E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F C H R I ST I A N E D U C A T I ON

Edited by
George Thomas Kurian
and Mark A. Lamport

R O W M A N & L I TTLEFI E L D
Lrmham • Boulder • New York • London
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Copyright © 2015 by George Thomas Kurian and Mark A. Lamport

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Encyclopedia of Christian education I edited by George Thomas Kurian, Mark A. Lamport.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8108-8492-2 (cloth , alk. paper) - ISBN 978-0-8108-8493-9 (ebook)
1. Christian education-Encyclopedias. I.Kurian, George Thomas, editor. II. Lamport,
Mark A., editor.
BV1471.3.E53 2015
268.03-dc23
2014021410

§"' The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American
National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library
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Printed ln the United States of America

 Contents

Editors, Prologue and Foreword Contributors, Editorial Advisory Board,

ix
and Editorial Consultants
xiii
Prologue by J. I. Packer
xv
Foreword by Stanley Hauerwas
xvii
Foreword by Richard J. Mouw
xix
Foreword by Ronald J. Sider
xxi
Foreword by Will Willimon
xxlii
Preface
xxvii
Acknowledgments
xxix
Introduction
1
Volume 1: A-F
Volume 2: G-R 529
Volume 3: S-Z 1089
Lead-in Introductions 1427
Appendix A: World Statistics on Christian Populations 1519
Appendix B: World Listing of Christian Universities by Continent 1539
Appendix C: Entries Listed by Author 1553
Index of Names
1569
Index of Entries
1591
Contributing Authors
1603
 Editors, Prologue and Foreword Contributors,
Editorial Advisory Board, and Editorial Consultants
EDITORS
George Thomas Kurian is president of the
Encyclopedia Society and the editor of 61 books,
including 27 encyclopedias, 15 of them
multivolume. His Christian encyclopedias include
the World Christian Encyclopedia (2 vols., Oxford
University Press), Dictionary of Christianity
(Thomas Nelson Books), Encyclopedia of Christian
Civilization (4 vols., Wiley-Blackwell Publishing),
Encyclopedia of Christian Literature (2 vols.,
Scarecrow Press), Baker Handbook of
Denominations and Ministries (Baker Books,
2013), and Visual Timelines of Christian History
(Harvest House, 2014).
Mark A. Lamport (PhD, curriculum and
instruction, Michigan State University) is professor
of practical the- ology/educational ministry at
graduate schools in Colorado, Arizona, Virginia,
California, Indiana, Belgium, Wales, and Portugal.
He has master's degrees in biblical studies from
Wheaton Graduate School (Illinois), in church
history from Evangelical Theological Semi- nary
(Pennsylvania), and in Christian education from
Princeton Theological Seminary (New Jersey), and
has published for 30 consecutive years in the
discipline of Christian education.
PROLOGUE AND FOREWORD
CONTRIBUTORS
Stanley Hauerwas seeks to recover the
significance of the virtues for understanding the
nature of the Christian life. His work cuts across
disciplinary lines in conversation with systematic
theology, philosophical theology and ethics,
political theory, as well as the philosophy of social
science and medical ethics. He earned a BA from
Southwestern University and BD, MA, MPhil, and
PhD from
-ix -
Yale University. He was named "America's Best
Theologian" by Time magazine in 200l. His book, A
Community of Character: Toward a Constructive
Christian Social Ethic, was selected as one of the
100 most important books on religion of the 20th
century. Hauerwas recently authored Matthew:
Theological Commentary on the Bible (Brazos,
2006) and The State of the University: Academic
Knowledges and the Knowledge of God (Blackwell,
2007).
Richard J. Mouw is distinguished professor of
faith and public life after 20 years as president of
Fuller Theological Seminary (1993-2013). He also
served FTS as provost) senior vice president, and
professor of Christian philosophy and ethics
beginning in 1985. Mouw served for 17 years as
professor of philosophy at Calvin College
(Michigan). A graduate of Houghton College, he
studied at Western Theological Seminary and
earned a master's degree in philosophy at the
University of Alberta. His PhD in philosophy is
from the University of Chicago. He is the author of
19 books, including The Smell of Sawdust;
Calvinism in the Las Vegas Airport; Praying at
Burger King; Uncommon Decency; and most
recently, Abraham Kuyper: A Short and Personal
Introduction, The Challenges of Cultural
Discipleship, and Talking with Mormons.
J. I. Packer was born in Gloucester, England and
became professor of systematic and historical
theology at Regent College (Vancouver, British
Columbia) in 1979. Time named him one of the 25
most influential evangelicals in 2005. Packer earned
an MA and a DPhil from Oxford University and has
lectured widely in Great Britain and North America.
He is a member of the editorial council of
Christianity Today and was general editor of the
Eng- lish Standard Version of the Bible. He is a
prolific writer, but is best known for Knowing God.
His Collected Shorter
x Editors, Contributors, Advisory Board, and Consultants
Writings are available in four volumes, and a
selection of his articles is published as The J.I.
Packer Collection. Packer is associated with St.
John's Vancouver Anglican Church, which in
February 2008 voted to leave the Anglican Church
of Canada,
Ronald J, Sider is senior distinguished professor of
theology, holistic ministry, and public policy at
Palmer Theo- logical Seminary of Eastern
University (Pennsylvania). An ordained minister in
the Mennonite and Brethren in Christ Churches, his
BD, MA, and PhD (history) degrees are from Yale
University. Sider has provided leadership to those
who recognize not just the spiritual, but also the
social and political implications of a high view of
scrip-ture. Among more than 30 published books,
his Rich Christians in an Age of Hunger was lauded
by Christianity Today as among the top 100 books
on religion in the 20th century and the seventh most
influential in the evangeli-cal world in the last 50
years. He is the founder and president of
Evangelicals for Social Action (ESA).
Will Willimon served as the dean of Duke Chapel
and professor of Christian ministry at Duke
University for 20 years. He returned to Duke after
serving as the United Methodist Church Bishop of
the North Alabama Conference (2004-2012). He
earned a BA from Wofford College, an MDiv at
Yale Divinity School and an STD from Emory
University. Willimon is the author of 60 books. His
Worship as Pastoral Care was selected as one of the
10 most useful books for pastors by the Academy of
Parish Clergy. More than a million copies of his
books have been sold. He is editor-at-large for The
Christian Century. His book Pastor: The Theology
and Practice of Ordained Leadership is used in
dozens of seminaries.
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
Jeff Astley is honorary professor in the Department
of Theology and Religion at Durham University
(United Kingdom) and was director of the North of
England Institute for Christian Education (1981-
2013). His 35 books on Christian education,
practical theology, or religious faith include The
Philosophy of Christian Religious Education and
Ordinary Theology.
Dean G. Blevins (PhD, personality and
theology/religious education, Claremont School of
Theology) serves as professor of practical theology
and Christian discipleship at Nazarene Theological
Seminary (Missouri). Past president of the Religious
Education Association and USA/Canada regional
education coordinator for the Church of the
Nazarene, Blevins is coauthor of Discovering
Discipleship
and editor of Didache: Faithful Teaching, a journal
for Wesleyan Higher Education.
Joel Carpenter (PhD, history, Johns Hopkins
University) is director of the Nagel Institute for the
Study of World Christianity of Calvin College. He
has a long-standing interest in American religious
and cultural history, the history of Christianity in
Africa and Asia, and Christianity in higher
education. Carpenter is coeditor of The Changing
Face of Christianity: Africa, the West, and the
World (2005) and author of Revive Us Again: The
Reawakening of American Fundamentalism (1997).
Ralph Enlow serves as president of the Association
for Biblical Higher Education (abhe.org), whose 200
North American member and affiliate institutions
engage students in education that is distinctively
biblical, transformational, experiential, and
missional. Enlow is also a founding member of
Global Associates for Transformational Education
and author of The Leader's Palette: Seven Primary
Colors (2013).
James Riley Estep Jr. (DMin, Southern Baptist
Theological Seminary; PhD Trinity Evangelical
Divinity School) is dean of the School of
Undergraduate Studies at Lincoln Christian
University (Illinois) and teaches Christian edu-
cation at its seminary.
Charles R, Foster is professor of religion and
education emeritus at the Candler School of
Theology, Emory University. He is the author of
From Generation to Generation and Educating
Congregations; project director and lead author of
Educating Clergy: Teaching Practices and Pastoral
Imagination; and coauthor of We Are the Church
Together, Working with Black Youth, and The
Church in the Education of the Public.
Bryan Froehle directs the PhD program in practical
theology in the School of Theology and Ministry,
St. Thomas University (Miami). Froehle has also
been associated with Dominican University (River
Forest, Illinois), the Center for Applied Research in
the Apostolate (CARA) at Georgetown University,
the University of South Carolina Upstate
(Spartanburg, South Carolina), and the Universi-
dad Católica Andres Bello (Venezuela). His PhD
and MA are in sociology (University of Michigan).
Perry L. Glanzer (PhD) is professor of educational
foundations at Baylor University. His most recent
book, coauthored with Todd Ream, is The Idea of a
Christian College: A Reexamination for Today's
University. He has also published three other books
and more than 40 journal articles and book chapters
on topics related to education.
 Editors, Contributors, Advisory Board, and Consultants
Thomas Groome (PhD) is professor of theology and
religious education at Boston College and chair of the
Department of Religious Education and Pastoral
Minis- try in Boston College's School of Theology
and Ministry. His publications include Christian
Religious Education (Harper, 1980), Sharing Faith
(Harper, 1991), Educating/or Life (Crossroads,
2000), What Makes Us Catholic (Harper, 2002), and
Will There Be Faith? (Harper, 2012).
S. Steve Kang (PhD, Northwestern University)
serves as professor of educational ministries and
interdisciplinary studies at Gordon-Conwell
Theological Seminary in South Hamilton,
Massachusetts.
Kevin E. Lawson (EdD, University of Maine) served
on a church staff for 11 years and in higher education
for 22 years. He serves as professor of Christian
education and director of PhD and EdD programs in
educational studies at Talbot School of Theology,
and as editor of Christian Education Journal.
John R. Lillis (BS, MS, MRE, MDiv, PhD) is
currently dean/executive officer of Bethel Seminary
San Diego and senior associate of Global Associates
for Transformational Education (GATE). He was
previously professor of educational ministry)
executive vice president/provost, Cornerstone
University, and president, Asia Baptist Theological
Seminary.
Mark A. Maddix (PhD, Trinity Evangelical Divinity
School) is professor of practical theology and
Christian discipleship and dean of the School of
Theology and Christian Ministries at Northwest
Nazarene University (Idaho). He has published
academic articles in the areas of Christian education>
spiritual formation, and Wesleyan theology. He has
coauthored four books, including Discovering
Discipleship (2010) and Spiritual Formation (2011).
Robert W. Pazmino is the Valeria Stone Professor
of Christian Education at Andover Newton
Theological School in Newton Centre,
Massachusetts, serving since 1986. He holds a BA
from Bucknell University, an MDiv from Gordon-
Conwell Theological Seminary, and an EdD from
Teachers College, Columbia University in
cooperation with Union Seminary. Bob is the author
of a dozen Christian education books and is ordained
by the American Baptist Churches.
Jane E. Regan (PhD, religious education, Catholic
University of America) is associate professor of
theology and religious education at the School of
Theology and Ministry at Boston College. Her areas
of research and writing
xi
focus on modes of faith formation both for those
engaged in ministry and for believers committed to
growing in their faith and its expression in their lives.
Philip Graham Ryken (PhD) is the eighth president
of Wheaton College, having served previously as the
senior minister of Philadelphia's Tenth Presbyterian
Church. He was educated at Wheaton College
(Illinois), Westminster Theological Seminary
(Pennsylvania), and the University of Oxford (UK),
and has authored or edited more than 40 Bible
commentaries and other books.
Jack L. Seymour is professor of religious education
at Garrett-Evangelical Theological Seminary in
Evanston, Illinois. He is the editor of Religious
Education and the author or editor of nine books,
including Teaching the Way of Jesus (Abingdon,
2014); Yearning for God, with Margaret Ann Crain;
and Mapping Christian Education.
James D. Smith III (ThD, Harvard) is professor of
church history at Bethel Seminary, San Diego, and
has lectured at the University of San Diego. An
ordained Baptist General Conference/Converge
minister, he has served churches in Massachusetts,
Minnesota, and California. Recently he was
consulting editor for the award-winning Dictionary
of Christian Spirituality.
Catherine Stonehouse (PhD, Michigan State
University) served as professor of Christian
discipleship and dean in the School of Practical
Theology at Asbury Theological Seminary from
1987 to 2011. She is the author of several books
focusing on the spiritual formation of children.
Before joining the Asbury faculty, she provided
leadership for the Christian education ministries of
the Free Methodist Church in North America.
John Westerhoff, (STB, Harvard; EdD, Columbia;
DD, Ursinus) is a retired Episcopal priest and one-
time professor of theology and Christian nurture at
the Duke University Divinity School (North
Carolina). He is the author of more than 30 books,
including Will Our Children Have Faith?
CONSULTING EDITORS
Beverly Johnson-Miller (PhD) is professor of
Christian discipleship and director of the MA
program in aging and spirituality at Asbury
Theological Seminary (Kentucky). Her research is
focused on spiritual formation and transformative
pedagogy. She serves as archivist for the Religious
Education Association and is a member of the
Society of Professors in Christian Education.
xii Editors, Contributors, Advisory Board, and Consultants
David Setran (PhD, Indiana University) is associate
Professor of Christian formation and ministry at
Wheaton College, where he teaches courses in the
history and philosophy of Christian education and
college and young adult ministry. He is the author of
The College "Y": Student Religion in the Era of
Secularization (Palgrave/Macmillan, 2007) and
coauthor with Chris Kiesling of Spiritual Formation
in Emerging Adulthood: A Practical Theology for
College and Young Adult Ministry (Baker Academic,
2013).
David I. Smith (PhD) is director of the Kuyers Institute
for Christian Teaching and Learning and director of
graduate studies in education at Calvin College in Grand
Rapids, Michigan. He serves as senior editor of the Jour-
nal of Education and Christian Belief and is a former
editor of the Journal of Christianity and Foreign
Languages.
Donald Tinder (BA, PhD, Yale University; MDiv,
Fuller Theological Seminary) is dean and professor of
historical theology, Olivet Theological College &
Seminary (San Francisco). He is professor emeritus,
Evangelical Theological Faculty (Belgium) and
formerly dean, Tyndale Theological Seminary
(Netherlands). Tinder was associate editor of
Christianity Today and is a Commended worker with
the Plymouth Brethren (Open).
Mai-Anh Le Tran (PhD) is associate professor of
Chris- tian education at Eden Theological Seminary
in St. Louis, Missouri. She is current vice president
and 2014 program chair of the Religious Education
Association (RBA:APRRE), with research and
teaching focus on local/global intersections of race,
gender, and class in religious identity formation and
practices.
