The U.S.

Role in a
Changing World 9
Part II

Part II: A Changing World

T he end of the Cold War left many experts

arguing about what the future of U.S.
foreign policy would be like. Confrontation
Part II Definitions
State—A country with a government
with the Soviet Union would be replaced that is recognized by its citizens and other
by something—but what? Some hoped for a countries and has sole control over its ter-
“new world order” of cooperation to solve the ritory and military power.
world’s problems. Others wondered if ideo- State sovereignty—The right of a
logical conflict had ended and if all the world country to make its own decisions free
would adopt the Western ideas of democ- from outside interference.
racy and free-market capitalism. Still others
Western—Refers generally to the
speculated that the principal disagreements
countries that share the political ide-
in international politics would be a “clash of
ologies of Europe and the United States.
civilizations” between Western cultures and
These countries share a support of democ-
others with different values and beliefs. What
racy, human rights, the rule of law, and
has become clear to many is that the world
open economies.
is changing quickly through a process called
globalization.
other cultures, and could even lead to conflict
What is globalization? with other societies.
Globalization is a term that refers to the In the past half-century, countries have
economic, political, cultural, and social trans- faced the challenge of navigating through a
formations occurring throughout the world. It rapidly changing world. Today, the United
reflects the increased interdependence of vari- States must reflect upon its leadership role—
ous countries and people today. The migration past, present, and future. The principles of
of large numbers of people and the growth democracy and free-market capitalism pro-
of the internet have helped spread ideas and moted by the United States have never been so
establish connections among cultures that did widely accepted.
not exist before. Many periods in history have
Yet, the dominance of the United States
seen globalization of varying forms. Globaliza-
has another side. The United States’ combina-
tion today distinguishes itself by its speed and
tion of economic, military, and technological
magnitude. Though the seeds of transforma-
strength has put it far ahead of potential rivals.
tion were sown long before, the end of World
As the most powerful country in the world,
War II marked the beginning of a new global
the United States maintains a military pres-
era. The waves of globalization since 1945
ence around the world. The United States
have fundamentally changed the face of the
has more than nine hundred military bases in
international system and dramatically altered
forty-six countries, not including Afghanistan.
the lives of people around the world.
U.S. dominance comes from more than
just military might. U.S. companies and ideas
What has been the role of the
have expanded throughout the world and have
United States in globalization?
influenced the cultures of other countries.
What may be most striking about global-
ization today is that the process is so strongly
influenced by one country—the United States.
While some praise globalization with a U.S.
face, others are concerned that U.S. dominance
“ On top of it all, globalization has a
distinctly American face: It wears
Mickey Mouse ears, it eats Big
is eroding the unique and positive qualities of Macs, it drinks Coke or Pepsi and

WWW.CHOICES.EDU ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY ■ THE CHOICES PROGRAM
10 The U.S. Role in a
Changing World
Part II

it does its computing on an IBM or many companies located all around the world.
Apple laptop, using Windows...and Additionally, an expanding international
a network link from Cisco Systems. commitment to free trade among countries has
Therefore, while the distinction internationalized the market for goods; people
between what is globalization and have access to goods that were previously out
what is Americanization may be of reach. Finally, in addition to the exchange
clear to most Americans, it is not of goods across borders, global financial mar-
to many others around the world. kets move billions of dollars daily with the
In most societies people cannot click of a mouse and have profound effects on
distinguish anymore the global economy.
between American
power, What has been the effect of
American economic globalization?
exports, Economic globalization has had mixed and
American unequal effects. Some countries have benefit-
cultural ted because they have the resources to expand
exports production worldwide and to create goods
and that are in demand internationally. Individu-
plain vanilla als and small businesses have access to much
globalization. They larger markets and to buyers they did not have
are now all wrapped access to before. On the other hand, some
into one.” countries and individuals have been hurt
—Author Thomas L.
because they are not able to compete with
Friedman, 1999
the strongest producers interna-
tionally.
While U.S. culture and prod-
ucts are often embraced, some fear The United States is an
that the cultures and traditions of economic giant. The U.S.
their countries will be overwhelmed dollar serves as the most im-
by the values, popular culture, tech- portant currency
nologies, and lifestyles of the United States. in international
Globalization has led to changing cultural, trade and is
political, and economic landscapes for many widely used by
people around the world. foreign govern-
ments. The
The four sections that follow—economy,
United States
health and environment, international rela-
is one of the
tions, and culture and values—illustrate how
world’s lead-
some aspects of globalization play out in the
ing exporters
world today. Each section also looks at the
and main-
U.S. role in these areas and asks you to con-
tains a lead
sider how the United States should act in the Best of Latin America.
Reprinted with permission. in many of the
future.
most promis-
ing industries,
Economy including biotechnology, space technology,
With globalization, the world economy and computer software. U.S. corporations have
has grown increasingly interdependent. The sought a competitive edge by taking advantage
production of goods now takes place on a of cheap labor in Latin America and Asia.
global scale. For example, a good that used to Meanwhile, Japanese and Western European
be produced by a single company within one companies have invested in the United States,
country may now be produced by people from hoping to tap into U.S. markets.

