Materials & Metallurgy Question Bank Module 3 1) Discuss the process carbonitriding? 2) Explain laser and electron beam hardening? 3) Write short note on austempering and martempering? 4) Write short note on flame hardening? 5) Write short note on maraging steels? Module 4 1) Explain thermal fatigue in metal? 2) Write the difference between ductile fracture and brittle fracture? 3) What are the characteristic of brittle fracture? Discuss Griffith's theory and derive its equation? 4) Discuss ductile- brittle transition in steel? 5) What is fatigue of material? Explain the method of testing the metals for fatigue? Explain various ‘methods used to increase the fatigue life of the component? 6) Why FCC metals are more ductile than BCC and HCP metals? 7) Define creep? Draw creep curve and explain the stages of creep? 8) Write short note on creep mechanism? 5) What Is fatigue limit explain with S-N curve? Explain fatigue testing? Module 5 1) What are composites? Write its characteristics? 2)Write a short note on nano materials 3)What are nano materials? Discuss the some of their applications? 4) What are smart materia!? Where they are used? 5) What do you understand by composite materials? Explain their properties and applications? Module 6 1) Explain Ultrasonic and radiographic testing? 2) What is NDT? What are different NDT methods? Explain use of NDT? Scanned with CamScanner447 CARBONITRIDING: carbing. (1) Carbonitriding Process: In this process, the components are heated in the air tight muffle furnace in the temperature range of 750 to 900°C. It is held for 30 minutes to 6 hours at the constant temperature for addition of carbon and nitrogen on the surface of steel components. It is quenched from this temperature in oil or water up to room temperature. The carbonitriding process is shown in Fig. 4.57. (2) Carbonitriding Medium: Depending on the medium used in this process, the process is called liquid carbonitriding or gas carbonitriding. Liquid carbonitriding is very much similar to liquid nitriding. It contains sodium cyanide (20 - 30%). These processes have following differences with cyaniding. (@) Liquid e*ontriding contains alkaline salts which are not used in cyaniding ide. (b) Cyaniding containing a higher percentage of sodium cyani (0. The cyaniding ease contains higher nitrogen and lower carbon as compared carbonitriding. a i depths are less. ° rater ving contains gaseous medium containing CEs CoH et. (cary, gases) with 5~ 10% ammonia (NHS). ° . ing ‘out slightly above A: (727°C) temperature» ‘The carbonitriing process is carried : paces present inthe steal at his temperature are ferite and austeite. Nitrogen. stabilizer; it & ‘stable in ferrite region. If the temperature is lower, the nj," ‘Manto i prompted andthe process becomes the only nitrding, : os ‘Carbon is an austenite stabilizer and is more stable in austenite region, y temperature is ineeased than Aa, the process becomes only carburizing, The carbon. reactions in gaseous process are, CH, +2H2+([C] on surface of steel components 2NHs ->3H2+[2NJ on surface of steel components Gaseous carbonitriding is carried out in a muffle furnace and the fan is used circulate gas continuously around the steel ts. Fig, 4.57: Carbonitriding Process Scanned with CamScannerthod aimed at improving component wear behavior. During laser | layer hardening, the energy from the laser beam is applied di 2000-30 er is heated up to the hardening temperature (>1000°C) in a reduced area t ‘of time. fata 4 = ening (laser hardening) offers even shorter heating times of the surface tha ing. This significantly reduces the already low hardness distortion and st oxidation of the surface can even be completely prevented.<= Lane? g, the surface is heated by a laser beam and quenched by heat dissipation it with minimum heat effect _- \eaber earn eret (ipa little to no finishing work required —> Yr : *afe iter: quenching C g beam CO, laser, YAG Heating by laser laser Scanned with CamScannerm hardening: hardening is a material hardening process that uses an organized c energy source.\The bombardment of the electron column on the materic } Which is increased until the material or the surface of the material re @ at which its hardness is increased. This allows a material to have excellent st cé while still maintaining ductility and toughness in its core. hardening is typically used to harden a very thin surface layer of an object by temperature and then allowing it to cool rapidly. about electron beam hardening over other hardening processes is that it is ly the outermost layer of a material, leaving the core of the material with its chemical properties. Thicknesses of itu ieiah: (0.1 mm) can be he beam hardening process. layers of material that are affected by electron beam hapa are C is means the ratio of the mass affected by electron beam hardening 3 is small enough that the unaffected mass can cause the surface to cool fe ‘Scanned with CamScannerig involves exciting and emitting electrons from an electrode typical alloy. To do this, thousands of volts are moved through the filan iti Bectrons. During the electron beam hardening process, the emitted ele id focused using magnetic fields. This focusing gives the electron beam density required to heat the material on which the work is being pe n to be directed across the part while the electron beam hardening process is this is done through a combination of moving the electron beam gun and more Scanned with CamScanner(Dec, 2011 (5 Marks); May 2011 (5 spe cooling rate isnot uniform from suriace to core of co The sue of he i ponent. The surface of the tis dretly in contact with the cooling medium soit cools fast as compared tothe core, ow cooling rate in the core, the cooling curve cuts into the nose of "transformation that both core and surface reaching a martensitic condition that will lead to is coled SCT ks. These cracks will be caused by stresses set up as the volume change poencting ‘during austenite to martensite transformation, — Austenite Log tome L Loatire ‘Fig. 4.38: Cooling of Large Size Components Fig, 4.3%: Austempering Process (2) Austempering Process: In this process, steel components are heated to austenitic temperature followed by cooling rapidly in a salt bath held in the bainite range (usually 220° - 450°C). The components are left in the salt bath until the transformation to bainite is complete. Austenite is transformed 100% into bainite, Austempering is a complete heat treatment and there is no need of tempering process. Once austenite is transformed into bainite, components are cooled in the air up to room temperature. The actual cooling rate is a product of both the quench severity, which is influenced by quench media, agitation, load and the thickness and geometry of the part. As a result, heavier section components required greater hardenability. Austempering process is shown in Fig. 4.39. ° ee ening offers many manufacturing and performance advantages over traditional material/process combinations. It may be applied to numerous materials, and ‘each combination has its own advantages. One of the advantages that are common to all austempered materials i @ lower rate of distortion than for quench and tempering, This can be tranzlated into significant cost savings by adjusting the entire manufacturing process. The most immediate cost savings are realized by machining before heat treatment. Some Advantages of Ae are: (a) High impact strength. o) Honratch toughness at high hardness level. {© Dimensional stability of components is more due to the absence of retained austenite. (@) Fewer chances of cracking due tothe absence of retained austenite. (e) It gives same hardness as compared to hardening and tempering. (3) Disadvantages of Austempering: (a) Its limited to section thickness up to 20 mm, (b) A wide range of property variation can be achieved by vari temperature which is not possible by bainitic transformation. (©) Cooling must be faster than critical cooling rate, Hence, the process is applicable high hardenability steels. ion Of ber, (€) The holding time for bainitic transformation Is long and hence the process is ep. (4) Application of Austempering: (2) Manufacturing of gauges. Scanned with CamScannerrtensite formation temperature and allows the metal at temperature as that of surface / y re both center and surface are allowed to transform to Bainite and Scanned with CamScanner| Tine > heat treatment process for steel involves austenitization followed by. i the formation of fezrite, Pearlite or bainite to a temperature |) iF cooled rapidly avoiding theChose of IT diagram my ! ust be long enough to avoid formation of bainite _ ji furponcs al ane ts cuca Scanned with CamScannerfn MAR Ne [May 2011 (5 Marks); Dec. 2011 (5 Marks), Ma: For large size components during the cooling process, the surface is directly i with cooling mediums due to that, the surface of components cools fast as compared tot. Due to fast cooling, surface gives martensitic structure and due to slow cooling in the ives pearlitic or bainitc structure. To avoid the time lag between cooling of surface and well as maintaining same structures from the surface to core martempering process is a steel components. compared to normal quenching. (1) Martempering Process: After heating the steel component to the austenitic temperature, it is quenched rapidly by avoiding the nose of the TIT diagram to a temperature between the nose and Ms temperature. The component is held in the bath until it reaches the temperature of the medium and then it is cooled further to room temperature in air or sometimes in oil. The holding time in the quenching bath should be sufficient to make a uniform temperature from surface to core, but not long enough to cause austenite decomposition, Anserite is transformed into martensite during Log time cooling up to room