 Catholic Reformation, The Educational Principles of the
e faith they have been raised in and their participation
the life of the church.
eferences and Resources
reen, I. 1996. The Christian's ABC: Catechisms and Catechiz·
;ng in England c. 1530-1740. Oxford, UK; Clarendon Press.
jl!larthaler, B. L. 1995. The Catechism Yesterday & Today: The
Evolution of a Genre. Collegeville, MN, The Liturgical Press.
Van Engen, J., ed. 2004. Educating People of Paith: Exploring ihe
History of Jewish and Christian Communities. Grand Rapids,
MI, Eerdmans.
Westerhoff, J. H., III, and 0. C. Edwards Jr. 1981. A Faith-
ful Church: Issues in ihe History of Catechesis. Wilton, CT,
Morehouse Barlow Co.
-KEVIN E. LAWSON
CATECHUMENATE
From the Greek verb katecheo, meaning to inform or
instruct, the catechumenate is the period during which
people receive elementary instruction in the Christian
faith prior to baptism.
It ls not clear when a formal pattern of instruction
began to precede baptism. It has been debated whether
this practice is already attested in the New Testament
itself. In Acts 18:25, Apollos is described as having been
"instructed in the way of the Lord," while Hebrews
5:12-6:2 lists certain elementary teachings received at the
beginning of the Christian life and distinguishes these
from further instruction given to the mature.
The evidence from the second century AD is also
ambiguous. In 2 Clement 17:1 (an anonymous homily
dating from AD 130-160), Christians are commanded
"to draw people away from idols and instruct them," but
there is no explicit connection with baptism. Justin Mar-
tyr (I Apol. 61.2) asserts that those preparing for baptism
are "taught to pray and entreat God with fasting . ..while
we join in their prayer and fasting," but it is not clear that
this involved any form of systematic or extended instruc-
tion in the faith.
Catechumens (i.e., a distinct class of persons receiv-
ing formal instruction prior to baptism) are first attested
around AD 200 in North Africa (Tertullian Haer. 41;
De corona 2; Marc. 5.7). Origen (Contra Ce/sum 3.51),
Writing nearly 50 years later in Palestine or Syria, reports
that when people requested baptism, their motives and
the character of their Jives were examined, and they were
given private instruction. Those who manifested a serious
commitment to the Christian life were then introduced to
the congregation as candidates for baptism. Later texts
give further information about the vetting of candidates
for baptism, sometimes including lists of professions that
199
were prohibited because they involved sexual inJmorality,
idolatry, magic, divination, or bloodshed and the taking
of human life (see, e.g., ps.-Hippolytus Trad. apost. 16).
In some cases, a sponsor who was already a member
of the church may have been required to vouch for the
character and sincerity of the person requesting baptism.
Admission to the catechumenate could be marked by
various ritual gestures such as receiving the sign of the
cross, laying on of hands, exorcism, and the offering of
salt to the candidate (which the candidate was supposed
to taste). Catechumens were then allowed to attend the
worship service and listen to the scripture readings and
the sermon, but were commonly required to leave before
the anaphora or Eucharistic prayer.
During Lent the catechumens were expected to com-
mit the baptismal creed to memory and to attend regular
(often daily) instruction. This typically consisted of a
synopsis of the history of salvation drawn from the Old
and New Testaments and a popular exposition of basic
Christian doctrines, loosely structured around the ele-
ments of the baptismal creed.
The catechumenate fell into disuse after the fourth
century, although survivals remain in later liturgies. The
Second Vatican Council revived interest in the catechu-
menate, leading to the development of the Rite of Chris-
tian Initiation of Adults (RCIA).
References and Resources
Conversion, Catechumenate and Baptism in the Early Church.
1993. Edited by Everett Ferguson. New York: Garland.
Dujarier, Michel. 1979. A History of the Catechumenate: The
First Six Centuries. New York: Sadlier.
Finn,Thomas M. 1992. Early Christian Baptism and the Cat-
echumenate: Italy, North Africa, and Egypt. Collegeville, MN,
The Liturgical Press.
Harmless, William. 1995. Augustine and the Catechumenate.
Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press.
Harmless, William M. 1999. "Catechesis, Catechumenate." In
Augustine through the Ages: An Encyclopedia, edited by Allan
Fitzgerald and John C. Cavadini, 146-149. Grand Rapids,
MI: Eerdmans.
Turner, Paul. 2000. The Hallelujah Highway: A History of the
Catechumenate. Chicago: Liturgy Training Pubticatlons.
-BYARD BENNETT
CATHOLIC REFORMATION,
THE EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES OF THE
Origins
The Catholic reformation had deep roots in the human-
ist learning of the Renaissance and built on the
flowering of the Middle Ages (Roest 2004), even as it
reflected the
200 Catholic Reformation, The Educational Principles of the
development of new technologies such as the printing
press, the expansion into new lands far from Europe, and
the rise of powerful, centralized states. While it was in
part a response to the emergence of new, separate com-
munities of Christian faith north of the Alps, the
Catholic reformation was far more than that
(Gundani 2005). The Council of Trent (1545-1563)
was a part of these developments, but developments
sometimes associated with the Council, such as the
catechism (Boer 2013) and the form of the mass, were
not products of the Council in themselves (O'Malley
2012). A direct result of the Catholic reformation,
however, was a new kind of focus on religious
education (Bireley 1999).
Goals
Two goals emerged as particularly critical for
religious education as a result of the Catholic
reformation. The first was a wider and deeper level
of instruction of children. Village schools came to be
opened under the leadership of the church to provide
catechetical training, often under the direction of the
local priest or schoolmaster, depending on the
context (Carter 2011; Grendler 1984). The second
goal was growth in personal spirituality. This was the
era of the great baroque churches, With all their
exuberant color, paintings, and statuary, and their
attendant processions, incense, and pageantry
(Soergel 2007). Such sensuous surroundings were
meant to invigorate a markedly sacramental
imaginary (McBrien 1981), complementing the
increased emphasis on preaching, reading spiritual
books, and being a part of specifically spiritually
oriented religious organizations such as sodalities.
Emblematic of the approach to Christian
education characteristic of the Catholic reformation
were the new educational institutions established
throughout the Catholic world (Grendler 1990).
These colleges, which typically spanned from the
later years of grammar school through the early years
of what would later be seen as undergraduate studies,
were critical in forming educated leaders deeply
formed in the Catholic faith. The schools sponsored
by the Society of Jesus are the classic example.
Initiated at the start of the Catholic reformation,
Jesuit schools began in 1548 in Sicily and at their
peak in this period had about 700 schools worldwide,
all of which were, following the guidelines of
Ignatius, the founder of the Jesuits, tuition-free and
open "to rich and poor alike, without distinction"
(O'Malley 1993, 211). The success of the Jesuits
inspired numerous others to open similar schools, or
ones specialized to meet particular needs, such as
those in the poorest parts of the city, as in the case of
the Brothers of the Christian Schools (Calcutt 1994).
Jesuit spirituality and its educational mission also
served as the model for numerous new communities
of women
religious, who opened schools for young women, as
in the case of the Ursulines and Vistation sisters.
Jesuit colleges were not about the specialized
learning of the universities but rather the humanistic
learning for service to society of well-formed leaders
who would see their civic and social responsibilities
hand in hand with their religio-moral responsibilities
(Coleman 1995). Education in religion, arts,
literature, and rhetoric was seen as mutually
supportive and critically important for faithful and
virtuous leadership (McGuinness 1995). Reflecting
the twin goals of religious knowledge and a religious
aesthetic characteristic of the Catholic reformation,
Jesuit college architecture had much in common with
the features of baroque churches, and they were often
side by side. The complex typically included a space
for theater as well, since artistic expression was an
important part of college life (McCabe 1983). With a
vision of education of the whole person and seeing
God in all things, the schools tended to emphasize
arts and humanities, particularly classical languages
and literature, but also devoted attention to emerging
fields within natural philosophy, particularly
mathematics and science.
The underpinning of the educational system came
from two principles: the magis and the cura
personalis both of which were adapted from the
spirituality behind the training of those becoming
Jesuit priests (Cesareo 1993). The term magis refers
to a seeking for more, in the sense of always
demanding more of oneself. This is counterbalanced
by the concept of cura personalis, the care of the
person. Thus, educators were to inspire their students
to do more while caring for them as persons. The
origin of these principles was within Jesuit
spirituality itself; as may be seen within the Jesuit
Constitutions and particularly the Spiritual Exercises
(O'Malley 1993). These principles and the overall
convictions of the Society of Jesus animated life in
the schools. Thus, the ratio studiorum of 1599, the
plan of studies that guided Jesuit school life for
centuries (Duminuco 2000), could be dry and
technical, since the mission itself resided in the
spirituality and ethos of the religious order.
Teaching methods included recitation as a means
to ensure that each student personally absorbed the
material-and ultimately developed strong rhetorical
skills. The underlying vision was education that led
to the cultivation of virtue, and skills of leadership
and persuasive argumentation were seen as key.
All was directed toward the greater glory of God-
ad maiorem dei gloriam was woven into the
architecture, written on the daily assignments, and
otherwise built into the culture. This includes all
aspects of education-including but by no mean
exclusively the reading and hearing of scripture,
the study of church history and teaching, the lives
of the saints, practices of prayer and worship. With
this profoundly
 Catholic Schools
religious education, graduates of the schools in Europe, the
Americas, and Asia went on to become civic leaders-and
more than a few entered the religious order themselves,
thereby continuing the spiritual formation process in which
they had already in some measure participated.
Trajectory
While quite different in context from the experience of
religious education in the Middle Ages or the patristic
period, there are some important constants. Religious
education, as always. was a matter of acquiring informa-
tion and cultivating spiritual practices (Elias 2002). These
were uniquely combined within a culture informed by a
Renaissance-inspired love of learning and art and took
place within specific institutional and personal environ-
ments. Though suppressed in 1773 by the Franciscan pope
Clement XIV as a result of pressure from absolutist
Catholic monarchies, the Society was restored in 1814,
after the power of those monarchies had dissipated. The
approximately 3,000 Jesuit schools in the world today
continue this trajectory, though in a considerably different
context Nonetheless, the link between knowing and acting
remains an animating feature of this vision of Christian
education.
References and Resources
Bireley, R., SJ. 1999. The Refashioning of Catholicism,
1450-1700: A Reassessment of the Counter Reformation.
Washington, DC: Catholic University of America.
Boer, P. 2013. Catechism of the Council of Trent for
Parish Priests. Issued by Pope St. Pius V. Translated by
J. McHugh, OP, and C. Callan, OP. Edmond, OK:
Veritatis Splendor Publications.
Calcutt, A. 1994. De La Salle: A City Saint and the
Liberation of the Poor Through Education: A Figure for
Our Times om the Age of Louis XIV. Manila,
Philippines: De La Salle Publicatlons.
Carter, K. 2011. Creating Catholics: Catechism and
Primary Education in Early Modern France. Notre
Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
Cesareo, F. 1993. "The Collegium Germanicum and
the Ignatian Vision of Education." Sixteenth Century
Journal: The Journal of Early Modern Studies 24 (4):
829-841.
Coleman, D. 1995. "Moral Formation and Social
Control in the Catholic Reformation: The Case of San
Juan de Avila." Sixteenth Century Journal: The
Journal of Early Modern Studies (1): 17-30.
Duminuco, V., SJ., ed. 2000. The Jesuit Ratio
Studiorum; 400th Aniversary Perspectives. New York:
Fordham.
Elias, J. 2002. A History of Christian Education:
Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox Perspecttves.
Malabar, FL: Krieger.
Grendler, P. 1984. "The Schools of Christian Doctrine
in 16th Century Italy." Church History 53 (3): 319-331.
201
-------. 1990. "Schooling in Western Europe." Renaissance
Quarterly 43 (4): 775-787.
Gundani, P. 2005. '"Catholic Reformation' or
'Counter-reformation': Historiographical
Implications of the Debate." Studia historiae
ecclesiasticae 31 (I): 39-50.
McBrien, R. 1981. "The Reformation: A Catholic Reflection."
Theology Today 38 (3): 298-304.
McCabe, W., SJ. 1983. An Introduction to Jesuit Theater. St.
Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources.
McGuinness, F. 1995. Right Thinking and Sacred
Oratory in Counter-reformation Rome. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press.
O'Malley, J. 2012. Trent; What Happened at the Council. Cam-
bridge, MA: Belknap.
O'Malley, J., SJ. 1993. The First Jesuits. Cambridge, MA: Har-
vard University Press.
--. 2000. "How the First Jesuits Became Involved in
Education." In The Jesuit Ratio Studiorum: 400th
Anniversary Perspectives, edited by V. Duminuco,
SJ, 56-74. New York: Fordham.
Roest, B. 2004. Franciscan Literature of Religious Instruction
before the Council of Trent. Leiden; Brill.
Soergel, P. 2007. "Ritual and Faith Formation in
Early Modern Catholic Europe." In Educating
People of Faith; Exploring the History of Jewish
and Christian Communities, edited by John van
Enger, 314-329. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
-BRYAN T. FROEHLE
CATHOLIC
SCHOOLS
Children's right to an education in accordance with
their parents' religious convictions has been
enshrined in the United Nations Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and reaffirmed
in subsequent UN Declarations and Conventions,
including the Declaration of the Rights of the Child
(1959) and the International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights (1966).
However, international law, while recognizing
such parental rights, does not place an obligation on
any sig- natory state to provide or support schools
with a specific religious character. Some choose to
do so, such as the United Kingdom, with slightly
differing arrangements in the country's constituent
parts. In a similar way, state- provided schools in the
Netherlands- special (religious) and general-special
(i.e., neutral)- are government fi. nanced, all of them
receiving equal financial support if certain criteria
are met. Other jurisdictions 1 for example, the United
States, allow religious denominations their own
schools but do not support them financially with
revenue generated from general taxation.
Catholic schools are subject both to the
appropriate civil laws of particular jurisdictions and
the laws of the
 Georgetown University
the subsequent century, Geneva's higher education insti-
tution would begin to transform into a university.
-JENNIFER PowELL McNuTT
GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Founding Principles
One of the oldest universities in the United States,
Georgetown University is the last major U.S.
university founded before the 19th century that still
maintains a strong Christian identity and
commitment. Established in 1789 by John Carroll,
who that same year had been elected the first
Catholic bishop within the newly established United
States, the university's propitious location in what
was to become the nation's capital gave it a unique
vantage point as the country grew. The school colors
are blue and gray, representing the coming together
of the country after the Civil War. From the
beginning, John Carroll, who had been sent by his
family to study at Jesuit schools in Europe and
became a Jesuit himself, was convinced of the value
of putting the school at the service of the nation.
Thus from the beginning it was open to all,
regardless of their faith, but with the goal that all be
formed in the virtues and given religious education.
Its first students started in 1791, and the very first,
William Gaston, went on to serve in the U.S.
Congress and then as a justice of the Supreme Court
in his home state of North Carolina, where he was
known in part for his leadership in the area of
religious freedom. Georgetown achieved university
status under Patrick Healy, SJ, who upon taking
office in 1874 became the first person of partial
African descent to lead a university in the United
States.