THE CHOICES PROGRAM ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY ■ WWW.CHOICES.EDU

How has the United States responded
to economic globalization?
At the dawn of the twenty-first century,
the U.S. economy was cruising in high gear.
The United States was benefiting from having
played a central role in building the global
economy. The gross domestic product (GDP,
or the value of goods and services a country
produces) was growing at an impressive rate.
“
At the same time, the East Asian economic
crisis in the late 1990s and the international
economic downturn that began in 2008 unset-
tled the lives of millions of U.S. citizens and
other people around the world, drawing atten-
tion to the insecurities of the global economy.
Globalization has swept away the employ-
ment security of the past. Businesses large and
small must learn to compete on a global scale
or be left by the wayside. Economists have
noted that the United States has been more
successful than much of the world in adjusting
to these demands. The United States has, for
the most part, turned the forces of change to its
advantage.
After over one hundred forty years as the
world’s largest economy, the United States was
recently surpassed by China in GDP. But the
U.S. economy remains enormous, and U.S.
policy makers continue to look for ways to
decrease unemployment levels and to stimu-
late growth.
How have U.S. leaders used trade
policy to stimulate economic growth?
One way U.S. leaders have attempted
to stimulate economic growth is by actively
promoting new trade agreements. (Trade agree-
ments are designed to increase trade between
specific countries.) Some of their most notable
achievements have been the World Trade
Organization (WTO) and the North American
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The scope of
the WTO is worldwide, with a membership
of 160 countries, while NAFTA is limited to
the United States, Mexico, and Canada. The
United States has also established Free Trade
Agreements (FTAs) with eighteen other coun-
tries. Negotiations are currently underway
for additional bilateral agreements (agree-
WWW.CHOICES.EDU ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY
The U.S. Role in a
Changing World 11
Part II
ments between two countries) as well as major
regional trade agreements. For example, the
United States is pursuing a partnership with
the European Union (EU), which includes
twenty-eight countries. It is also negotiat-
ing the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) with
Australia, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia,
Singapore, Vietnam, and other Pacific nations.
We have to make sure America writes
the rules of the global economy.
And we should do it today, while
our economy is in the position of
global strength. Because if we don’t
write the rules for trade around the
world—guess what—China will.
And they’ll write those rules in a
way that gives Chinese workers
and Chinese businesses the upper
hand, and locks American-made
goods out.... We’re not going to be
able to isolate ourselves from world
markets. We got to be in there and
compete.... When the rules are fair,
we win every time. So this is why I’m
such a strong supporter of new trade
agreements.”
—President Barack Obama, May 8, 2015
What do supporters of free trade say?
Free trade encourages the participation
of more and more countries in the global
economy. Supporters of more open trade argue
that everyone has the potential to be better
off when they can more freely buy and sell
goods with other countries. New industries
geared toward exports spring up in develop-
ing countries, while consumers benefit from
a wider selection of less expensive products.
Some economists argue that increased global
trade has helped many countries grow much
faster than they would have otherwise, and
that free trade has helped decrease poverty
and inequality. Others contend that countries
with free trade systems support the growth
of democracy, and believe that international
trade decreases the likelihood of war between
countries that have economic relationships
with each other.
■ THE CHOICES PROGRAM
12 The U.S. Role in a
Changing World
Part II

What do critics of free trade say?

While most critics do not oppose trade in Positions on Free Trade Policies
general, many warn that U.S. trade agreements
favor big business and ignore the interests of Supporters Say: Critics Say:
workers. Some people want the United States
People have more Income disparity
to withdraw from the WTO and other trade
access to cheaper increases in
organizations in order to protect U.S. jobs.
products the short run
Others argue for reform of the trade system as
a whole. Businesses have
Jobs are lost due to
more access
Critics of free trade maintain that it results economic turmoil
to buyers
in far more losers than winners in the global
Unrestricted trade
economy. Among the losers are hundreds Regional economic
promotes growth and
of thousands of U.S. workers who have lost downturns quickly
wealth in
manufacturing jobs in recent years and tens become global
the long run
of millions of people around the world who
have lost their jobs or businesses. According Standards in rich It is difficult to
to critics, the winners are mainly rich inves- countries improve enforce basic health,
tors who shift their money from one market conditions in poor safety, and environ-
to another and big corporations that relocate countries mental standards
factories to poorer countries to take advantage Dependency decreas-
Dependency makes
of low-wage labor and lower worker safety and es the likelihood
countries vulnerable
of conflict

environmental standards. The losers, free trade

opponents assert, are typically found among
the working class and the poor.
A broad coalition of organized labor,
environmentalists, human rights activists, and
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) protest
the free trade policies favored by the United
States and other governments. They assert
that these policies do not serve the interests of
ordinary people and believe that more fair and
equitable trade is possible.
hojusaram (CC BY-SA 2.0).