temperature. The Fig. 4.40: Martempering Process martempering process is shown in Fig. 4.40. : — (2) Advantages of Martempering: (a) Less distortion and warping, since the martensi throughout the cross section of the component. Z mere ‘else danger of quenching cracks appearing in the article. (c) Fewer re tame changes Occur in the article due to the Presence of a larger amount © ya es of Martempering: pissdvantass required after hard i 0 Sempeting process reqi 'er hardening, which increases the cost of heat treatment (a) er component. The process is time-consuming and Tequires various cooling mediums such as salt bath, ) oil, and air. ing is faster than critical coolin, (2 Coepardenabity. ications of Martempering: # o For low-alloy steels components, *) High carbon steels components, 8 rate so itis applicable only for materials having Scanned with CamScanner449 FLAME HARDENING: Flame hardening is a heat treatment process in which the surface of medium carbon steel is heated rapidly above the transformation temperature ie. austenitic temperature by high- temperature flame and then quenched by water spray to convert austenite into martensite. The Process is shown in Fig. 4.58. In flame hardening, the high-temperature flame is obtained by oxyacetylene flame, Which can generate temperatures up to 3000°C. The surface of components becomes hard by above process but the core remains soft. The result of the hardening process is controlled by four factors: the design of the flame head; the duration of heating; the target temperature to be reached; and the composition of the metal being treated. The process is also effective at Preheating bars, strip, and various contours prior to austenitizing, forming and forging. Water jet Quenching Work Piece Fig, 4.58: Flame hardening process (1) Types of Flame Hardening: The flame hardening can be done in different ways: (a) Spot hardening. (b) Progressive. (©) Spinning. (d) Progressive-Spinning. (aN Caner nas Scanned with CamScannerMARAGING: 15 Maaging steels are steels which are known for posssing super seg tod ess without losing malleability, although they cannot hold a good cuting edge, Aging ‘es to the extended heat-treatment process. These steels are a special cass of ow carbon ultra- figrstrength steels which derive their strength not from carbon, but from precipitation of intermetallic compounds. ‘These steels can be air hardened by martensitic transformation and subsequently can be tation hardened by aging and hence the name maraging steels. These steels are low carbon. steels containing 18 to 25% nickel, 3 to 5% molybdenum, 3 to 8% cobalt and 0.2 to 1.6% titanium ‘otha small amount of aluminium. {1) The process of Maraging: ‘These steels are heated up to austenitic temperature and are hold at constant temperature foruniform austenitic structure from the surface to core. Holding time is 1 hou foreach 25 mm dameter ot thickness. It is cooled up to room temperature in air. Martensite formed at room temperature is soft and tough rather than hard and britle. his duce martensite has a low vron-hardening rate and can be cold-worked toa high degre. The steels ae aged at about 500°C temperature. During aging strain induced precipitation hardening occurs due tothe precipitation STRATA nd NisMo places. The structure is made up of very fine precipitates in 2 martensitic a ‘is shown in Fig. 441. Fig. 441: Maraging Process ~ nae sommes ater The Fig. 442 shows that a weak response to maraging is found after adding 7% cobalt to the alloy base. The addition of molybdenum alone gives a slight increase in annealed hardness and considerable maraging response. When ‘molybdenum is added in the presence of 7% cobalt, 246 80 an increase in hardness is, 9 Wytcierumn or % Cobel more. Fig 442: Effect of Mo and Coon Hardnes of Magn he Herdness, Re RBRessts sl \e Q) Properties of Maraging Steels: (a) Capable of giving tensile strengths up to 210 kg/m. (b) Excellent fracture toughness. (G) Applications of Maraging Steels: (a) Motor cases for missiles. (b) Low-temperature structural parts. (0) Rocket casings. (@) Engine components. (e) Hotextrusion dies cold-headed bolts and pressure vessels. Scanned with CamScanner~ Toor A MUUUETUZIN COFFOSION ratigue, aiceen—— (4) Thermal Fatigue: Fatigue failure can be produced by fluctuating thermal stresses under conditions where no stresses are produced by mechanical causes, Thermal stresses result when the change in dimensions of a member as the result of temperature changes. For the simple case of a bar with fixed end supports, the thermal stress developed by a temperature change ‘AT’ is o =a@E-AT Where a = linear thermal coefficient of expansion E =elastic modulus If a failure occurs by one application of thermal stress, the condition is called therrnal shock. However, if a failure occurs after repeated applications of thermal stress, of a lower magnitude, it is called thermal fatigue. It exists at high temperature, Austenitic stainless steel is sensitive to this phenomenon because of its low thermal conductivity and high thermal expansion. IPN mL Cbeennin ns Scanned with CamScanner24 Offset Fi No}. Ductile Fracture 1 | During tensile test when crack occurred at the end of the plastic region it is called as a ductile fracture. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN DUCTILE FRACTURE AND BRITTLE FRACTURE: ison of stress-strain curve for the ductile and brittle material is shurwn in Fi 2.4: Comparison of stress-strain curve for ‘ductile and brittle material Material B (nonductile) Yield strength Brittle Fracture During tensile test when crack occurred at the end of the elastic region itis called as = brittle fracture. 2 [Stress during cracking is increased. Stress during cracking is constant. 3 Necking is observed before fracture. Necking is not observed before fracture [cessation isslow. Crack propagation is fast. 5 | Fracture surface is observed rough. Fracture surface is observed smooth. § [Ta ae cap an cone formation bee There isa separation of material without 2 fracture. change in dimensions. 48 wwe ‘Vipul’s™ Material Teen, 7_| It is observed in metals. Ttis observed in metals, ceramics, ang >> 8 | Percentage elongation is about 30% prior to _ | Percentage elongation is about 0.57, ae my fracture Occurs. almost nil prior to fracture occurs, ows Scanned with CamScannerFig. 2.3: Brittle Fracture ‘The brittle fracture occurred in glass, ceramics and cast iron. The salient features of brittle fracture are: (i) Brittle fracture occurs when a small crack in a material grows and the movement of crack involves very little plastic deformation of the metal adjacent to the crack. Growth continues until fracture occurs (ii) At the surface of a material, the atoms do not have as many neighbors as those in the interior of a solid and therefore they form fewer bonds. Obviously, surface atoms are at a higher energy than a plane of interior atoms, Brittle fracture contains in destroying the interatomic bonds by normal stresses, (iii) Brittle fracture in metals is characterized by a rapid rate of crack propagation with a minimum energy of absorption, with no gross deformation and very little micro- deformation. Adjacent parts of the metal are separated by stresses normal to the fracture surface, . (iv) This does not produce plastic deformation and therefore requires less energy than ¢ ductile failure where energy is introduced in the Process of forming dislocations cure, Fatigue Fallure Creep awa 7 ractur®, (v) Brittle fracture occurs along crystal planes with fewer atornac bonds, * characteristic crystallographic planes called as deavage planes. The frachite termed as cleavage fracture, (wi Brittle fracture occurs at or below the elastic Jirnit of a material. . wil) Normally brittle fracture follows the grain boundaries which can be identahed oy their granular and shiny look. In some instances, this type of fracture car aan by grain-boundary films of hard brittle second phase, like that formed by tearnuth = Ai copper: . (viii) The tendency for brittle fracture increases with decreasing ternpetatute, IMTEaweg strain rate and stress concentration conditions usually produced by a netch Brittle fracture is to be avoided at all cost because it is very dangersas a8 KEES mnout warning and usually produces disastrous consequences. Brittle fractures are of pract eee ince due to the failures of pressure vessels, bridges, pipe lines, hulls of ships, A Scanned with CamScanner's™ Material y, 8 we Viput og, ‘7 GRIFFITH'S THEORY FOR BRITTLE MATERIAL: 27 6 tr a 2012 (10 Marks), Dec. 2010, 2011, 2012 (10 Marks), Dec. 2013 ¢1, Mey met June 2014 (10 Marks), Dec. 2013 (4 “ coordi in the metal that cause A to Griffith, there are microcracks ‘ concentration, ol sre to values high enough to propagate the oat and faired : fracy,” metal. According to Griffith, “A crack will Dropegae when the decree ror ates to s OF ‘row mbes ened vce beorerneoay ota ang ns Assumptions to Griffith’s Theory: Crack bonds break & new Surfaces are created. Fig 2.10: Crack in Sim) Cubic Structure Corfsider le cubic'structure, within w! there is can fo 7 *hich re is a crack as material is stretched, th: energy is stored in them, Jr hoe eee int YIN sted til «x Sem 5 Wher the bond breaks, there will be a release of elastic Scanned with CamScannerviiaon ot Se a] oa a Eadie ate an ena coer pt al eg mga cee cok were, 1 negy regu producing unt ares of th nese (6) Thechange in energy during cack form AU aU = Total surface nergy + last nergy reeset au sacs“) Negive (sgn of lati nergy indicates that elas emery read cack or 2s) == ay =KChonl- nrg stab oom inf stoi arg a 6 2 ne RG 2 AY ce Te persone verre arcana oting A 0. Ath sped tres rnp ths df gh I ‘hectic condition as» critical fracture stress Sun’ Viput's™ Material Techn, Fig. 2.1: The Energy AU asa Function 7 pineal of Crack Length ¢ (01> 03) wo * ‘equation (2.5) for eitical value, (Taking derivative with respect soon) Siyep)-E ot Alisa [= Equation (26) shows the elatonslp beeen the lngh of he existing ecngy 7 apna plaoa atacand een gene toceaes ea eaten nea em ra 2 ce a a pass However, Git’ ideas ave had ret infer ra the biking about e fase Scanned with CamScannerNIN STREL: root at . 