Distinguishing Features
Georgetown is counted as both the first Jesuit
university in the United States and the only one to be
founded by a bishop who was himself a Jesuit.
However, at this time the Jesuit order was suppressed
due to the secularizing aims of the leading Catholic
royal families of Europe. Georgetown was thus
technically not founded by a Jesuit nor led by Jesuits.
Although the leadership of the new institution was
drawn from priests who had been trained as Jesuits,
they operated as diocesan clergy. The Society of
Jesus was definitively restored as a religious order in
1814, though the process began as early as 1805.
Throughout this time, the institution benefited from
lands and other assets that had been held by the
Society of Jesus, since these lands were not taken as
Jesuit lands had been by other governments, due to
the separation of church and state in the new nation.
John Carroll was notable for his impact on the
Catholic Church in the United States, as he was for
the character
537
of the academic institution he founded. He insisted on
religious tolerance within the institution, as he did
within the wider society. His vision reflected the
republican vision of the framers of the Declaration of
Independence and the Constitution, documents signed
by his cousins. It was therefore fitting that he would
be elected by his priests as the first Catholic prelate in
the United States, rather than being chosen by the
pope, and that he would arrange to have the first
Catholic cathedral in the 13 former colonies be
designed by the same architect who designed the U.S.
Capitol. In his ministry as leader of the fledgling
Catholic Church in the United States-which
accounted for less than 1 percent of the population-
Carroll emphasized Bible reading by Catholic
families. At a time when the mass was celebrated in
Latin, Carroll made sure that the scripture readings
were in English and strongly advocated that the entire
mass be conducted in the local languages.
Unlike almost every other university founded in
the United States before the 1800s, Georgetown
remains deeply connected to its Christian roots and at
the same time deeply inclusive. John Carroll had long
dreamed of having such an institution as
Georgetown, having conducted meetings to explore
its feasibility as far back as 1783, immediately after
U.S. independence had been won and freedom of
religion established. By 1787, he had a formal
proposal for the founding of the institution prepared
and printed. Convinced of its mission to make a place
for faith in higher education within the nation's
capital, its religiously derived focus on religious
freedom has given it a strong commitment to
embrace those of other faiths as well. From the start,
its Jesuit-influenced self-understanding also gave it a
faith-derived focus on the common good and the
needs of the nation and the world. Georgetown's
history is thus fundamentally different from that of
other Catholic institutions of higher learning that
were founded on the frontier (St. Louis University
[1818], Xavier University [1831], which were
sponsored by the Society of Jesus beginning in 1827
and 1840, respectively). It was also fundamentally
different from the vast majority of Catholic
universities that were founded in the aftermath of
European Catholic immigration in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries. Georgetown was founded in the
heart of the eastern establishment with the goal of
serving persons of all backgrounds, but in a way that
was animated by a deeply cultivated, civic-minded
understanding springing from Jesuit, Catholic
humanism.
Those of all faiths were always welcome, and
Georgetown, not surprisingly, has long had
Protestant worship on its campus, was the first
Catholic institution to hire a Jewish chaplain, and
was the first to hire a Muslim chaplain. As is
traditional for Catholic institutions and
 538 Georgia and Christian Education
particularly Jesuit ones, in a tradition harkening back to the
first universities of the Middle Ages, the school year
begins with a Mass of the Holy Spirit. Graduation in-
cludes a baccalaureate mass, and daily mass is celebrated
throughout the day in the campus chapels. Its theology
departrment is large, with more than 30 members, includ-
ing the dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. Engage-
ment with other faiths is reflected in a unique doctoral
program oriented to the study of religious pluralism, as
well as in the Center for Muslim-Christian Under-
standing. All undergraduates must take two courses in
theology to graduate. Its Woodstock Theological Library is
one of the largest theological libraries in the United States.
The Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate
(CARA) is a Catholic religious research center affiliated
with the university, along with a number of Catholic-
related ethics and other institutes. CARA has conducted
numerous research efforts related to religious education
over the years and works closely with the United States
Conference of Catholic Bishops and numerous other
Catholic organizations.
Contemporary Christian Philosophy and Mission
The Christian philosophy and mission of Georgetown
University are nourished by its unique context and history
as a Catholic university founded during the federalist
period in the heart of the nation's capital, and above all by
its Jesuit roots. The university is one of the world's leading
universities by various ranking systems, and a leader
among the approximately 189 Jesuit institutions of higher
education. Many Jesuits who go on to lead other Jesuit
universities have gained an important part of their
leadership experience at the university. Following the 34th
Jesuit congregation, held in 1995, the order has
emphasized Jesuit-lay collaboration. Georgetown reflected
this vision when in 2001 it became the first of the 28 Jesuit
colleges and universities in the United States to have a
layman, John DiGoia, serve as president. Today, there are
approximately 50 Jesuits in residence in the Jesuit
community at Georgetown. They serve as professors,
administrators 1 and in other roles) including as resident
chaplains on the various floors of university dormitories. In
many ways, the philosophy and mission of the Society of
Jesus has not changed since its founder, Ignatius of Loyola,
described it in his 1540 introduction to the Constitutions,
otherwise known as The Formula of the Institute. This
vision of the goals of the Society remains a critical source
of the underlying evangelical orientation within the Society
of Jesus and its institutions: "To strive especially for the
defense and propagation of the faith and for the progress of
souls in Christian life and doc- trine . . . and the spiritual
consolation of Christ's faithful Moreover . . . to reconcile
the estranged, compassionately
assist and serve those who are in prisons or hospitals,
and indeed to perform any other works of charity,
according to what will seem expedient for the glory of
God and the common good."
References and Resources
Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities. 2010. A
History Rooted in Mission: Jesuit Higher Education in
the United States. Washington, DC: Association of
Jesuit Colleges and Universities.
Curran, R. 2010. A History of Georgetown University. 3
vols. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Durkin, J., SJ. 1964. Georgetown University, First in the
Nation's Capital. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
Gallin, A., OSU. 1992. American Catholic Higher
Education: Essential Documents, 1967-1990. Notre
Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
--. 2000. Negotiating Identity: Catholic Higher
Education
since 1%0. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre
Dame Press.
Gleason, P. 1995. Contending with Modernity: Catholic
Higher Education in the Twentieth Century. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Hunt, T. 2003. Handbook of Research on Catholic
Higher Education. Charlotte, NC: Information Age
Publishing.
McFadden, W., SJ. 1990a. "'Catechism at 4 for All the
Schools', Religious Instruction at Georgetown." In
Georgetown at Two Hundred: Faculty Reflections on
the University's Future, edited by W. McFadden, 143-
168. Washington, DC, George- town University Press.
--, ed. 1990b. Georgetown at Two Hundred: Faculty
Reflec-
tions on the University's Future. Washington, DC:
George
town University Press.
Mixon, S., L. Lyon, and M. Beaty. 2004. "Secularization
and National Universities: The Effect of Religious
Identity on Academic Reputation." Journal of Higher
Education 75 (4): 400-419.
Power, E. 1958. A History of Catholic Higher Education
in the
United States. Milwaukee, MN: Bruce.
Wilcox, J. 2000. Enhancing Religious Identity: Best
Practices from Catholic Campuses. Washington, DC:
Georgetown University Press.
Yakikoski, R. 2010. "Catholic Higher Education, The
Untold Story." Address to the Association of Catholic
Colleges and Universities, Washington,
DC.http://www.gonzaga.edu/academics/graduate/grad
uatewstudentwco11ncil/Documents/Catholic-HE-
Docs/Catholic-Higher-Education- Untold-Story.pdf.
-BRYAN T. FROEHLE
GEORGIA AND CHRISTIAN EDUCATION
Christianity was introduced to Georgia through the
missionary efforts of St. Nino of Cappadocia during the
934 Pastoral Institutes (Catholic Universities)
the "father" of CPE, believed that the basis for spiri-
tual healing was not found in theories, but in the "liv-
ing human documents"-within people and within the
tested insights of those who had gained wisdom
through their ministry with real people. In 1925, Dr.
Richard
C. Cabot, the "father" of medical social work, and
Boi- sen's colleague, wrote a plea for theological
students to undertake a clinical internship year
modeled on the medical residency. Theological
students would work in a clinical setting with
patients. They would learn how to apply their
theoretical knowledge effectively in practice. That
summer, Boisen invited four theological students to
join him, and CPE was born. Over time, this
theological education movement expanded and
evolved into four different "schools" of CPE, which
joined together in 1967 to form the Association for
Clinical Pastoral Education, Inc. (ACPE), the major
certifying and accrediting agency for CPE in the
United States. It certifies supervisors and accredits
CPE centers nationally.
The ACPE's educational standards require that a
unit
of CPE consists of a minimum of 400 hours of super-
vised ministry. Of these 400 hours, at least 100 must
be education with the peer group and supervisor(s),
including didactics about theoretical material;
analysis of and reflection on actual pastoral cases
(usually called "verbatim seminars"); and process
groups for learning through reflection about one's
self as a professional pas- toral caregiver, one's
theological dynamics, and more. The remaining 300
hours are spent in the clinical set- ting doing pastoral
ministry with people; students learn to apply their
education in real life. They learn pastoral care from
the people to whom they are ministering and the staff
with whom they are working. Many seminaries in the
United States grant between six and eight credits for
one unit of CPE. Some seminaries and faith groups/
denominations may require at least one unit of CPE
for graduation and/or ordination.
There are three curricular areas mandated by
ACPE.
Pastoral formation includes developing self-
reflection, pastoral identity, and authority, and
gaining knowledge through receiving feedback and
critique of pastoral work. Pastoral competence
includes learning a wide range of pastoral skills,
including spiritual/pastoral assessment and crisis
ministry. It also includes acquiring a basic
knowledge of major faith traditions and developing
the cultural and religious competence and humility
necessary to interact with people of different faiths,
philosophies, and existential beliefs. Pastoral
reflection includes utiliz- ing the clinical method of
learning, theological reflection, and developing the
capacity to accurately self-supervise one's pastoral
work and relational dynamics. There are specific
outcomes and objectives under these general
rubrics for each level of ACPE training: Level I, Level J
and Supervisory Education.
There are approximately 350 ACPE-accredited CP
centers and about 600 ACPE-certified supervisors i
the United States. Currently,113 member theologi
schools and 23 faith groups and agencies are acti
partners with ACPE. In addition to supervisors, ACP
comprises clinical members, students, retired supervi
sors and clinical members, and ACPE networks.
Sine 1967, nearly 150,000 units of CPE have been
offere to approximately 65,000 people, who
represent man·. different ethnic and cultural groups
and faiths from th United States and many other
countries. CPE is increas ingly multicultural,
multifaith, and multivalent in i educational methods
and clinical settings. It remain a vital means of
theological education and training fo
those entering pastoral ministry. ·
References and Resources
Boisen, Anton. 1936. Exploration of the Inner World. N
York Willett, Clark & Company.
Hall, Charles E. 1992. Head and Heart. Decatur, GA: Journal
Pastoral Care Publications.
Hemenway, Joan E. 1996. Inside the Circle: A
Historical a Practical Inquiry Concerning
Process Groups in Clinical Pa toral Education.
Decatur, GA: JPCC Publications.
King, Stephen D. W. 2007. Trust the Process: A
History of Clini cal Pastoral Education as
Theological Education. Lanha MD: University
Press of America.
-R. J<EVIN JOHNSON AND BETH FAULK GLOV.
PASTORAL INSTITUTES
(CATHOLIC UNIVERSITIES)
Second Vatican Council and Religious Education
In 1963, Pope John XXIII convened all the Catholic bishops
of the world, meeting as the Second Vatican Council. By that
time, a religious education movement in some parts of the
Catholic world, particularly the German-speaking lands and
the Low Countries, had already led to a consciousness of the
emerging cultural context in which the church lived. Already
this movement had spread beyond its origins to English-
speaking lands, Mediterranean Europe, mission territories,
and beyond. The council became the vehicle by which the
wider church came to enter into the insights of this new and
growing understanding, making the character of the Second
Vatican Council fundamentally pastoral, focused on
engaging the faith in context. With 2,860 bishops from all
over the world, the Second Vatican Council was by far the
largest of the 21 such councils in the history of the Catholic
 Pastoral Institutes (Catholic Universities)
Church. Encountering their own great diversity led the
assembled bishops to encourage each other to better
know their particular contexts, as they moved beyond an
assumption of cultural sameness or irrelevance for the
proclamation of the Gospel. They encouraged institutes
designed to explore social questions and new methods
of pastoral work, as well as offices of pastoral sociology
(Christus Dominus 1965, 16, 17):
[Bishops] should be solicitous for the spiritual,
Intellectual and material welfare of the priests
so that the latter can live holy and pious lives
and fulfill their ministry faithfully and
fruitfully. Therefore, they should encourage
institutes and hold special meetings in which
priests might gather from time to time both for
the performance of longer exercises and the
renewal of their spiritual life and for the
acquisition of deeper subjects, especially
Sacred Scripture and theology, the more
important social questions, and the new
methods of pastoral activity. . . . The forms of
the apostolate should be properly adapted to the
needs of the present day with regard not only
for man's spiritual and moral circumsta11ces
but also for his social, demographic, and
economic conditions. Religious and social
research, through offices of pastoral sociology,
contributes much to the efficacious and fruitful
attainment of that goal, and it is highly
recommended.
The goal was more effective religious education,
some- thing the bishops commended to themselves
as central to any undertaking to prepare pastoral
agents (Christus Dominus 1965, 14):
Bishops should take pains that catechetical
instruction- which is intended to make the faith,
as illumined by teaching, a vital, explicit and
effective force in the lives of men-be given
with sedulous care to both children and
adolescents', youths and adults. In this
instruction a suit· able arrangement should be
observed as well as a method suited to the
matter that is being treated and to the char-
acter, ability, age, and circumstances of the life
of the students. . . . Moreover, they should take
care that catechists be properly trained for their
function so that they will be thoroughly
acquainted with the doctrine of the Church and
will have both a theoretical and a practical
knowledge of the laws of psychology and of
pedagogical methods.
Flowing from the Council's vision of the
centrality of religious education and the need for new
methods and training, pastoral institutes were created
in various regions and dioceses of the world. These
were typically, but by no means always, in
relationship with Catholic universities.
Context and Aims
The development of pastoral institutes had begun even
before the council concluded. Such institutes were
prac-
935
tical theological in their orientation, focused on
meeting needs for research and training related to
religious education and the "pastoral care of special
groups of the faithful as the different circumstances
of individual nations or regions require" (Christus
Dominus 1965, 44). The flurry of activity in this
direction was further sup- ported after the council as
attention specifically turned to practical theological
questions, including pressing questions of
enculturation (Rahner 1963). Just as the council was
primarily pastoral, the theological response was
primarily practical theological. Previous theological
approaches were no longer used, not so much
because they were deemed to have been
theologically weak, but because they were seen as
overly abstract and speculative in a time when
theology needed to become more practical and
socioculturally engaged
The style of discussions of the bishops at the
council- within geographic and cultural groupings-
encouraged collaboration across dioceses) within a
country, and even in an entire world region. Such
collaboration was often in relationship with a
Catholic university at the beginning or emerged
eventually over time. Those connected to
universities frequently developed undergraduate and
graduate training.
