are to
be predicted, if the wall shear stresses are to
be found, and if the mechanical energy
dissipation is to be understood, then mo-
ment-of-momentum equations with turbulent
dispersion terms have to be written for the
cyclonic flow and for possible interactions
with particle motion. Our present point of
view is still too narrow to give a model that
serves all of the many purposes of cyclone
application, but it does give a model with
some of the necessary internal detail. It is to
be hoped that it also provides sufficient
warning to those who may seek useful gener-
alities in costly experimentation or in tedious
numerical calculations.
Detailed and more extensive information about experi-
ments and theory reported here are to be found in
"Experimental and Theoretical Studies on Gas Cyclone
Separators Operating at High Efficiency," by Thinh Van
Tran, Ph.D. thesis, University of Minnesota (1981).
Support by the National Science Foundation under
grant ENG75-16466 is gratefully acknowledged.
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William E. Ram
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Received 2 August 1984; accepted 5 February 1985