“ Undoubtedly trade creates winners

and losers. A good case can be made
that the winners win more often
than the losers lose, so the overall
In 2011, South Korea and the United States ratified effects of trade are positive. But
the Korea-U.S. Free Trade Agreement. The FTA the distributional impacts can’t be
has been controversial within both countries. For ignored. The political reality is that
example, many South Korean farmers believe that winners don’t compensate losers. The
the increase of imported agricultural goods from only way those who lose from free
the United States threaten their livelihoods. Above,
trade can hope to be compensated is
South Koreans protest after their government
lifted a ban on U.S. beef imports in 2008. The if they actively oppose it.”
South Korean government banned U.S. beef after —Former U.S. Secretary of Labor
a case of mad cow disease was discovered in the Robert Reich, 1999
United States in 2003.

THE CHOICES PROGRAM ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY ■ WWW.CHOICES.EDU
 The U.S. Role in a
Changing World 13
Part II

Why are inequality and

poverty important concerns?
Inequality between the
highest incomes in the rich-
est countries and the lowest
incomes in the poorest
countries continues to grow.
Inequality within many
countries has also increased.
In the United States, for
example, the gap between

Joel Pett. Reprinted with permission.

the rich and the poor has
grown since the 1980s. The
Congressional Budget Office
reports that in 1979, the 1
percent of the population in
households with the highest
income in the United States
received about the same
share of income after taxes as in the world’s poorest countries. The United
the bottom 20 percent of the population com- States and other rich countries continue to
bined. By 2007, the top 1 percent earned more dominate international markets, and poorer
in total than the entire bottom 40 percent. countries often struggle to compete. Over 1.2
Per capita (per person) income in the billion people live in extreme poverty, getting
United States and other wealthy societies is by on less than $1.25 a day.
forty times greater than per capita income While the number of people living in
extreme poverty is declining, billions of
people still live in poverty. For many people,
U.S. Income Distribution, 2013 questions about the future of international eco-
Bottom fifth of households nomic policy remain. How should the United
(lowest income)
3.2% (of total income) States conduct international trade? Should
it address increasing economic inequality at
home and abroad?
2nd fifth
8.4%
Human Health and
3rd fifth
Top fifth 14.4%
the Environment
(highest income) A second set of major issues revolves
51% around human health and the environment.
Since the earliest days of international diplo-
Data from U.S. Census Bureau.

macy, states have generally come together to

4th fifth
23%
When U.S. households are broken into five
groups (with an equal number of households in
each group), the top fifth took home 51 percent
of total income in 2013, while the bottom fifth
took home just over 3 percent.
discuss matters of war and trade. The health of
the world population and of the environment,
if considered at all, were thought of strictly as
local, not global problems. But in recent years,
this thinking has shifted.
Environmental and health-related prob-
lems are increasingly global in scope, and
many scientists and policy makers believe that
a coordinated international approach is neces-

WWW.CHOICES.EDU ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY ■ THE CHOICES PROGRAM
14 The U.S. Role in a
Changing World
Part II

sary. For example, because greenhouse gases
emitted in one part of the world affect the
global climate, more countries recognize that
climate change, and the resulting environmen-
tal destruction, needs to be addressed in the
international arena. Likewise, diseases do not
respect national borders. Epidemics, like HIV/
AIDS, have become worldwide health crises.
What are some current health concerns?
While there are a number of health
concerns facing the world today, three are par-
ticularly widespread and deadly: HIV/AIDS,
malaria, and malnutrition.
HIV/AIDS: In 2013, an estimated thirty-
five million people were living with HIV/
AIDS. The impact of HIV/AIDS has not been
felt equally around the world: incidence of
HIV/AIDS is highly concentrated in poorer
countries. Sub-Saharan Africa, home to just
13 percent of the world’s population, has 70
percent of the world’s cases of HIV/AIDS.
In Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland, more
than 20 percent of the adult population is HIV
positive or suffering from
AIDS.
The fight against HIV/
AIDS requires resources
and infrastructure to edu-
cate people about causes
and prevention and to
provide treatment for those
who are infected. World-
wide, the number of new
infections and AIDS-relat-
demic. At the same time, the prevalence of the
disease makes economic development more
difficult.
The United States donates more than any
other country to international HIV/AIDS re-
search and assistance programs, though critics
say the United States could afford more. NGOs
and foundations also contribute resources in
the fight against HIV/AIDS. In the years ahead,
the United States will have to make impor-
tant choices about its goals and priorities in
fighting the disease. Should it concentrate
its resources on combating the disease in the
United States? What should be U.S. priorities
in foreign aid—preventing the spread of HIV,
fighting the disease itself by increasing access
to medicines, or assisting economic develop-
ment in the countries most affected by HIV/
AIDS?
Malaria: Another significant international
health concern is malaria. Malaria is transmit-
ted by mosquitoes and is a leading killer in
Africa and in many tropical countries outside
of Africa as well. In 2013, malaria caused
UN Photo/Eskinder Debebe. UN Photo #114458.

ed deaths are declining,

and access to treatment is
increasing. For example,
the number of new HIV
infections in Sub-Saharan
Africa dropped by 33 per-
cent from 2005 to 2013.
While there have been
many success stories, some
A health care clinic in Madagascar. Preventing the transmission of HIV
countries have struggled to
from mothers to their children is one important approach to curbing the
address the crisis effective- epidemic. Providing pregnant women with treatment has prevented close
ly. Furthermore, political to a million new HIV infections among children since 2009. As of 2014, three
instability, poverty, and out of four children living with HIV worldwide do not have access to life-
war can worsen the epi- saving treatment.