Most such pastoral institutes focused in some way
on the formation of catechetical leaders and
supported research that would lead to more effective
catechesis, including related work of enculturation
and pastoral planning. A model in this was the long-
established Pastoral Institute (now Institute for
Practical Theology) of the University of Vienna,
where Rahner served during the 1940s. Associated
with the Archdiocese of Vienna and the University
of Vienna, the roots of this institute go back to
1774, where the first university-level professorship
in pastoral theology was created. Through the
influence of the University of Louvain, centers for
socioreligious research were established throughout
Latin America in the 1960s, including CISOR in
Venezuela and CERIS in Brazil, along with
numerous centers of pastoral formation. In most
cases, the centers had formal or informal links with
universities and the local dioceses of bishops'
conferences. When CARA, the Center for Applied
Research in the Apostolate, began in the United
States in 1964, the intent was similar, by 1989, it
had become associated with Georgetown University
and over time conducted a considerable portion of
its work for the U.S. bishops' conference and
individual dioceses and religious orders.
The typical form of these pastoral institutes can
be seen in the AMECEA Pastoral Institute, the East
Asian Pastoral Institute, and the university-based
centers of graduate study created in the United
States. Gaba, Uganda, was
936 Pastoral Institutes (Catholic Universities)
the original site of a pastoral institute established in
1967 and sponsored by the Association of Member
Episcopal Conferences in Eastern Africa
(AMECEA). It moved to Eldoret, Kenya, in 1976.
Since 2008, it has been formally associated with the
Catholic University of Eastern Africa (CUEA) and
offers a number of degree programs in catechesis,
ministry and management, counseling, and peace
building.
Catholic ecclesiology fosters structures that create
connections across the globe and can foster a
resulting transfer of ideas. This happens both
vertically, though the hierarchical structures of the
church, and horizontally, principally but not
exclusively through the religious orders. The East
Asia Pastoral Institute is an excellent example of the
kinds of development from these connections. This
pastoral institute was also established before the
Second Vatican Council, in 1953, by Johannes
Hofinger, SJ (1905-1984), an Austrian Jesuit who had
been deeply influenced by the catechetical
movement, including by Josef Jungrnann, SJ (1889-
1975), one of the intellectual leaders of the movement
(Jungmann [1936] 1962). Numerous institutes
followed in Asia, such as the Melanesian Institute for
Pastoral Studies and Socio- cultural Service, founded
in Papua New Guinea in 1970 (Mantovani 1994). The
focus was on catechesis and culture, training, and
research.
Loyola University Chicago's Institute of Pastoral
Studies (!PS) began in the summer of 1964 with
catechetical training in pastoral theology, a field that
Karl Rahner, SJ, soon suggested be called "practical"
rather than "pastoral" theology (Marmion and Hines
2005, 79). The advanced training offered at IPS was
unusual before the council, but quickly became the
standard within Catholic catechetics in the United
States. Analogous efforts began at the same time at
Fordham University, resulting in the Graduate School
of Religion and Religious Education. In New
Orleans, the Catechetical and Pastoral Institute (CPI)
of the Archdiocese of New Orleans was set up to
offer summer training for catechetical leaders and
others. Loyola University New Orleans took on its
sponsorship in 1978, and in 1983 the now-renamed
Loyola Institute for Ministry (LIM) began offering its
courses on a satellite basis around the country and
beyond. In 1992, it received the resources and
mission of the formerly stand-alone Institute for
Pastoral Life in Kansas City, a joint effort of
midwestern archdioceses, allowing LIM to strengthen
its continuing education programming. These pastoral
institutes were well-established by the 1980s,
particularly within Jesuit universities, and they all had
a strong focus on religious education. Perhaps the
most important from the standpoint of advanced
study was the Institute for Religious Education and
Pastoral Ministry (IREPM) of Boston College.
Founded in 1970 and led for
many years by Thomas Groome, it first offered a PhD
in religious education in 1977.
Such institutes include all those associated with
AGPIM, the Association of Graduate Programs in
Ministry, which represent degree-granting ministerial
programs at Catholic universities, programs that are
generally oriented toward forming religious educators
and have a strong emphasis on practical theological
education. In addition to these degree-granting
programs that grew out of advanced catechetical
training programs in the years after the council, other
programs at Catholic universities are oriented more
toward pastoral research. The Institute for Church Life
at the University of Notre Dame, founded by Theodore
Hesburgh, CSC, the long-serving president of the
university, is perhaps the most staffed and developed
of the non-degree-granting pastoral institutes.
Numerous other pastoral institutes exist in the United
States, tied to dioceses, groups of dioceses, and
Catholic colleges and universities, or in various states
of evolving relationships. Today, most of the
approximately 228 Catholic colleges and universities
in the United States have organizational components
designed to connect with the local church and pastoral
needs.
Additional, specialized ministries of enculturation,
study, and formation have grown up around specific
pastoral needs and groups, particularly the Latino/a
community. The Southeastern Pastoral Institute
(SEP!) was founded by Mario Viscaino, SchP, in
1979 to serve the Catholic dioceses of the
southeastern United States. It soon developed ties to
Dominican-sponsored Barry University, also in
Miami. Other pastoral institutes focused on
Hispanic/Latino ministry were created else- where
around the country, though not always as success-
fully (Matovina 2011). Another institute focused on
the needs of Latinos/as began in California, the
Instituto Fe y Vida, under Carmen Cervantes
(Matovina 2011). Here the focus was on young
people within a Latino/a context, with a strong
emphasis on catechesis and enculturation. This was
also the case with MACC, the Mexican American
Cultural Center, now the Mexican American Catho
lic College, originally connected to the Archdiocese
of San Antonio but also with ties to higher education,
in various ways, throughout its history (Matovina
2011).
The impact of these pastoral institutes continues to
be felt, long after their first flowering in the decades
after the Second Vatican Council. They are now a
permanently established part of the Catholic scene,
critical for religious education in a Catholic context
almost anywhere in the world.
Developments and Prospects
Pastoral institutes are here to stay. Those based
solely in particular dioceses are considerably less
stable than
 Pastoral Institutes (Catholic Universities)
those related to a Catholic university. Some of these,
such as the Greco Institute in the Diocese of Shreveport,
may ultimately not be sustained or may have their spon-
sorship passed on to a Catholic university. Those being
served and in leadership at these institutes have moved
from being priests and women religious to ordinary
laypeople in the Catholic church and beyond seeking
separation for church leadership, particularly in the
intersection of catechesis and culture as well as related
areas of ministry.
Just as religious education sustains faith
communities, those structures that provide for pastoral
institutes critically sustain faith communities. Pastoral
institutes based in a Catholic university context mark an
important new development for sustaining Catholic
faith communities and provide a religious education and
formation model that is outside diocesan structures,
though in close communion with them. In this, Catholic
universities take on a role similar to that of religious
orders-one of horizontal rather than vertical connections
across Catholic faith communities. As relatively
autonomous structures, pastoral institutes at Catholic
universities have the necessary flexibility and relational
ties critical for effectiveness and sound religious
education. In the future, they will likely become even
more important for religious education and the general
resourcing of Catholic faith communities. Those that
are most successful will be grounded in a practical
theological approach that sees theology as sapiential
wisdom (Farley 1983) and is interdisciplinary in its
methods. They will become more diverse and find
specific, appropriate means to combine formation and
education with research and publication in ways that
unite the interests of staff with the needs of the local
church. In the years to come, having one or more of
these institutes with strong collaborative but not
ownership ties with local diocese(s) will be ever more
common for Catholic universities around the world.
References and Resources
Christus Dominus: Decree Concerning the Pastoral
Office of Bishops in the Church Proclaimed by His
Holiness, Pope Paul VI on October 28, 1965.
http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican
_council/documents/vat-ii_ decree_
19651028_christus-dominus_en.html.
Farley, R 1983. Theologia: The Fragmentation and
Unity of Theological Education. Philadelphia:
Fortress Press.
Gaba Pastoral Institute. 1972. "Gaba Pastoral Institute."
African Ecclesial Review 14 (2): 156-159.
Imbelli, R., and T. Groom 1992. "Signposts Toward a
Pastoral Theology." Theological Studies 53: 127-137.
Jungmann, J., SJ. (1936) 1962. The Good News
Yesterday and Today. Translated and edited by
William Huesman, SJ. New York: Sadlier.
current_students/ aboutus/gsrre_history_88378.asp
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LaMagdeleine, D. 1986. "U.S. Catholic Church-
related Jobs as Dual Labor Markets: A
Speculative Inquiry." Review of Religious
Research 27 (4): 315-327.
Lemay, J. 1984. "Gaba-A Story of Renewal."
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Melanesian Institute: Its History and Its Work.
Goroka, Papua New Guinea: Melanesian
Institute.
Matovina, T. 2011. Latino Catholicism. Princeton,
NJ: Prince- ton University Press.
Marmion, D., and M. Hines. 2005. The Cambridge Guide to
Karl Rahner. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
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Conference of Asia-Pacific Pastoral Institutes."
SEDOS Bulletin 23: 105-108.
Melli, J. 2005. East Asian Pastoral Institute: A
Power-house of lntercultural and Interreligious
Dialogue, Interreligious Dialogue. Kriens,
Switzerland: Brunner Verlag.
O'Neill, P. 2000. "The Library of the Southeast
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Library Association Summary of Proceedings,
97-101.
Polak, R. 2008. "Recovering Practical Theology: Two Disciplines
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Rabner, K 1963. The Christian Commitment:
Essays in Pastoral Theology. New York; Sheed &
Ward.
Rooney, P., OP. 1965. "The Loyola institute of
Pastoral Studies." Worship 39 (3): 165-169.
Salam,, N. 1969. Catechist Research. Kampala,
Uganda: Gaba Pastoral Institute.
Smith, A. 1967. "Africa's New Pastoral Institute."
African Ecclesial Review 9 (4): 317-321.
Uzukwu, E. 1982. "Africa's Right to Be Different,
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Theologie Africaine 4 (8), 24.,-276.
Vonck, P., WF. 1986. "The AMECEA Pastoral
lnstitute (Gaba)." African Ecclesial Review 28 (1-
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_graduate_s/graditate_profession/graduate_school_of_r/
 938 Payne, Daniel Alexander
Institute for Theological and Pastoral Studies (Elms
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-pastora1-studies.xm1
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-BRYAN T. FROEHLE
PAYNE, DANIEL ALEXANDER
Daniel Alexander Payne, an African American, was born
a free person of color to London and Martha Payne on
24 February 18!1 in Charleston, South Carolina. His el-
ementary education was at the Minor's Moralist School,
which was created by black men to educate orphaned
and indigent black children. Payne was there for two
years and then studied with Thomas Bonneau (one of the
founders of the school) for three additional years. Payne
was exposed to the basics: reading, writing, and arithme-
tic as well as the histories of Greece, Rome, and England.
Although his initial education was completed with Bon-
neau, Payne continued to devour books as he worked in
carpentry, tailoring, and the shoe industry. In his auto-
biography, he described being called by God to become
a teacher. He left carpentry and opened a school. With a
paucity of students, he was not able to support himself
and was forced to close, but he reopened the school a
few months later, with greater success. This educational
adventure came to an end due to a bill initiated in the
General Assembly of South Carolina in December 1834,
which became law on l April 1835: An act to amend the
Law Relating to Slaves and Free Persons of Color, which
stated that persons who taught any slave to read or write
would be convicted, fined, and/or imprisoned. Payne had
to close his school.
Through his acquaintance with Dr. John Bachmann,
a Lutheran pastor in Charleston, South Carolina, Payne
received letters of recommendation and a scholarship
to study at the Lutheran seminary in Gettysburg, Penn-
sylvania. His intention was to study theology to further
prepare for the vocation of teaching. During his stud-
ies, he opened a Sunday school for black children in the
community and enlisted his fellow seminary classmates
as Sunday school teachers. He also established a class
for women in moral and mental improvement. After
two years of theological studies, Payne had to leave the
seminary and was licensed by the Franckean Synod of
the Lutheran Church in 1837. He served a Presbyteri
church in Troy, New York, and in 1839 he was ordaine.
by the Franckean Synod of the Lutheran Church. o
the day of his ordination, he preached a strong serm
against slavery based on biblical exegetical principles. H
service in Troy was terminated due to illness, and he left
for Philadelphia.
Payne affiliated with the African Methodist Episcopal
Church in 1841. From the beginning, he was a spokes·
person for an educated ministry, which was not at the
forefront of the leadership's interests. He documented
his advocacy in "Five Essays on the Educated Ministry(
published in the denomination's journal. After sen,-_,
ing congregations in Washington, DC and Baltimore,
Maryland, he was appointed historiographer of th
AME Church, and in 1853, he was elected to the office
of bishop. In 1856, Payne was appointed to the board 0£
Wilberforce University, an institution of the Methodist
Episcopal Church. In 1863, he became the president of
Wilberforce when the university was sold to the AMC
Church due to loss of funding from its southern sup-.·
porters. With that election, he became the first African .
American to be president of an institution of highet;
education in the United States and th us made a con·
tribution to Christian theological education as well as
liberal arts education.
As president of Wilberforce, Payne traveled to Europe
in 1867 to solicit funds for the support of the school.ill
the aftermath of the American Civil War. While there he•
traveled in England, France, and Amsterdam. He heard·
and spoke with ecclesial and government officials. Jri,
addition, he continued his own education by study,
French and attending theological and academic lectur
Payne also preached and made presentations in Prot
tant congregations and general ecclesiastical meetin
Moreover, he observed the education of French protes
tant girls in Paris.
While he encouraged the development of a numbe
of special Christian education classes for congregan
Payne's views on Christian education were specifically,.
discussed in his Domestic Education, which addressed
the important role of Christian education in the home/
with particular emphasis on parental involvement H
also noted the special education and formation of g!r
For Payne, "Christian education is divinely designed n ,
to confer exclusive privileges upon any chosen people
but to enligh ten, improve, and develop into perfectJor,
humanity as a whole unbroken unit, consequently
develop into the highest possible human perfection eve
child of Adam.""'
40, DanJel A, Payne, Domestic Education (Nashville, TN: AME Sunda
School, 1888), 6,
 Sociology, Christian Contributions to 1171

ased on love and service for Christ It brought together - -. 2013b. "Services." April. http://worldsceunlon.org/
g people from different denominations. While it about_us.
quired loyalty to the church and the denomination to -MARIET MIKALELIAN
hich it belonged, it also provided an opportunity for in-
rdenominational fellowship. m Due to some objections,
e pledge was revised and a clause was added in which SOCIOLOGY, CHRISTIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO
e youth had to pledge to support their church and at-
.tend Sunday and midweek services regularly."' Origins
The youth were no longer passive observers in the Sociology is a field of intellectual endeavor both ancient
hurch, but had the opportunity to speak and work for and new. As a formal university recognized discipline, it
hrist."' Important features of the society that helped can be traced to the 19th century. As a study of the na-
.. e youth to be connected with God and the church were ture of society and social life, it goes back to philosophers
ccountability, group support, and emphasis on both and thinkers throughout human history, most definitely
nfessing and serving Christ Serving on the commit- including religious thinkers.
helped them develop leadership skills.'" Christian The term sociology originated in a specifically
eavor was an innovation in reaching and keeping the anti-Christian context. Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
dung people, and it shaped the youth ministry."' was a French thinker who sought to replace traditional
Today the conventions continue, and the WCEU Christianity with a religion of his own making, one
nites CE unions in 29 countries 126 and has a quarterly that embraced a claim about the perfectability of
,,, sletter. 127 Nowadays the five basic committees are society through the sciences. This in turn required the
evotional,» «lookout," "missionary," "recreation," and careful study of society) with a view toward its
hurch activity.""' According to Clark, the founder of perfection, so he invented the word sociology.
e society, the "fundamental principles" of Christian As the scientific study of society increased in the 19th
deavor societies are "devotion to Christ, loyalty to the century, leaders in the new field generally took stands
urch to which they belong, outspoken confession of either in opposition to Christianity or simply of religious
eir faith, and earnest, effective service.» 129 indifference, in the expectation that Christianity would
eventually be supplanted by modern science.
erences and Resources Borrowing from Comte, the British social evolutionist
k, Francis. E. 1895. World Wide Endeavor: The Story of Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) took a Darwinian
'Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor. Philadelphia: perspective, and in Germany, Max Weber (1864-
.Gillespie, Metzgar & Kelley. 1920) followed a markedly historical comparative
·bei;tson, Sara A. 2001. "Christian Endeavor International." perspective. Following French developments, Emile
n Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, edited by Durkheim (1858-1917) laid claim to sociology as an
.:Michael J. Anthony, 134. Grand Rapids, Ml: Baker Academic. empirical science of society. Many of these ideas
nter, Mark H., Ill. 1992. The Coming Revolution In Youth developed from an explicit or implicit engagement
Ministry and Its Radical Impact on the Church. Wheaton, IL: with the thought of Karl Marx (1818-1883), whose
P Publications. ideas represented a unique synthesis of French revolu-
. 2010. When God Shows Up: A History of Protestant tionary thinking, Germanic philosophical and historical
:cYouth Ministry in America. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Aca consciousness, and British empiricism. Marx's
demic. decisive rejection of religion was perhaps more
orld's Christian Endeavor Union. 2013a. "About Us." April. known, but not particularly different from many other
Ji.ttp://worldsceunion.org/ about_us. founding figures in the new science of society. For this
reason, some theologians reject any possibility of
.lf. Clark, World Wide Endeavor, 263, 264.
dialogue with social science (Millbank 2006) .
2, Ibid., 185.
23. Ibid., 97,
Sociology of Religion
· Senter, When God Shows Up, 162, 163.
25. Ibid., 144, 167. Though Durkheim's major focus was on religion, and
26, World's Christian Endeavor Union, "About Us," 2013, http:// he himself was descended from a long line of rabbis,
ceunion.org/about_us<
· World's Christian Endeavor Union, "Service," 2013, http://worlds he saw religion as fundamentally and only social in
lon.org/service. its origins. as a form of collective consciousness that
28. Sara A. Robertson, "Christian Endeavor International," in Evan· represented mores and norms of society as a whole.
Dictionary of Christian Education, ed. Michael j. Anthony (Grand
, MI: 8aker Academic. 2001), 134. Similarly, Max Weber gave considerable attention to re-
29, G:ark, World Wide Endeavor, 636. ligion, including comparisons of Christianity over time
and space, and contributed the theory of the protestant
 1172 Sociology, Christian Contributions to
I
work ethic as embedded in the origins of capitalism.
Weber also undertook a great comparative study of world
religion. He showed a relatively sensitive under- standing
of religion. His focus was not on religion for the sake of
understanding religion, however, as much as to
understand even larger social forces through religion.
These scholars, however, paved the way for future stud-
ies in the sociology of religion. Drawing on Max We-
ber's work, the theologian Ernst Troeltsch (1865-1923)
crafted his Social Teaching of the Christian Church and
made important contributions to religious studies. The
U.S. social theorist Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) was
influenced by his unique synthesis of Durkheimian and
Weberian thinking, which grew from a strong ground-
ing in the study of the sociology of religion.
The major theme in the sociology of religion has been
secularization. At first, most of the sociology of religion
considered elements of the religious field to test and
demonstrate trends of secularization. Later, many within
the field turned to critiquing and debunking such claims,
particularly the more facile and most problematic. Many
theorists, including Durkheim, Weber, and Parsons, came
from distinctly observant homes and from fathers and
families distinguished for religious leadership. Most,
however, turned fro1n religion per se to a quasireligious
dedication to the power of sociology and the intellectual
life in general. However, the sociology of religion has
always had a number of practitioners who were inter-
ested in religion for the sake of religion-those who were
themselves believers and committed to the future or
specific needs of religious persons or organizations.
Many brought a particular focus and an insider under-
standing to the sociology of religion that fueled strong,
in-depth studies. This led to the formation of three pro-
fessional associations in the sociology of religion, aside
from the formal sociology of religion section within the
American Sociological Association. The Association for
the Sociology of Religion is the successor to the Catholic
Sociological Society. The Society for the Social
Scientific Study of Religion (SSSR) took an approach
less informed by Christian confessionalism. The
Religious Research Association (RRA) was founded and
led primarily by Protestant pastoral researchers.
Pastoral Sociology
An offshoot of the sociology of religion, which is more
applied and focused on pastoral needs, descriptions, and
plans as ends in themselves, is quite different from the
more religiously neutral position common within the
sociology of religion. In the United States, such an
approach typified much, though by no means all, of the
work of Dean Hoge (1937-2008) at Catholic University
of America, a Presbyterian who did most of his work
in a Catholic context in the late 20th century. Within a
Protestant context in the United States, H. Paul Doug-
lass (1871-1953) and others pioneered the adaptation
of sociology from community and neighborhood stud-
ies to specifically church and congregational studies for
planning purposes, a charge taken up by David Roozen
and his colleagues at Hartford Seminary for decades.
Some of the work also focused on religious education,
but it was by no means limited to this field. By the
1960s and 1970s, many Catholics had begun doing the
same. Philip Murnion (1938-2003) completed a PhD in
sociology from Columbia University so as to advance
pastoral planning in a Catholic context, and decades
later he helped guide David DeLambo to complete his
PhD in sociology from Fordham University with the
same goal in mind. The dialogue between sociology
and pastoral sociology continues, though in fits and
starts (Hegy 2012, 6, 10; Froehle 2007).
Empirical Theology
Throughout this time, theology largely continued as it
had been-as a speculative discipline. The need for re-
ligious education and pastoral leadership, and countless
other church needs, propelled religious leaders, trained
more in theology than sociology, to take on the meth-
ods of the social sciences in their work, but this was not
done as theology per se, though occasionally it was done
under the guise of pastoral theology. By the late 20th
century, particularly in The Netherlands and German-
speaking lands, theologians sought to integrate social
science methods into their work, considering themselves
scientists conducting true scientific research subject to
empirical verification. Johannes van der Ven at Nijme-
gen was one such pioneer, influenced by the empirical
tradition of the University of Chicago. Positioning itself
as properly theological, and as more legitimate in its
scholarship than pastoral sociology, empirical theology
seeks to correlate people's understanding of theological
concepts with deeper understanding of those concepts
(van der Ven 1998).
Sociological Theory and Method
in Religious Education
Religious education benefits greatly from the
insights of sociology, including specifically the
sociology of religion. Some work in religious
education has been more within pastoral sociology;
other work has been more in the areas of
empirical theology, including ordinary theology
(Astley and Francis 2013) and communicative
theology (Scharer and Hilberath 2008); and still
other work has been done at the intersection of
theology, catechetics, and social science, as is the
case for the German practical theologian and
religious educator Norbert Mette.
 Socrates
While social science method has nourished the work
of pastoral sociology and empirical theology, with the
sociology of religion remaining the most cited
specialization in these fields, the discipline of sociology
is much more than the study of religion. Religious
education benefits from wide conversations within
sociological theory and method and across a range of
sociological fields. Reflections on broader directions
within contemporary cultural and society are informed
by social theory in general rather than by the sociology
of religion alone. Similarly, qualitative-ethnographical,
quantitative, and comparative-historical methods all
have their use in understanding religious education,
whether contextually or programmatically. The
possibilities for enriching work within religious
education through a dialogue with sociology remain
largely untapped.
References and Resources
Asian Social Institute. n.d. "Pastoral Sociology."
http,//www asinet-
online.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=
article&id=33&Itemid= 162.
Astley, J. and L. Francis. 2013. Exploring Ordinary
Theology: Everyday Christian Believing and the
Church. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
Bendyna, M., OP. 2009. "Bridging the Gap Between
Research and Pastoral Practice." Church (Spring).
http://www.churchmagazine.org/issue/0903/upf_bridging
_the_gap.php.
Blasi, T. 2007. American Sociology of Religion:
Histories, Leuven: Brill.
Froehle, B. 2007. "Catholic Pastoral Sociology in the
United States since Vatican II:Making a Path by
Walking." United States Catholic Historian 25 (4): 85-
116.
Graham, G. 2003. "Sociology and Faith: The Witness of
Paul Hanly Fufey." Catholic Social Science Review vol.
8, http://catholicsocialscientists.org/CSSR/.
http://cssronline.org/CSSR/Archival/2003/Graham%252
0article.pdf
Hegy, P. 2012. Wake up Lazarus! On Catholic Renewal.
Bloomington, IN: iUniverse.
Houtart, F. 1965. Sociology and Pastoral Care. St Louis,
MO: Franciscan Herald Press.
Millbank, J. 2006. Theology and Social Theory. London:
Wiley-Blackwell.
Nuesse, C. 2001. "The Introduction of Sociology at the
Catholic University of America, 1895-1915." Catholic
Historical Review 87 (4): 643-661.
Scharer, M., and B. Hilberath. 2008. The Practice of
Communicative Theology: Introduction to a New
Theological Culture. New York: Crossroad.
Sullins, P. n.d. "Sociology: A Catholic Critique."
http://faculty.cua.edu/sullins/published%20articles/soccat
h.pdf.
Troeltsch, E. (1912) 1992. Social Teaching of the
Christian Church 2 vols. Louisville, KY: Westminster
John Knox Press.
1173
Van der Ven, J. 1998. Practical Theology: An
Empirical Approach. Kampen, Netherlands: Kok
Pharos.
Zaccaria, F. 2010. Participation and Beliefs in
Popular Religi- osity: An Empirical-Theological
Exploration among Italian Catholics. Leiden:
BrilL
Karnataka Pastoral Sociology Institute. http://www.medindia
.net/ngos/ pastoral-sociology- institutekolar-karnataka
-3460-1.htm
-BRYAN T. FROEHLE
SOCRAT
ES
Socrates was born in 469 BC in Athens, Greece. His
fa- ther was a stonemason and his mother was a
midwife. Socrates applied his mother's profession to
himself, in the sense that he described himself as a
midwife who gave birth to truth. Although he never
wrote anything, he is one of the philosophers who
has exerted the greatest influence on ancient and
modern philosophy. Socrates is perhaps the most
enigmatic figure in the history of philosophy,
although he was frequenily mocked in the plays of
comic poets (produced in 423 BC, Clouds by
Aristophanes is the most common example). For the
majority of his life, Socrates spent his time in the city
marketplaces and squares, talking with the people he
met. His life is known primarily through the writings
of Plato, who was one of his pupils. Plato's
Dialogues are dramatized philosophicai discussions
in which Socrates is the primary character and
speaker. Consequently, it is difficult to differentiate
the teachings of Socrates from the philosophy of
Plato.
Prior to his career as a philosopher, Socrates was en-
listed as a hoplite (ancient Greek infantryman) during
the war between Athens and Sparta. Plato's
Symposium recounts how Socrates returned to
Athens not to answer questions regarding the
war; rather, he was concerned about progress in
the search for truth. After his service in the war,
Socrates devoted himself to the pursuit of truth. In
his writings, Plato depicted the philosopher as always
in conversation and continually asking questions.
Socrates did not want to instruct anyone in the
sense of lecturing, as was the practice of the
traditional school- master; his "Socratic Method"
was to discuss (to teach by asking questions).
Socrates would ask questions as if he did not know
the answer (i.e., Socratic irony), all the while using
the discussion to lead his opponents to recog- nize
the error of their argumentation. Although he lived at
the same time as the Sophists and shared their
concern for the purpose of hnmanity in the world (as
opposed to studying the forces of nature), Socrates
differed from
 1342 Venezuela and Christian Education
Reese, Thomas ). 1996. Inside the Vatican: The Politics and
Or- ganiZation of the Catholic Church. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Ruysschaert, Jose. 1982. The Vatican: Spirit and Art of
Christian
Rome. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.
-)BFFRY C. DAVIS
VENEZUELA AND CHRISTIAN EDUCATION
Christian History
Christianity was brought to the lands of modern-day
Venezuela by Spanish missionaries. Religious education of
the native peoples occurred within the doctrinas system,
which bore some resemblance to the mission station
settlement that became common in Africa during the 19th
and 20th centuries. Although the extensive Arch- diocese of
Caracas has less than half the number of priests found within
the major archdioceses of colonial Latin America, the rapid
expansion of plantation agriculture and trade help account
for why, in the early 18th century, it had the greatest
income, as measured by the royal tithe, of any colonial see
in Latin America.
A century later, however, the Catholic church in
Venezuela had become among the most marginal in Latin
America, due to nearly constant civil disturbances, economic
disruption, and severe bouts of hostility to the church. In the
1824 Law of Patronage, for example, the Venezuelan state
claimed the power to establish ecclesiastical divisions.
appoint bishops, restrict activities of religious orders, and
control migration of foreign priests. By the J870s, the
president of the republic, Antonio Guzman Blanco, found
the church to be the only independent source of opposition)
however weak, to his personal authority. He thus continued
the already established anticlerical program by taking away
from the church the registry of births, celebration of
marriages, and ownership of cemeteries. All religious orders
were expelled and their property seized, and seminaries were
closed. Attempts were made to foster rival belief systems,
and there was even talk of creating a national Venezuelan
church separated from allegiance to Rome. By the end of his
rule, the Catholic church was for all practical purposes
nonexistent as a force in the life of civil society. By the last
decade of the 19th century, the process of rebuilding the
Catholic church in Venezuela had begun. Not surprisingly,
the model followed was exclusively religious, conscious of
limitations within an inhospitable political climate. During
the series of dictatorial governments that followed, the
church carefully avoided political entanglements. It kept a
low political profile and neither excessively committed itself
to nor explicitly opposed any government. Ali the while it
sought loopholes and advan-
tages where it could, attempting in the process to rebuild
and expand its institutional space (Froehle 1994). Yet
loyalty to the church and Catholicism remained, fostered
in popular religious devotion and even potentially
traceable in some way back to the original
evangelization of the country. Some credit the
Augustinian religious biblically based catechesis,
particularly its emphasis on Bible stories in
evangelization and teaching, for forming religiosity
within those parts of the country where a religious
commitment is strongest (Gonzalez Oropeza 1991).