THE CHOICES PROGRAM ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY ■ WWW.CHOICES.EDU
 The U.S. Role in a
Changing World 15
Part II

584,000 deaths worldwide, and health experts
estimate that one child dies from malaria every
minute in Africa. Treatment of the infection
is straightforward and relatively cheap, but
treatment remains largely unaffordable or inac-
cessible for many poor people who contract
the disease. Environmental factors, such as
natural disasters or close living quarters in
refugee camps, increase a population’s vulner-
ability to malaria. Initiatives to curb malaria
have made significant progress in recent
years—malaria death rates have fallen 47
percent since 2000. The United States pledged
to contribute over $4 billion from 2014-2016
to the Global Fund to Fight HIV/AIDS, Tuber-
culosis, and Malaria, a leading international
group in the fight against malaria.
Malnutrition and Hunger: Another criti-
cally important international health issue
is malnutrition and hunger. Malnutrition is
disproportionately prevalent in poor countries.
While malnutrition is in some cases a matter
of underproduction of food in a region, it is
often a matter of lack of access to adequate nu-
trient-rich food in poor populations. The UN
estimates that over 800 million people—about
UN Photo/Martine Perret. UN Photo #617853.
one out of every nine people worldwide—are
chronically undernourished. (This means that
they do not eat enough food to lead healthy
lives.)
The United States is the greatest contribu-
tor to the UN World Food Programme (WFP),
donating over $2.2 billion in 2014. While
uncertain or limited access to adequate sus-
tenance—called “food insecurity”—is often
considered a problem of poorer countries, it is
a symptom of poverty throughout the world.
In fact, according to the U.S. census, over 14
percent of households in the United States are
thought to be “food insecure.” In the years to
come, the United States must determine where
to focus its efforts in addressing malnutrition
and hunger. For example, should the United
States focus its efforts to fight hunger at home,
abroad, or both?
What are some of the leading
environmental concerns?
Several major environmental problems
threaten our planet today: the destruction
of the ozone layer in the atmosphere, water
pollution and acid rain,
deforestation, and the
decline of biodiversity. But
the environmental issue
that has captured much of
the world’s attention in re-
cent years is that of climate
change.
While some policy

makers disagree about

the extent to which the
world’s environment is
under threat, scientists
overwhelmingly agree that
climate change, which
is characterized by an
increase in the earth’s
average temperature called
2014 marked the beginning of a global health crisis: the largest Ebola the “greenhouse effect,”
outbreak in history. Ebola virus disease (EVD) has most severely affected has worsened as a result of
the West African countries of Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. The human activity. Scientists
international community has struggled to respond to the crisis, and as of warn that the problem will
May 2015, the epidemic has grown to more than 27,000 cases and more than
worsen if we continue to
11,000 deaths. Above, health workers at Magbenteh Ebola Treatment Centre
in Makeni, Sierra Leone, December 2014. emit the gases that cause

WWW.CHOICES.EDU ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY ■ THE CHOICES PROGRAM
16 The U.S. Role in a
Changing World
Part II
©Copyright 2012 RJ Matson - All Rights Reserved.
climate change, such as carbon dioxide (CO2),
into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases, pres-
ent in the atmosphere in small quantities
naturally, are increased dramatically when
people burn fossil fuels like coal, oil, and
natural gas in industrial processes and to heat
their homes and drive their cars.
Scientists project that climate change
will make temperatures around the world
more extreme more often (both extreme heat
and cold) and that people will need to cope
with increased frequency and severity of heat
waves, floods, droughts, and hurricanes. They
warn that changes will affect agricultural
production, human health, and the availability
of freshwater and other natural resources that
humans depend upon for survival. Already,
many parts of the world are feeling the ef-
fects of climate change, while the risk of even
greater impacts multiplies each year.
How does the question of vulnerability
and responsibility affect the
response to climate change?
While climate change is a shared concern,
it does not affect places and peoples evenly.
There are great disputes about who should be
held responsible for causing climate change
and for dealing with its damage.
Some countries are more vulnerable to the
harmful effects of climate change than others.
THE CHOICES PROGRAM ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY
There is a general consen-
sus among scientists that
the areas that will be most
severely affected by climate
change are within poorer
countries. For example, peo-
ple in the world’s forty-eight
poorest countries are five
times as likely to die from
climate-related disasters.
These countries, which are
home to 12 percent of the
world’s population, are only
responsible for emitting
less than 1 percent of total
greenhouse gas emissions.
While they are least respon-
sible for causing climate
change, they often experi-
ence the greatest effects of
climate change. This gap between responsibil-
ity and vulnerability complicates any response
to climate change and raises important ques-
tions about who should take on the costs of
dealing with climate change’s effects.
Why have international leaders struggled to
create a unified response to climate change?
Several international conferences in recent
years have raised the profile of global environ-
mental problems. In 1992, the largest gathering
of international leaders in history met in Rio
de Janeiro, Brazil at what became known as
the Earth Summit. At the summit, 150 govern-
ments signed a UN protocol that set in motion
a series of yearly conferences among govern-
ments on climate change. These led to a 1997
conference in Kyoto, Japan, where countries
agreed to the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Pro-
tocol laid out clear emissions restrictions for
thirty-seven wealthier countries and reduction
targets that poorer countries could volunteer
to pursue. The international community hopes
to pass a climate change agreement in 2015 to
replace the Kyoto Protocol, which will expire
in 2020.
It has been difficult for countries to agree
on how to limit greenhouse gas emissions
and to decide on who should make changes
to prevent future problems. The economy of a
■ WWW.CHOICES.EDU
 The U.S. Role in a
Changing World 17
Part II