The fluctuations in the number of priests in the
country illustrate the dramatic changes that took place
during this period. During the height of the colonial
period, the number of priests increased dramatically,
from 456 in 1784 to 547 in 1810 and 640 by 1820. In the
aftermath of independence and civil wars, as well as
under ensuing restrictive legislation, their number
decreased to 440 by 1847. Those remaining were for the
most part old or infirm, and only 273 were physically
able to attend parishes, leaving 40 percent of the parishes
unattended. A few years later, in 1855, only 154 priests
were left, leaving almost seven in ten parishes without
resident priests. By the time the census was taken in
1881, conditions stabilized, the number of priests had
increased to 255, and two in five parishes had resident
priests.
Given that the boundaries of each parish were usually
coterminous with those of the civil division in which it
was situated, each unattended parish generally meant
that inhabitants of a town of some size and its hinterland
had considerably reduced contact with the institutional
church. The population, however, did not stop being
Catholic. These developments did leave most of the
country without regular religious services (Watters
1971), and many of the traditions of popular religiosity
and religious practice, including baptism by one's
parents or grandparents, developed during this period
(Pollak-Eltz 1994). Over time, many families replaced
orthodox practice and formation formerly offered by the
priest with religious practices and formation fostered
within family, chiefly passed on by mothers and
grandmothers from generation to generation. As a result,
Catholicism in Venezuela has been characterized more
by popular religiosity and lay initiative and has been
relatively less clerical in daily life and practice.
Christian Life
Christianity during the three centuries of colonization
experienced a similar trajectory to that in the rest of
Spanish America (Picon Salas 1966): a period of
energetic mission work and settlement, followed by a
period of maturity, and then a time of ecclesial
difficulties the church experienced more control by the
crown and loss of resources during the mid- and late-
18th-century
 Venezuela and Christian Education
so-called Bourbon reforms. After further reductions of
the church's public presence and resources in the 19th
century, religious orders were invited back into the
country to provide social services and education. By the
mid-20th century, the organizational life of the church
grew among the urban middle sectors. Catholic
institutions -- parishes, schools, and hospitals --
proliferated and made their presence felt, and
democratization in the 1960s benefited the Catholic
Church, even as it provided opportunities for other
churches to grow.
Evangelicals and Pentecostals experienced
dramatic growth during this period, with small house-
churches appearing all over the country. Nonetheless,
organized religion in any form remains relatively weak in
Venezuela especially in comparison to neighboring
Colombia, though signs of flourishing Christian life are
also evident (Levine 1981; Luciani 2009; Smilde 2007).
Christian Education
Christian education in Venezuela, as elsewhere, has
always depended on the family, whether during the period
of the dramatic disappearance of parish priests in the
early 19th century or the rapid growth of evangelicals and
Pentecostals in the 20th. The research center CISOR,
founded as the Centro de Investigaciones Socio-religiosos
in 1967, conducted a number of research projects on
religious education as well as religion among young
people, particularly in its first two decades.
Church-State Relations and Christian Education
Church-state relations have had a dramatic effect on
Christian education at various points in the country's
history. This is not only due to various political efforts to
control the churches, such as limiting access to public ools
for purposes of religious education, expelling religious
personnel and controlling who may be admitted to
the country, and confiscating church land and resources. It
is also due to the use of wealth at the government's
disposal. Since the early 1900s, Venezuela has been a
major petroleum-producing country, and some of the
wealth been given by the government to various churches
and church-related schools for building projects or other
needs. It follows that having access to such funds -- then
losing access to such funds -- dramatically affects church
life. The modus vivendi between the Catholic Church
d the Venezuelan government is another example of this
sort of control (Levine 1973), as are church-state relations
during the Chavez period (1999-2013).
Ordinary Methods of Religious Education
The ordinary methods of formal religious education in
Venezuela are church-based, through materials provided
by congregations and taught by volunteers, though there
1343
has also been some religious education in the public
schools. Controversies have grown up around this
issue, and there is an option provided for students to
study ethics in place of religion. The situation is
different in Catholic schools, of course, where
religious education is more formal and in-depth than
in other contexts. The largest network of Catholic
schools in Venezuela is Fe y Alegria, which was
founded by Jesuits in 1955 and includes about 160
schools and 290,000 students, including those in non-
school-based programs.
Christian education is also supported by various re-
ligious bookstores and publishers. Catholics and
some others make use of the Paulinas and Centro
Gumilla. Other churches make use of flows of
printed materials from their judicatories or the
equivalent, such as the Assemblies of God and other
transnational religious bodies. Materials provided by
the Biblical Society are widely used (Ayerra 1980).
References and Resources
Ayerra, J. 1980. Los Protestantes en Venezuela.
Caracas: Edicio nes Tripode.
Fe y Alegria. n.d. http,1/oid.feyalegria.org/?idSeccion=28.
Froehle, B. 1994, "Religious Competition,
Community Building, and Democracy in Latin
America: Grassroots Religious Organizations in
Venezuela." Sociology of Religion 55 (2): 145-162.
Gonzalez Oropeza, H. 1991. "La iglesia en la
Venezuela Hispanica." In Los tres primeros siglos
de Venezuela 1498-1810.
231-256. Caracas: Fundacion Eugenio Menoza.
Levine, D. 1973. Conflict and Political Change in Venezuela.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
--. 1981. Religion and Politics in Venezuela and Colombia.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Luciani, R. 2009. "Politics and Church in Venezuela:
Perspectives and Horizons." Theological Studies,
192-195.
Picon Salas, M. 1966. A Cultural History of Spanish America.
Berkeley: University of California Press.
Pollak-Eitz, A. 1994. La religiosidad popular en Venezuela. Ca-
racas: San Pablo,
--. 2000. Estudio Antropol6gico del Pentecostalismo
en Venezuela. Caracas: Universidad Santa Rosa.
--. 2005. "Venezuela." In Worldmark Encyclopedia of Rell·
gious Practices, edited by Thomas Riggs, 556-561.
Farming- ton Hills, MI: Gale.
Shorack, J, 2012. Nail Scarred Hands Made New:
Making Sense of the Gospel in a Violent Latin
American Slum. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock.
Smilde, D. 2007. Reason to Believe: Cultural Agency
in Latin American Evangelicalism. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
Watters, M. 1971. A History of the Church in Venezuela, 1810-
1930. New York: AMS Press.
-BRYAN T. FROEHLE
 1442 Lead in Introductions
By the 1800s, with so many denominations on the
scene, the biblical and theological insistence that there
is only one ch urch was being visibly contradicted. So it
is not surprising that movements arose that denied they
were denominations (and some adherents still make that
claim) and tried to find ways to get all true Christians into
one fellowship, as in the beginning. But like their pre-
decessors, these movements only added to the diversity
within Protestantism. The latter sought to renew Meth-
odism, but also Jed to many new denominations splitting
from other branches of Protestantism. In the 1900s, what
has become the largest free church movement of all,
Pentecostalism, emerged from within the Holiness move-
ment, but was joined by individuals from other groups.
The reality of denominationalism would seem to-but
does not-require Christians to stop repeatedly asserting
that there is only one church. In someways, this confession
is similar to the equally asserted belief that Christ died for
our sins. Such statements are made on the basis of faith,
without which the Bible says it is impossible to please God.
Even as the Bible is the record of God's faithfulness despite
His people's repeated failures, so is the history of Chris-
tianity a similar record. Denominations are just one of
many manifestations that Christians are not yet glorified.
With the passage of time, within denominational families
and the countless individual subdivisions, spectrums of
belief and practice develop. The result is not only the rise
of nondenominational agencies, but also that subdivisions
from quite different families can be closer to each other
than other subdivisions with which they have a historical
connection. Another result is that influences both doctri-
nal and practical spread from one family to another. There
are indeed differences within Christianity, both in teaching
and in practice, but much fewer than the number of de-
nominational families or subdivisions would suggest. And
it is interesting to observe, as so many of the entries in this
encyclopedia demonstrate, that educational techniques,
concepts, influences, and the like rarely if ever come with
denominational labels.
Relevant Entries
Adventist Church Christian Education
Anabaptist Christian Education
Anglican Church Christian Education
Armenian Orthodox Church Christian Education
Assemblles of God Church Christian Education
Assyrian Orthodox Church
Baptist Curricular Outcomes
Brethren Church Christian Education
Christian and Missionary Alliance and Christian Educa-
tion Christian Camps
Christian Reformed Church Christian Education
Congregational Church Christian Education
Coptic Orthodox Church Christian Education
Eastern Orthodox Church Christian Education
Episcopal Church Christian Education
Friends/Quaker Church Christian Education
Greek Orthodox Church Christian Ed ucation
Lutheran Ch urch Christian Education
Mennonite Church Christian Education
Methodist Church Christian Education
Pentecostal Movement
Presbyterian Church Christian Ed ucation
Protestant
Protestant Interdenominational Church Christian E
ncation
Reformed Curricular Outcomes
Restorationist Church Christian Education
Roman Catholic Church Christian Education
Russian Orthodox Church Christian Education
Wesleyan Church Christian Education
INSTITUTIONAL, UNIVERSITY,
AND SEMINARY PROFILES
Bryan T. Froehle
Christian Education and Higher Education
Christian education takes place in an institutional
setting, whether a congregation or parish, an elementary
or secondary school, a university or seminary, or some
other context. The ongoing nature of education simply
requires an institutional basis, sometimes at a congre-
gational level, sometimes beyond it (Osmer 2005). This
entails organizations with their own history, context,
personality, mission, and capacity. Such a grounding is
all the more critical for the preparation of Christian
educators, ordained and lay. Thus, universities and
seminaries have a critical role as seedbeds of Christian
education. Organized preparation of Christian educators
goes back to the beginning, in informal schools of the
various leaders of the early church, following educational
practices of the time. It can be traced through the
monasteries and cathedral schools and became
decisively formalized with the emergence of
universities. Still later, seminaries specifically created
for ministerial formation emerged. Today both
seminary- and university-based theological education
remains largely confessional in sponsorship and
therefore varied in doctrinal texture and organizational
expectations.
Christian education is far more than the acquisition
of simple technical knowledge. Rather than merely
passing on skills and knowledge, Christian institutions to
mold persons through practice within an educational
community, so that they might mold others in turn, again
 Lead-in Introductions
as part of a community. Rooted in the ancient Christian
practice of marturia, or witnessing (Groome 2011, 172;
Osmer 2008), Christian education goes beyond practices
of kerygma (proclamation) and didache (doctrine). This
discipleship-based understanding of Christian education
emphasizes phronesis, reflective praxis, or conation,
wisdom-formation, practices that far exceed the
demands of mere techne, or everyday artisanal skills
(Cahalan 2010; Flyvberg 2001; Groome 1999). The
ancient Greeks understood, as did other ancient sources
of human wisdom around the world, that knowledge at
its highest is an art that is dynamically generative
(poiesis), not an end in itself: a character-builder, virtue-
former, and person-shaper (Wright 2012). Such an
understanding contrasts with Enlightenment-derived,
historically bound, and specifically modernist claims
that learning can be value-free and entirely neutral. In
the 20th century, for example, instrumental knowing of
war and the conduct of war could not be
compartmentalized, but rather inevitably profoundly
distorted whole societies in the heart of Christendom in
spite of their beautiful cultural creations and ancient
Christian heritage. Faith and practice, culture and
everyday life, cannot be separated. Today, modernist
claims of value-neutrality no longer dominate the
discussion. The turn to various rival approaches,
including virtue ethics (McIntyre 2007), means that
leaders of educational institutions of all kinds have
renewed an insistence on higher education as formative
practice (Bass and Dykstra 2008). This is certainly the
Christian understanding of education and educational
institutions. In any case, the historical record clearly
suggests that mere instrumental approaches lead to the
extinguishing of the Christian institutional mission
(Burtchaell 1998).
The wide range of institutions and related
organizations tied to Christian education are part of the
Christian engagement with the world and its work of
transformation.These institutions cannot form educators
if they are not themselves reflections of the
transformation to which God calls the world in Christ. A
Christian educational institution can never be an end in
itself, but instead is only itself when it participates in the
educational mission of Christ. For this reason, any
specific individual instance of the global Christian
educational institutional infrastructure is best
understood when refracted by lenses that offer a wider
vision. One such lens is the perspective gained by
seeing these individual institutions within a single
global reality of Christian education institutions.
Considering such a profile as a whole allows one to
better see the parts. Another lens builds from the deep
origins shared by all Christian educational institutions,
ones within the rich legacy of Christian life and practice
over the millennia. Understanding the common origins
of today's institutions offers a powerful perspective for
understanding
1443
Christian educational institutions today. Finally, the
challenges and prospects that Christian education faces
today are shared by Christian educational institutions,
however much they might see their situation as unique and
distinctive. Knowing the nature of these challenges and
prospects leads to greater clarity for the future pos-
sibilities of each institution.
Nontertiary Educational Institutions around the World
Christian education includes institutions at a wide variety
of levels, and nontertiary levels are critical in any con-
sideration of the global profile of Christian educational
institutions. Tertiary institutions provide educators for
primary and secondary education, and such institutions
themselves often grow into, or are part of, tertiary educa-
tional institutions themselves. Today, educational insti-
tutions initiated by Catholic missionary religious orders
and other Christian groups outside of Europe now solidly
outnumber those in countries once defined as the heart of
"Christendom." Among Catholic religious orders, the
Jesuits in particular are celebrated for their schools and
their pedagogical system (Traub 2008); this reality of
Christian extension around the world is as true for works
of the Society of Jesus as it is for other groups. Christian
mission is no longer a sending of rnissionaries from
Christendom to elsewhere. Rather, mission is a constant
and central aspect of Christianity in all places everywhere
(Bevans 2010; Bevans and Schroeder 2004).
Within the global profile of Christian educational
institutions today, Catholic institutions make up the larg-
est component, at a level significantly higher than that of
Catholics within the Christian population as a whole,
which is about 50 percent (Johnson and Ross 2009, 71).
This institutional impetus is a reflection of Catholic Chris-
tianity's ecclesial self-understanding, together with a va-
riety of historical and structural factors. Of the estimated
more than 300,000 Christian schools in the world (Kurian
and Lamport 2012, 2), approximately200,000 are Catholic.
In 2010, the Catholic Church reported a total of 206,742
nontertiary schools and had such institutions within all but
some 20 countries of the world. These include 43,351
secondary institutions with 17.8 million students, 92,847
elementary schools with 31.2 million students, and 70,544
kindergartens with 6.5 million students (ASE 2010, 290).
The 10 countries with the largest numbers of Catholic sec-
ondary schools are India (6,236), Congo (4,299), France
(2,555), Argentina (1,781), Spain (1,807), Mexico (l,735),
Colombia (1,561), Kenya (1,429), Brazil (1,350), and the
United States (l,229) (ASE 2010, 281-289). The Chris-
tian group with the next highest number of schools is the
Seventh-day Adventists, which has 5,813 primary schools
and 1,823 secondary schools and a total of 1 million
primary school students and 494,000 secondary school
 1444 Lead-in Introductions
students (General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists
2012). Taken together, however, the number of schools
affiliated with evangelical Christianity around the world
is much larger than that of any single denomination. The
Colorado Springs-based Association of Christian Schools
International, for example, counts a total of 23,000 mem-
ber schools in approximately 100 countries. which enroll
5.5 million students from the preschool to the secondary
school level (ACSI 2012). Beyond these figures, there
are many more Christian schools not counted by these
groups, representing a wide variety of denominations and
traditions across the spectrum of Christianity. In ad-
dition, some Christian-majority countries fund religious
education in public schools, making the overall size of
the "Christian school" sector a matter of definition as
well as of counting.
Tertiary Educational Institutions around the World
The global profile of Christian higher education is exten-
sive. There are about 1,861 Catholic institutions of higher
education worldwide. About 14 percent of these, 262, are
in the United States (ACCU 2013; Snyder, Dillow, and
Hoffman 2007), which accounts for about 6 percent of
the world's Catholic population (Froehle and Gautier
2003). The next biggest number by confessional affilia-
tion is Methodist institutions, which comprise some 700
colleges and universities around the world, of which 100
are in the United States (GBHEM 2013). Adventists
count 111 tertiary institutions globally (General Confer-
ence of Seventh-day Adventists 2012). Among evan-
gelicals in general, the Council for Christian Colleges
and Universities, a Washington-based organization that
serves evangelical institutions, reports 175 institutions in
21 countries, 119 of which are in the United States
(CCCU 2013). In addition, the Association of Christian
Schools International reports 120 member colleges and
universities (ACSI 2012), and the Grand Rapids-based
International Association for the Promotion of Christian
Higher Education reports 73 institutions of higher educa-
tion (IAPCHE 2013). These numbers alone reach 2,865,
and the sector is a growing one (Joeckel and Chesnes
2011; Carpenter, Glanzer, and Lantinga 2014). Given the
difficulty of counting institutions of higher education that
may or may not be affiliated with one group or another,
as well as controversies over what counts as a Christian
university, the widest possible estimate likely exceeds
3,000 Christian colleges and universities worldwide.
Such figures should be taken with caution, however,
since these institutions vary so widely in size and
complexity, as well as in programs and curricula
(Lantinga 2008). Nonetheless, this broad global profile is
suggestive of the overall global presence of Christian col-
leges and universities.
Seminaries around the World
Seminaries are a special case of Christian education. As
primarily specialized schools of theological education
and ministerial formation, they vary by the sponsoring
Christian traditions from which they originate. Tradi-
tions that require seminary education for ordination
naturally place particular importance on them, in
distinction to others, particularly evangelicals and
Pentecostals, who do not require a seminary degree for
ordination. Many of these traditions, however,
emphasize biblical literacy among members and
especially those who serve congregations, resulting in
the creation and support of the approximately 200
Bible institutes in the United States (ABHE 2011), and
of course many more around the world, but the number
cannot be known with certainty. Bible institutes are
analogous in some ways to seminaries in that they train
ministerial leadership and sometimes even function as
graduate schools of theology. In other ways, however,
they are analogous to institutions of higher education in
general, particularly the initial years of study) and at
times even to nontertiary institutions.
Globally, various organizations serve as accrediting
agencies, or the functional equivalent, for seminaries,
producing lists of affiliated institutions seen as provid-
ing acceptable levels of theological education. Thus,
Catholic seminaries are listed by the Congregation for
Christian Education of the Holy See, the central admin-
istration of the Catholic Church based in the Vatican
City State. In general, seminaries of whatever Christian
tradition are listed by one or more such organization,
whether based within a single church or denomination
or at a parachurch level.
As of 2010, a total of 1,184 Catholic institutions
were counted worldwide for priestly formation at the
level of philosophical or theological study (ASE 2010,
261). Within North America, accreditation by the
Association of Theological Schools serves to recognize
institutions of theological education. The ATS has a
total of 273 member schools, all graduate schools of
theology, in the United States and Canada. Of these,
177 are entirely independent of any larger educational
institution, while the rest exist within a larger
university (ATS 2013). Members include 55 Catholic
institutions, but do not include most members of the
Association for Biblical Higher Education. There is no
equivalent of the ATS outside of North America, but
the International Council for Evangelical Theological
Education, which includes the Association for Biblical
Higher Education and is part of the World Evangelical
Alliance, counts 872 evangelical theological schools in
113 countries (ICETE 2012). Taken together, and
without double counting, the institutions named
number 2,274. When European Protestant and
Orthodox faculties and schools of theology are
considered, together
 Lead-in Introductions
with other uncounted institutions around the world, the
total figure likely exceeds 2,500.
The cities with the largest numbers of seminaries or
schools of theology are Chicago, with 11 members of the
Association of Chicago Theological Schools (ACTS), all
accredited by ATS, and an additional instance of an ordi-
nation-type degree (MDiv) offered by a 12th institution
(Loyola University Chicago's Institute of Pastoral Stud-
ies), in turn sponsored by 10 different Christian tradi-
tions; Boston, with 10 members of an association similar
to ACTS, the Boston Theological Institute (two of which
are different entities within Boston College); Berkeley,
with 9 member institutions of the Graduate Theological
Union, sponsored by 7 different Christian traditions; and
Rome, with 10 pontifical universities that grant theology
degrees for ordination in the Catholic Church. In various
other cities, such as Nairobi in East Africa, Manila in East
Asia, and Delhi in South Asia, similar regional
concentrations for theological study and ministerial
formation are emerging for a variety of Christian
traditions.
Ultimately, such a statistical profile as this is limited,
not definitive. Institutions are not entirely comparable,
and some dwarf many others. Nonetheless, such a profile
can provide a sense of the global distribution of Christian
seminaries and theological education in general.
Origins of Contemporary Christian
Educational Institutions
In the first centuries of Christianity, bishop-theologians
such as Athanasius, Augustine, and Gregory the Great
explicated the truths of the Christian faith in light of
practical realities, including widespread heterodox
beliefs (such as Arianism), new practices (such as infant
baptism), and changing cultural contexts (such as shifting
groups within and beyond the old Roman Empire). Of
course Christianity is a world movement, always found
beyond the confines of the Mediterranean world (Irvin
and Sunquist 2001). By the 11th century, however, the
lands of the old western Roman Empire and its northern
frontiers were increasingly isolated following the rise of
Islam and the 1054 schism with the eastern Roman Em-
pire. This reality, together with the emergence of the uni-
versities during the Middle Ages (Haskins 1957;Pedersen
2009), gave way to new codification and systematization,
replacing the relative diversity of practice and theology
that had characterized the patristic period and later mo-
nastic and cathedral schools (Jaeger 2000).
Theological thought and sacramental praxis became
increasingly aligned into a more precise whole fabric
through the twin systematizing tendencies of scholastic
reason and canon law. The new consensus1 with its nota-
bly systematic, speculative emphasis, was not
universally accepted, however, and an alternative
orthodoxy grew,
1445
though not as strongly as the emerging universities, in
part due to the privileges they and their faculty enjoyed
(Kivinen and Poilkus 2006). The great Franciscan
thinkers Alexander of Hales, Bonaventure, and Duns
Scotus, through whom some of the reformers'
theological stances may be traced, countered the
analytic approach of the Dominicans by emphasizing
the practical side of theology. This tradition understood
the practice of awakening fear and love of God as the
highest good, as opposed to the intellectual encounter
with the knowledge of God (Pannenberg 1976, 213).
Rooted in the tradition of theology as sapientia,
wisdom, they sought to hold in union the theoretical and
practical sides of life striving toward God, the ultimate
good. As the growth of formal models in the intellectual
life of the universities continued, however, increasing
separation occurred between sapiential approaches
based in practice and systematization of theological
knowledge, with the latter, more deductive and abstract,
approach prevailing in the academy.
The seminary movement that began in the 16th cen-
tury marked a turn from the practice of systemization to
the systematization of practice (Faus 2012, 136-139;
Farley 2001, 49). The new ways of forming ecclesial
leaders in the newly Protestant lands of northern Europe,
together with changes in Catholicism related to the
Council of Trent (1545-1563), stimulated the
development of curricula and manuals ("handbooks")
for seminary education. Theology, which had been
configured by its university context in the medieval
period, now became focused on the seminary, and
"theological education" came to take on a new meaning
over time. "Pastoral theology" emerged as a field in the
work of Peter Canisius, SJ (1521-1597), who himself
contributed to the catechisms and manuals of the
immediate post-Tridentine period (Heitink 1999, 98).
Among Catholics, pastoral practice was learned through
the art of casuistry, the case-based application of church
norms (canon law), designed to help determine the
acceptable pastoral decision, typically in cases having to
do with confession and pastoral care more generally
(Duffy 2010). Among Protestants, the beginnings of the
development of the fourfold curriculum emphasizing the
Bible, systematics, church history, and practical
theology can also be traced to this period {Farley 2001,
49). The manuals, compendia, and catechisms that
emerged came through the early modern standardization
made possible by the printing press and improved
communications. The Ratio Studiorum of the Society of
Jesus, issued in its definitive final form in 1599,
represented the same trends, in this case for the
humanist educational curriculum offered in Jesuit
schools around the world then and over the next four
centuries (Traub 2008).
The seminary itself was an embodiment of the "cleri-
cal paradigm" (Farley 2001, 87). That is, within both
 1446 Lead-in Introductions

Protestantism and Catholicism, theology was tied to the universities at the time of the Second Vatican Council
ordained and those to be ordained, making theological gave their students a strong dose of Catholic intellectual
knowledge their possession. The cleric thus became a life and often the equivalent of a second major in
professional who linked theological theory to practice. philosophy, the discipline seen as required for advanced
Such a one-way exchange effectively took theological study in theology. Nonetheless, few Catholic colleges
1neaning out of practice itself, continuing the diminish and universities courses in theology beyond a basic
ment of the practical (Farley 2001, 163). The focus on the level. As theology the Catholic context moved away
pastoral and practical that now emerged for the first time from the "clerical paradigm," however, it took root
as a field of study thus was an application of theory from throughout Catholic higher education, away from the
within the clerical paradigm. A professorship in pastoral seminaries, and undergraduate and graduate programs
theology was first established for seminarians at Vienna proliferated for those not seeking ordination. This is
in 1774, well before similar moves within Protestantism different from developments in other Christian
in the early 19th century (Heitink 1999, 98). Though the traditions, where theological scholarship continued to
models of theological education in Protestant institutions be based within institutions preparing candidates for
in the United States borrowed from British practices in ordained ministry. In colleges and universities within
the early days, by the late 19th century, the German these traditions, the tendency was toward required Bible
model had become as dominant in seminaries as it was in and religion courses becoming religious studies co
university life (Ringenberg 2006; Farley 2001). Thus, before 1964 the organization today known as
In the French context, 17th-century seminary life was American Academy of Religion (AAR) was called the
renewed by the Society of St. Sulpice and the French National Association of Biblical Instructors (NABI).
School of Spirituality, which brought a common vision to The single greatest expansion in theological
the formation of the ordained. It was transferred to education within the Catholic world took hold in
Catholic seminary life in the United States by priest universities summer programs in the two decades after
emigres during the era of the French Revolution (White the Second Vatican Council, within lay ministry and
1990) and, over the following generations, by the Irish academic formation rather than seminaries for
clergy in particular, as they especially tended to share this priesthood formation. Initially geared primarily toward
spirituality. By the 19th century, the struggle with the tee· women religious, these university programs expanded
tonic shifts of the French Revolution and the emergence even while diocesan programs in ministry training
of capitalism led to strenuous and mostly successful ef· grew, often themselves in connection with such
forts to build a separate Catholic intellectual and social university-based resources (Froehle and Gautier 2000).
universe as a means of external resistance and internal Some Catholic universities around the world began
rebuilding. As a result, Catholic educational institutions, graduate-level ministry education for religious and
including seminaries and higher education more broadly, laypersons after the Second Vatican Council but
began to expand rapidly around the world. The Jesuits generally a new, separate school or department, with a
were restored in 1814 after having been universally sup· separate mission outside a university-based department
pressed in 1773; the Dominicans were reborn from the of theology, was charged with ministry training. The
ashes of the French Revolution under Lacordaire; and locus of Catholic theology in the United States thus
countless apostolic communities of women religious were fundamentally pivoted from the seminary to the
founded (Hostie 1983), Catholic intellectual life became university, and to some degree from the abstract to the
marked by a common intellectual agenda when in 1879 practical. Fordham University's Graduate School of
Leo XIII named Thomism the official philosophical and Religion and Religious Education (GSRRE) was
theological system of the Catholic Church. Neoscho- founded in 1968, following on Loyola University
lasticism thus became the reigning form of Catholic intel- Chicago's Institute Pastoral Studies (IPS), founded in
lectual understanding through the Second Vatican Coun- 1964. Boston College' Institute for Religious Education
cil (1963-1965). These developments together nourished a and Pastoral Mini (IREPM) was founded in 1971 and
creative energy that renewed Catholic practice decades today is within its School of Theology and Ministry, a
before the Council, particularly in the liturgical move- former stand-alone school of theology until 2008. The
ment and catechetical renewal, which became seen as the IREPM developed its singular and distinctive
'pastoral mission' of the whole church rather than mere interdisciplinary doctoral program in religious
schooling for children (Hofinger, 1957). education, critical for any consideration of
developments in Christian religious education, under
the leadership of Tom Groome. Boston College's
Such ferment decisively shaped developments in Department of Theology remains administratively
Catholic university life and in theological education. separate from its School of Theology and Ministry.
Within the United States, the more than 250 Catholic Four other institutes were founded at major Catholic
colleges and universities, of which were outside of their
departments of theology.
 Lead-in Introductions
or religious studies: Loyola New Orleans's Loyola Insti-
tute for Ministry (LIM). founded in 1968 at Notre Dame
seminary in New Orleans; Loyola University Maryland's
Department of Pastoral Counseling and Spiritual Care,
founded in 1976; and Seattle University's School of The-
ology and Ministry (STM). founded in 1969. In addition,
the University of Santa Clara has both the Jesuit School
of Theology in Berkeley. which joined the university in
2009 after having been a stand-alone school, and a long-
existing master’s program in pastoral ministries, which
had always been a program within the university itself.
During this same time. events in northern Europe and
then the United States, the largest Protestant country in
the world, shaped developments in global Protestant
theological education as it took on global dimensions.
Changes within orthodox theology and theological
education, as well as in other branches of the world
Christian movement, began to intersect with these
various developments as relationships and networks
increased in the wake of globalization and other events.