particular country, its values, and its political political battle pits wealthy countries against
structure all contribute to its stance on climate poorer countries. On the whole, people liv-
change. For instance, the European Union ing in wealthier, industrialized countries
believes that effective climate change policy have access to a healthier environment than
must begin with widespread and immediate people living in poorer countries. Addition-
changes in national and industrial behavior to ally, wealthier countries tend to use far more
reduce CO2 emissions. The United States and resources. For example, although the United
Japan prefer to focus on developing technology States is home to less than 5 percent of the
to protect and repair the atmosphere in the fu- world’s population, it consumes about 18
ture. Poorer countries are primarily concerned percent of the world’s energy. Until recently,
with reducing their vulnerability to the effects wealthier countries also contributed far more
of climate change. pollution—including greenhouse gases—than
One of the greatest obstacles in ne- poorer ones. That gap is closing as population
gotiations is deciding who is financially growth has put pressure on poorer countries
responsible—who should pay. It is initially to develop their economies quickly with less
expensive to reduce greenhouse gas emissions concern for the environment. The United
because it requires turning away from fos- States has called for these countries to curb
sil fuels that are currently the cheapest and population growth and reduce greenhouse gas
most widely used form of energy. But it is also emissions, while it has bristled at proposals
expensive to cope with the effects of climate that might harm U.S. economic growth.
change. In contrast, poorer countries point the
Determining which course of action to finger at the wealthier countries that have con-
take is particularly tricky sumed more of the world’s resources and have
because industrialized
countries have already
reaped the benefits of vast
greenhouse gas emissions.
This raises important
questions: Should wealth-
ier countries (historically
responsible for the most
emissions) be required
to contribute money to
help poorer countries deal
with the effects of climate
350.org. Used with permission.
change? Should poorer
countries be subject to
restrictions on emissions
while they are trying to
industrialize?

What unresolved conflicts
prevent cooperation
among countries on
environmental issues?
The UN climate
conferences have of-
fered challenges to policy
makers worldwide. One
Scientists forecast that climate change could raise the level of the world’s
seas by up to three feet by 2100. (Rising sea levels are caused by polar ice
caps melting and by ocean waters expanding as they warm.) Much of the
world’s population and many of the planet’s most fragile ecosystems could
become more vulnerable to coastal flooding. Numerous low-lying island
countries—such as the Carterets, the Marshalls, and Kiribati—are becoming
engulfed by the sea. Some of their residents, often called the first “climate
change refugees,” have begun to leave the islands. Above, government
officials of the Maldives hold an underwater meeting in 2009 to raise
awareness about rising sea levels. They signed a document calling for global
reductions in carbon emissions.

WWW.CHOICES.EDU ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY ■ THE CHOICES PROGRAM
18 The U.S. Role in a
Changing World
Part II
emitted most of the pollutants. Many poorer
countries argue that their need for economic
development cannot be overlooked in efforts
to clean up the global environment, and that
rich countries should help pay for poorer
countries’ efforts to meet international envi-
ronmental standards. In addition, the capacity
to adapt to climate change is not evenly dis-
tributed among countries. Poorer countries are
at a significant disadvantage when it comes to
grappling with rising sea levels, more extreme
weather, and other effects of climate change
that many argue are the result of centuries of
greenhouse gas emissions by richer countries.
What are mitigation and adaptation?
Responses to climate change are gener-
ally categorized into two groups: mitigation
and adaptation. The term “mitigation” means
efforts to reduce the harm of something.
Mitigation efforts are aimed at reducing the
amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
(for example, by building more fuel efficient
cars or by using renewable sources like solar,
wind, and water power that do not emit any
greenhouse gases) with the goal of prevent-
ing the harmful effects of climate change.
Adaptation focuses on adjusting to the effects
of climate change (for example, coastal com-
munities making plans to deal with rising
sea levels and floods, or farmers switching to
crops that are more drought resistant).
In the decades following the 1992 Earth
Summit, international leaders primarily fo-
cused on mitigation. But scientists and policy
makers have now recognized that mitigation
alone is not enough, and they have expanded
adaptation efforts around the world.
How has the United States participated
in environmental regulation?
Although the United States supplied much
of the early initiative to address a range of
global environmental problems, it is no longer
at the forefront of worldwide environmental
regulation and has not been a leader in reduc-
ing greenhouse gas emissions. Current U.S.
policy reflects the idea that efforts to solve
environmental problems should not hurt the
THE CHOICES PROGRAM ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY
economy. The United States is the largest his-
torical emitter of greenhouse gases, and it did
not ratify the Kyoto Protocol in part because it
felt that the treaty would unfairly burden the
U.S. economy. In November 2014, the United
States announced a new goal of reducing its
emissions 26 to 28 percent below 2005 levels
by 2025.
The role of the United States in future
international environmental policy raises
important questions. Should the United States
take an active role in promoting “green” tech-
nologies such as hybrid cars and renewable
energy to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions?
Does it have a responsibility to help vulner-
able countries adapt to the effects of climate
change? Should the United States work more
closely within international frameworks and
guidelines for environmental protection? Or
should the government stay out of environ-
mental regulation and steer clear of setting
restrictions on energy use?
International Relations
Over the past twenty-five years, different
varieties of democracy and free-trade capi-
talism have spread around the world. Many
states in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the
former Soviet bloc have transitioned to democ-
racy. Promoting these transitions around the
world has been one of the United States’ top
foreign policy priorities for several reasons.
Among them is the belief that democratic
states respect the rights of their citizens and
are less likely to go to war with each other.
Whether democracy is universally valued by
all people in the world or even universally
possible remains unsettled.
How does the United States participate
in the international community?
The participation of the United States
in international relations takes many forms.
First, the United States has relationships with
particular individual countries. This may
include signing bilateral agreements (treaties
between two countries), sending foreign aid
to a partner country, or having embassies in
■ WWW.CHOICES.EDU
 The U.S. Role in a
Changing World 19
Part II