Even as seminaries developed increasing theological
sophistication and specialization, they continued to
reflect the wider denominational context and the
modernist-fundamentalist debates of the mid-20th
century. Over time, even as the religious divisions settled
down into a mainline and evangelical split. a greater
openness emerged across denominational lines. Thus
seminaries and schools of theology frequently enroll
students of a wide variety of ecclesial traditions, and this
new collaboration reflects the increasing dominance of
the mainline-evangelical split over the more historical,
denominational ones. Similarly, the Protestant-Catholic
divide became increasingly less salient, particularly for
those seeking theological study or lay ministry. Much of
this resulted from going beyond the clerical paradigm as
theological studies continued to open to those who are
not ordained or pursuing ordination.
These developments can be seen in the continued rise
of "practical theology," which is also the disciplinary
home of the field of religious education. Within Catholic
circles in the United States, the 29 member institutions
of the Association of Graduate Programs in Ministry
(AGP!M 2013) have made the notion of "practical theol-
ogy” central to their self-understanding and collective
definition. These approaches build on the see-judge-act
approach from Catholic social and pastoral engage-
ment, typically by the religious orders (Whitehead and
Whitehead 1995; Holland and Henriot 1983), but also in
increasing dialogue and sharing across the Christian
tradition. In all these developments. from the
preuniversity roots of Christian educational life through
the increasing use of Internet-based distance learning
delivery systems, institutional context remains critical.
Numerous specialized programs in these institutions and
others, seminary
1447
and university alike, have emerged over the past two
generations for those wishing to study or serve as profes-
sional Christian religious educators as well as to work
within Christian education more generally. Today the
conversation has returned to core practices, including the
ever-critical practice of teaching, within a Christian
educational institution (Smith and Smith 2011).
Challenges and Prospects
Christian-founded institutions face issues of identity and
perennial resource limitations. The focus on the
Christian mission is a challenging one: far more univer-
sities in the world began as Christian institutions than
are currently Christian in mission. Self-secularization is
a far bigger threat than external secularization resulting
from government takeover. The tendency toward
isomorphism-institutions of like kind becoming more
alike over time, in this case universities of different
kinds and sponsorship becoming ever more similar to
each other, with Christian universities slowly giving up
their distinctiveness- is ever-present (Foster 1921).
Funding challenges loom large, as the bulk of these
institutions are tuition-dependent. Expenses are much
harder to control in smaller institutions, so the pressure
for seminaries and schools of theology to become part of
larger Christian universities will continue. Growth in
Christianity throughout the global South means that the
demographic dividend of increasing students ready for
university studies as well as seminary studies suggests
strong growth prospects over the coming decades. At the
same time, this points to considerable allocation
problems. Simply put, there are many more universities
and seminaries where they are less needed, relative to
demand. and many fewer where they are needed. To
some degree, Internet-based distance learning allows for
a better response to the allocation problem than in the
past. but it also reveals a problematically high
investment in brick and mortar, as well as personnel, in
various contexts.
The challenges that Christian universities faced under
modernism-where religion had no place except behind a
private, compartmentalized wall away from "authentic"
intellectual life-is intellectually no longer sustainable as
a result of globalization trends and powerful postmodern
critiques. This opens new opportunities for Christianity,
Christian intellectuals, and Christian educational insti-
tutions (Eaton 2011). However, these forces live on in
structures and actors that assume the absence of a
serious engagement with faith in intellectual and
academic life. One can no longer justify the absence of
faith any more than the presence of faith, and serious
acknowledgment of faith and religion has clearly been
increasing (Marsden 1994), but it will take time for
Christian universities and intellectuals to see themselves
as full citizens of academe
 1448
rather than somehow special pleaders or second-class
citizens. This is not simply the case within Christian insti-
tutions, but in the intellectual support and networking of
those in Christian institutions with Christians throughout
university and academic life (Dockery 2012; Hart 2002).
Today, students and faculty alike bring spiritual questions
to campus without any sense that they are illegitimate. The
outlines of the relationship between religion and higher
education are thus quite different (Jacobsen 2008), though
many continue to operate as if this is not this case.
Christian universities will always grapple with ques-
tions of identity, but it has only become dear recently that
there is a real diversity of ways in which they do so. Their
strategy-whether intentional or not-typically depends on a
mix of their internal institutional trajectory and external
contextual pressures, sometimes predictable by their
Christian tradition, but usually determined by a complex
mi.x of factors (Gleason 1995; Marsden 1994; Burtchaell
1998). These distinct forms of embodying the Christian
mission include an orthodox (Benne 2001) or purist
(Simon 2003) or comprehensive (Kennedy and Simon
2005, 16-19) or immersion (Piderit and Morey 2006)
approach, meaning that all within the institution,
particularly faculty and leadership, share the same reli-
gious commitment, often to the point of committing to a
common statement of faith1 immersing those within the
institution within that tradition. This is by no means the
only such approach, however, to Christian identity of the
institution. For many, a critical-mass (Benne 2001) or so-
called persuasion type institution (Piderit and Morey
2006) will be the most appropriate, since it positions the
institution clearly as Christian, though sometimes
specifically in denominational terms and sometimes as a
kind of Christianity, such as evangelical or ecumenical,
and so forth (Kennedy and Simon 2005, 16-19). Thus
some distinguished, for example, between a comprehen-
sive denominational institution and a comprehensive
evangelical institution or comprehensive ecumenical in-
stitution. In this formulation) others are welcomed, either
within a broad band that will assure that a critical mass is
present, or in such a way that others might be persuaded to
be accompany the tradition to which the institution
commits itse1£
Beyond these forms are pluralistic approaches, both of
which embrace diversity, but fundamentally in terms of
the surrounding culture. The intentionally pluralistic
(Benne 2001) grounds an embrace of pluralism in the
mission as a strategic expression of the Christian
understanding of the institution, providing space for
specific expression of the Christian heart of the institution
in particular, cohort (Piderit and Morey 2006) expressions
where there can be a kind of small-scale expression of
critical mass. Finally, the accidentally pluralist (Benne
2001) is an expression of what happens when the
Christian educational institution
Lead in Introductions
is pulled away from its commitments by overriding external
pressures poorly understood or otherwise ignored by
institutional leadership, resulting in a significant deterioration
of the Christian mission. This is often, but not always the
result of the institution's location or core market being far
from those who live the tradition. In other words, it is a kind
of model for an institution in a religious diaspora (Piderit and
Morey 2006), though the actual situation may be far more
complicated.
The most critical conversation today, however, might be not
within the institution itself but within theology and theological
education. It is from within theology and the nature of
theological education-that is, understanding the meaning of
the intellectual engagement with scripture, Christian tradition,
and practice-that the intellectual disciplines in which the
identity of the Christian educational institution is rooted
(Piderit and Morey 2012). At the heart of this question is a
critical claim: the Christian identity of the institution rests not
so much in that theology is taught, but in that the institution
and its leaders are committed to an understanding of theology
as saving and sapiential (Hughes 2011, 290; Farley 2001). The
implication is clear: institutional identity is not merely
structural but personal, and must be constantly nourished.
Institutions can move across categories- or a complex mix of
categories-but this, too, depends on personal commitments no
less than structural strategies and contexts (Glanzer, Beaty,
and Lyon 2005).
A Final Word
The entries to follow in this section of the Encyclopedia
include non-tertiary forms of Christian education, including
distinguished Christian secondary schools and forms of
congregational based religious education such as Sunday
school Primarily, however, the reader will encounter
institutions of higher learning. This includes universities and
stand-alone seminaries and schools of theology, some with
ancient roots and others with innovative programs providing
for distance learning in theological education, frequently but
not always internet-based. In addition, umbrella groups
supporting and sometimes accrediting Christian higher
education, particularly theological education, are also listed.
In all of the entries in this encyclopedia on institutions of
higher learning, a common theme may be seen. Christian
education depends not only on a sound institutional-structural
basis, but also a missional-theological understanding. At
whatever level of study and in whatever context, these two
dimensions continue to shape Christian education.
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 1450 Lead-in Introductions

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Kivinen, 0., and P. Poikus. 2006. "Privileges of Universitas Association of Christian Theological Education in Africa
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 Lead-in Introductions
Oral Roberts University
Orthodox Christian Education Commission
Overseas Council International
Pontifical Universities
Portuguese Bible Institute
Princeton Theological Seminary
Regent University
Roxbury Latin School, The
South Asia Institute of Advanced Christian Studies
South Pacific Association of Evangelical Colleges
southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary
St Sergius Orthodox Institute, Paris
St. Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary
Stony Brook School
Theological Education by Extension College in Southern
Africa
Training Christians for Ministry Institute International
Uganda Christian University
Ukrainian Catholic University
Ukrainian Evangelical Theological Seminary
United Kingdom Theological Colleges, Courses, and
Seminaries
United Theological College of the West Indies
University of Cambridge
University of Divinity (Melbourne, Australia)
University of Notre Dame
Virginia Theological Seminary
Westminster Theological Seminary
Wheaton College (Illinois)
Williams College
World Council of Churches
World Sunday School Movement
Yale University
CHRISTIAN INTELLECTUAL TRADITIONS
Harry Lee Poe
Faith in Jesus Christ has produced several major schools of
thought over the last 2,000 years that might be called intel-
lectual traditions. An intellectual tradition goes beyond
the parameters of a worship tradition or an ecclesiological
tradition, moving beyond the church to all spheres of life.
A Christian intellectual tradition may explore the implica-
tions of faith in Jesus Christ for every area of human expe-
rience and for every realm of knowledge.'
In many ways, the Christian intellectual life can be
seen springing from Jesus Christ Himself in the Gospels.
1. I have explored this idea at great length in several other places,
See The Gospel and Its Meaning (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1996},
Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press,
2001), Christianity i'n the Academy (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2004), and
God rmd the Cosmos (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012).
1451
In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus did not teach in the
established tradition of the rabbis. He dared to break with
the tradition of biblical interpretation to examine the
scriptures directly without reliance on the traditional way
of reading scripture.
New Testament scholars often speak of a Johannine
school, a Petrine school, and a Pauline school within
the early church to suggest the development of different
theologies among the apostles. This differentiation can
be misleading to those for whom it suggests different
beliefs about Jesus Christ. The apostles addressed major
questions that arose among the widely diverse c,tltures
within the Roman Empire. Different peoples had dif-
ferent questions, and the apostles demonstrate how the
Gospel of Jesus Christ addresses a wide-ranging mass
of questions and issues in different cultures. We see this
growth of intellectual life in how Paul drew out the con-
nection between the Gospel and the poetic tradition of
the Greeks in his sermon on Mars Hill (Acts 17). We see
it in the way John used the Stoic philosophical concept
of the logos in explaining the relationship between the
Father and the Son (John 1). We may also see it in how
the author of Hebrews uses language similar to that of the
Platonists in comparing the earthly tabernacle with the
perfect heavenly tabernacle (Hebrews 9).
What Christians Believe
Regardless of their different styles, different issues ad-
dressed, and different metaphors for explaining the
implications of their faith, the apostolic writings of the
New Testament all share a common faith that appears
in paragraph after paragraph of their writings. They
called this common faith the Gospel, or the good news.
Twentieth-century New Testament scholarship devoted
a great deal of energy to exploring the extent to which
the apostles shared a common keygma, or message that
they proclaimed about Jesus.' While they did not have a
stock formula for how they talked about Jesus, they fol-
lowed the Hebrew tradition of saying important things in
as many and varied ways as possible. The good news they
believed, however, involved several recurring elements,
around which their ideas and teachings centered.
The Creator God
The foundational belief upon which all other aspects of the
Christian faith rests is their faith in a Creator God. In con-
trast to all the other religions of the ancient world in which
2. C. H. Dodd began the custon1 of referring to the Gospel message as
the kerygrna, which is the koilie Greek word for the content of proclama-
tion. Dodd began the 20th-century debate over the message of the Gospel
in his book The Apostolic Preaching and Its Developments, in which he
argued for a rigid distinction between the message the apostles preached
in their evangelism and the content of their teaching for the church. This
essay argues that the apostolic teaci1Jng was always balle<l on the message
of the Gospel.
 Appendix C: Entries Listed by Author 1557

Free Exercise Clause Kindergarten

Instrumentalism and John Dewey Teacher Character
Fred P. Edie Douglas Estes
Baptism, Theology of Didache as Early Christian Education Strategy
Imagination as Christian Practice Greek
Narrative, Philosophical Foundations of Wisdom
Sacraments Gina Shaner Farcas
Martin H. Eitzen Human Trafficking (authored with Benjamin Espinoza)
Paraguay and Christian Education Silvia Regina Alves Fernandes
Kevin P. Emmert Brazil and Christian Education
Baxter, Richard Allan Fisher
Conscience Publishing, Christian Academic
Doubt James Flynn
Evangelism Early Church, Christian Education in the
Luther's Small Catechism Printing Press
Westminster Shorter Catechism Theological Education, Athens versus Berlin Model of
Leona M. English Theological Education, Berlin as a Model of
Curriculum Planning, Jane Vella and Benjamin K. Forrest
Experiential Learning Biblical Models ofEducation (authored with Michael Mitchell)
Ralph E. Enlow Jr. Christian Christian Education, Technology in (authored
Association for Biblical Higher Education with Randall Dunn)
Bible College Movement, Impetus for the Liberty University (authored with David W. Hirschman)
Columbia International University Online Education, Instructional Design for (authored with
Global Associates for Transformational Education Kenneth Law)
Gerald C. Ericson Paideia (authored with Michael Mitchell)
Europe and Christian Education Praxis (authored with Michael Mitchell)
Benjamin D. Espinoza Charles Foster
Asbury Theological Seminary Christian Education Movement
Bugenhagen, Johannes Church Education Movement
Calvin College Packard, Frederick
Chrysostom, John Religious Education Movement
Cyril of Alexandria Sunday School Movement
Fruit of the Spirit (authored with John Adams) Stavros S. Fotiou
Hendricks, Howard Cyprus and Christian Education
Human Trafficking (authored with Gina Shaner Farcas) Maximus the Confessor
Justin Martyr Mark A. Fowler
Little, Sara Field Experiences/Practicums
Shema (authored with J. Chase Franklin) Mentoring into Ministry
Zwingli, Huldreich Rachel A. Fox
Octavio Javier Esqueda Prayer as Christian Practice
Cuba and Christian Education Leslie J. Francis
Mexico and Christian Education Attitudes toward Christianity
James Estep Empirical Theology and Christian Education
Christian Education, Greek Precursors to and Influences on Psychological Type Theory and Christian Education
Christian Education, Roman Precursors to and Influences on J. Chase Franklin
Jewish Model of Education Shema (authored with Benjamin Espinoza)
Neo Thomism Bryan T. Froehle
Oser, Fritz K. Catholic Reformation, Educational Principles of the
Philosophy, Educational Georgetown University
Pietists, The Institutional, University, and Seminary Profiles-Lead-in
Ratio Studiorum Introduction
Teaching in Acts Pastoral Institutes (Catholic Universities)
Thomism Sociology, Christian Contributions to
l<aren L. Estep Venezuela and Christla11 Education
Billy Graham Center and Library Mary Froehle
Gaebelein, Frank Consciousness