the other country so that ambassadors and Perecentage of Democratic States in the World
representatives can promote U.S. interests
and collaborate to solve problems.
On the other hand, the United States 14.3%
can cut off its trade or diplomatic relation-
ships with another country to try to pressure 85.7% 37% 63%
that country to change its political system
or behavior. For example, the United States
and Cuba have had a hostile relationship

Data from Freedom House.

for decades, which recently has begun to
improve.
In addition to building partnerships
with individual countries, the United States
can sign agreements that include multiple
countries. Sometimes these agreements are
formed through negotiations initiated by
the countries involved. Other times they are
achieved through participation in internation-
al organizations like the United Nations (UN).
What is the role of international
organizations?
International governmental organizations
(IGOs) seek to resolve problems that affect
multiple states. These groups set rules for
states that choose to be members. The United
Nations (UN), which was formed to address
issues of international security, includes all
states of the world. Other organizations are
1950 2013
Non-Democratic Democracies
States
regional: the European Union (EU) and the
African Union (AU) are examples. IGOs have
proven to be a significant forum for dialogue
and debate among states. To many, these
organizations are a vehicle for a new form of
international relations.
Governments around the world have
reacted differently to the emergence of these
new organizations. Some states see the author-
ity of international organizations as competing
with their own. Some leading figures in the
United States, for example, worry that the au-
thority of IGOs threatens U.S. sovereignty and

Shifting U.S.-Cuba Relations

In 1961, U.S. President Eisenhower cut off U.S. relations with Cuba. Fidel Castro and his
supporters, whom the United States suspected of being communist, had taken control of Cuba’s
government in 1959. Over the next few years, relations between the two countries soured. Cuba
nationalized (brought under government control) many U.S.-owned properties and businesses
on the island, and the United States stopped buying Cuban sugar, which was central to Cuba’s
economy. Tensions rose to a high during the Cuban Missile Crisis—when the United States dis-
covered that Cuba had allowed the Soviet Union to build a nuclear missile base on the island in
October 1962.
Since U.S.-Cuba relations deteriorated in the early 1960s, successive U.S. presidents have
continued policies that isolate Cuba both politically and economically, including attempting
to oust Cuba’s government. Despite this frozen relationship, U.S. and Cuban officials have se-
cretly tried many times to improve relations between the two countries, yet none of these efforts
succeeded until 2014. On December 17, 2014, Cuban President Raúl Castro and U.S. President
Barack Obama simultaneously announced that Cuba and the United States would begin normal-
izing relations. In addition to restoring diplomatic ties, the deal made it easier for U.S. citizens
to travel to Cuba and for U.S. businesses—especially those related to internet and other forms of
technology and communication—to work with Cuban companies.

WWW.CHOICES.EDU ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY ■ THE CHOICES PROGRAM
20 The U.S. Role in a
Changing World
Part II
could override the U.S. Constitution. Others
believe that international organizations bol-
ster national power by increasing cooperation
and pooling resources. For instance, members
of the EU follow the laws passed by a multi-
national parliament, have all-but-dissolved
borders between EU countries, and many have
adopted a single currency (the euro) and free
trade.
What concerns exist about
international organizations?
Despite concerns on the part of some
in the United States about the preserva-
tion of state sovereignty, the United States
plays a leading role in many international
organizations such as the World Bank and
the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The
World Bank and the IMF work to address is-
sues of international economic development
and global finance. The United States con-
tributes the most money, and as a result is the
single strongest governmental voice in these
organizations. Many critics argue that these
organizations serve more as agents of U.S. for-
eign policy than as independent organizations.
In recent years, China has proposed a new
organization, the Asian Infrastructure Invest-
ment Bank (AIIB). Many see this as an attempt
to counterbalance U.S. influence over the
World Bank and the IMF. Although the United
States discouraged its allies from joining,
fifty-seven countries, including major world
powers such as Germany, France, and Great
Britain, became prospective members as of
April 2015.
Some countries’ voices are more power-
ful than others within the United Nations.
For instance, permanent members of the UN
Security Council (China, France, Russia, Great
Britain, and the United States) have much
more sway in international politics than others
and often have the final say on how the inter-
national community responds to problems.
Given this discrepancy, many have begun to
consider the importance of democratization
not only within states but in the international
governmental organizations to which states be-
long. Some have called for reform of the UN so
that less powerful countries can participate at
THE CHOICES PROGRAM ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY
the same level as more powerful ones. Others
say that the Security Council structure should
be changed to reflect the changes in the politi-
cal order since the founding of the UN.
What other groups have challenged
the role of states in world politics?
In addition to the large international
governmental organizations, groups smaller
than states have begun to affect world politics
as well. For example, multinational corpora-
tions—companies such as General Electric,
ExxonMobil, and Walmart—play a significant
role in the global economy and often have an
interest in influencing the political decisions
of states.
In addition, nongovernmental organiza-
tions (NGOs) have had a significant impact
around the globe. NGOs are generally non-
profit, private organizations with a particular
interest in a public policy issue. NGOs not
only lobby governments to achieve their
goals, but more and more they fulfill the role
of governments by pursuing their goals in the
field. Different NGOs work around the world
pushing for reform in education, human rights,
environmental policy, health care, and poverty
alleviation. Often, NGOs are more successful
at solving problems and delivering services
than governments because they have financial
backing from donors and sometimes face fewer
restrictions than government agencies do. In
some cases NGOs have taken on roles that
U.S. and other governmental agencies used to
maintain. The number of NGOs has increased
dramatically over the last thirty years. Today
there are more than forty thousand interna-
tional NGOs.
Other small groups have also gained inter-
national importance. Terrorists and criminal
organizations are both examples of this trend.
You will read more about the role played by
terrorist organizations in Part III.
The role of these international and non-
governmental organizations raises important
questions for the United States. How should
the United States manage its relationships
with these organizations? What role should the
UN play in U.S. foreign policy?
■ WWW.CHOICES.EDU
 The U.S. Role in a
Changing World 21
Part II

Culture and Values

Different cultures, like individuals, often Major Elements of the
have different values. The process of globaliza- Universal Declaration of
tion has challenged and sometimes changed Human Rights
values within societies around the world. In Everyone is entitled to:
one sense, globalization has produced strong
• life
pressures for harmonization of values around
the world—in particular, the value of univer- • liberty
sal human rights. In another important sense, • security
globalization has resulted in the interaction
and competition of many different value sys- • a nationality
tems. While there has always been debate and • freedom from slavery, discrimina-
discussion within cultures about values, glo- tion, or torture
balization has brought these debates to a global • equal protection under the law
scale. Sometimes the interaction of differing
value systems has been a source of positive • presumption of innocence until
change and growth. At times, such interaction proven guilty
has also been a source of tension. • freedom from arbitrary interference
with privacy
How have human rights been incorporated • freedom of movement
into the values of many nations? • freedom to marry and start a family
The notion of universal human rights
emerged after World War II and the Holo- • ownership of property
caust—a genocide in which the Nazis killed • freedom of thought, opinion, expres-
twelve million civilians, including six million sion, association, and religion
Jews. Proponents of universal human rights • suffrage (the right to vote)
argue that there are certain fundamental and
absolute rights that every human being pos- • social security
sesses, regardless of national laws or cultural • work and membership in trade
traditions. Some of the fundamental human unions
rights, as expressed in the 1948 Universal • fair wages and equal pay for equal
Declaration of Human Rights, include the right
work
to life, liberty, security, a sufficient standard
of living, equality under the law, education, • rest and periodic holidays with
freedom of movement, and freedom of thought pay
and religion. The doctrine of universal hu- • an adequate standard of living
man rights emerged in step with pressures for
• free basic education
liberty, equality, and democracy.
The international community has used
economic sanctions and military action to to how universal these values really are. Some
punish or prevent extreme abuses of human argue that beliefs in individual liberty and
rights. International courts have held lead- equality originated in the West, and are not
ers who abused the rights of their citizens shared or valued by other cultures, particular-
accountable. Particularly in the past twenty ly those with strong communal traditions.
years, the international community has begun The human rights championed by the
to take a stand against human rights abuses. UN and others are also criticized on political
On the other hand, how far these human grounds. China, Russia, and other non-Western
rights will be extended in the twenty-first cen- powers, as well as conservative critics in the
tury is unclear. Some have raised questions as United States, contend that an emphasis on

WWW.CHOICES.EDU ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY ■ THE CHOICES PROGRAM
22 The U.S. Role in a
Changing World
Part II

human rights will topple a crucial pillar of external control. Those who wish to priori-
the international system—the principle of tize human rights argue that state sovereignty
state sovereignty. Defenders of state sover- should be limited when states violate the
eignty maintain that states should be free from rights of their citizens.

The Arab Spring—Considering U.S. Values and Interests

In December 2010, protests began against the autocratic government in the North African
country of Tunisia. Hundreds of thousands of Tunisians took to the streets calling for an end to
authoritarian rule. They wanted more democracy, an end to corruption, and economic opportu-
nity. The protests spread to more than a dozen countries in the region. In some, like Egypt and
Libya, protests led to a change in government. In others, like Bahrain, protests were met with
fierce repression by the government. In Syria, demonstrations led to a civil war that had killed
more than two hundred thousand people by the end of 2014.
Although several governments cracked down on protesters and committed grave human
rights violations, the U.S. response was varied. In some instances the United States supported
demonstrators’ demands, but in other cases it was reluctant to criticize governments that were
longstanding U.S. allies. In Libya, the United States participated in an international coalition that
used military force against the government of Colonel Qaddafi, a dictator who ruled the country
for forty-two years. In Bahrain, U.S. officials did not voice clear support for pro-democracy dem-
onstrators as they did elsewhere, despite the fact that the government conducted mass arrests and
tortured protesters. The Bahrain government has been an ally of the United States for decades,
and the country is home to the headquarters of the U.S. Navy’s Fifth Fleet.
The wave of movements that swept across the region in 2011 and 2012—and the United
States’ varied responses to movements in different countries—sheds light on the tension between
values and interests at the heart of U.S. policy. Protests are ongoing in many countries, and the
United States will continue to have important economic and security interests in the Middle
East. Many in the United States have applauded the democratic spirit of the protests, but some
experts worry that divisions in Arab societies—long-suppressed by authoritarian rulers—are boil-
ing over, leading to conflict and instability that threaten U.S. interests.
The demonstrations present an
opportunity for the United States to
consider the basis for U.S. policy. Are
economic and political interests more
important to U.S. policy than demo-
cratic governance and human rights?
What should the United States do if
Syriana 2011 (CC BY 2.0).

these values and interests come into

conflict? For example, what should
the United States do if supporting a
new democratic government results in
a rise in the price of oil, or a govern-
ment that is unfriendly or hostile to Protests in Hama, Syria against the government of Bashar
al-Assad, July 22, 2011. At least half a million people
the United States? In the long run, is
participated in the demonstration. What began as protests
support for all forms of democracy in has evolved into a bloody civil war.
the best interest of the United States?

THE CHOICES PROGRAM ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY ■ WWW.CHOICES.EDU
 The U.S. Role in a
Changing World 23
Part II

Is the United States an international
leader in human rights?
Today, the United States claims to be a
model and international advocate of human
rights. Many people consider the United States
to be a leader of the international human
rights movement because it was instrumental
in founding the United Nations and played an
important role in creating international human
rights treaties. In addition, the U.S. Constitu-
tion, the first constitution that protected the
rights of citizens, has been a model for other
countries.
While the United States has been a leader
on human rights, it sometimes places its politi-
cal interests above conforming to international
human rights agreements and standards. For
political, economic, or security reasons, the
United States has supported undemocratic
governments that abuse human rights. For
example, the United States has carefully cul-
tivated relations with Saudi Arabia since the
1940s because of its central importance to the
world’s oil industry. Critics note that Saudi
Arabia is an undemocratic, fundamentalist
Islamist regime. For example, the government
has banned political parties, censors the me-
dia, and prohibits women from driving. U.S.
criticism of Saudi policies has been muted.
The United States’ human rights practices
at home and abroad have made other states
less willing to listen to U.S. criticism of their
own human rights records. For example,
although the United States is an outspoken
proponent of justice and the right to a fair trial,
critics argue that the U.S. criminal justice sys-
tem discriminates against minorities and that
many prisoners are subjected to abuse. Critics
also condemn the use of the death penalty in
several U.S. states, a practice that more than
two-thirds of all countries have either abol-
ished or stopped carrying out. The U.S. torture
of terrorism suspects has also damaged the
United States’ reputation as a human rights
leader. You will read more about this practice
in Part III of the reading.
Decisions about U.S. foreign policy raise
important questions about culture and val-
ues. What values and principles should shape
U.S. policy? Should the United States strive
to spread U.S. values and culture around the
world? Should the human rights records of
other countries influence U.S. foreign rela-
tions, and should the United States intervene
if other countries are violating human rights?

I n this section, you have read about some of the numerous challenges
facing the United States and the world. You have begun to examine
the complex and interrelated issues that U.S. leaders are facing right
now in this era of change and globalization. Because these issues
have a fundamental impact on people and the countries they live in,
many international relations experts see them as security issues.

U.S. policies and actions in areas such as economics and the environment
influence military decisions and ultimately the security of people around
the world. Keep these connections in mind as you read the next section
on conflict and security. For example, how do the issues surrounding
culture and values affect U.S. policy in the Middle East? How do free trade
policies affect U.S. relationships with other countries? How do donations
to global health organizations affect security issues in poorer countries?

WWW.CHOICES.EDU ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY ■ THE CHOICES PROGRAM