1 can atfec when subjected 161 ateel The temperature of 4 materi ture are brittle at low tempera ttle materials which are dicile at high "PY yolow that temperate becom Pg mater Tate en cacdber vd ato van be used to determine whether eration, potched-bar impw temperature Is cecrensed: AB the experiences a ductile-to-brittle transition 4° * tempera ance the (eat a ein Sheet pore ee is , appear fibrous or from the fracture surfaces, which apPpe® “Over the becomes more brittle. also be ‘The transition can observed d shiny for totally bet vraterialS the i ular an Gotleoba tally duce fet Fsoth types will exist. While for Pare ipo anal ddenly at a particular temperature, for many mal Yes Th causes difficulties when trying to define sing): 26 © — DUCTILE-BRITTLE rransitlO et its behavior transition may occur very SU‘ Fae occurs over’ a range of temperatures. transition temperature and no specific criterion has been established. If a mal =~ eos : ductile-to-brittle transition, the temperature at which it can be affected by! nt les mentioned earlier, namely the strain rate, the size and shape of the specimen ative dimensions of the notch. / Fig. 2.7 shows how the impact tests result might vary with the temperature. Properties oi ture. If the temperatur: steel changes with temperature. It behaves as ductile above 0°C temperat is reduced below 0°C, steel shows brittle in nature. AUSTENITE [FCC] 1 7 DUCTILE Impact Value (Joule) -200 -100 O +100 +200 + 300 TEMP. (°C) Fig. 2.7: Ductile - Brittle Transiti a A Du lon in Steel enon 7 osibiied in BCC metals, such as low carbon steel, wh: . * i i remain duce at low temreraturee, very high strain rates. FCC metals, however, genet! In metals, plasti i snes required 6 Pl sot deformation at room temperature occurs by dislocation motion Th location depends on the atomic bonding, crystal seruchut, a Scanned with CamScannersoiure, C10 wT sa oe solute re bs bousdasiey prespite particles and other dislocations. If movin | he dislocs cation is high, the metal will fail instead by the rege ttle. Thus, either plastic flow (ductile failure) or of ttle failure) will occu i ‘oun On , depending on which process requires the smaller wo ¥ ah spit ec metals, the flow stress, i.e. the force requit In render Therefore, dislocation ae erat cenaitt ti omeet ea est seri semains relatively ductile. ins high even at low temperatures piastic HO depends upon the movement of dislocation and this occurs in some finite ioe rempeatare decrees the eee of dislocations becomes more difficult and this ty ternal stress exceeding yield stress at some instant. The mode of ipo he changes at some temperature or in the certain temperature range. This temperature OF At Duetile - Brittle fat oe anges aed Pa rite transition temperature or range. es wemperature, tne StTeSs (0 propagate a crack = ois equal to yield stress 2 -= a= Oy ‘Attransition temperature, 0 = Oy: Temperature below transition, 01 < oy Temperature above transition, 01 > Sy: (a) Factors Affecting on ‘Ductile - Brittle Transition Temperature: Following factors affect Ductile - Brittle transition temperature. ‘Transition temperature increases - When grain size of material increas®s. — When alloying elements are added in the material. = When impurities in metal increases. - When te percentage of carbor in stel increase Fig. 28 shows Ductile » Brittle transition for iron and steel having 0.45% C and 0.6% C. 400: Iron | | 3 | : 300: 0,45%C Steel | i 200: 0.6%C Stee! = 100: Joo 100-500 #100 Temp. (°C) Fig, 2.8: Ductile - Brittle Transition in Iron and Steel brittle at low temperatures OF at extremely high rates of low temperatures: Common BCC metals become reer other hand, remain ductile 2° at very rittle, as there are not enough slip systems to maintain grain stain. Many FCC metals, on ‘olyerystalline HCP metals are bi boundary integrity. Scanned with CamScanner29 pliemibemeges (10 Marks), Dec. 2010, 2011, 2013 (10 Marks), Nov. 2012 (10 Merk, With frequent stress fluctuations, the material may fail at a stress level far below its Stay, ultimate tensile strength is called as ‘Fatigue Failure’, It is generally observed that these failu,,. occur only after a considerable period of service. Fatigue failure occurs in aircraft, compress, Pumps, turbines, etc., subject to repeated loading and vibration. Until today it is often stateq the fatigue accounts for at least 90 percent of all service failures due to mechanical causes. Fatigue failure particularly occurs without any previous warning. Fatigue results in, brittle - appearing fracture, with no gross deformation at the fracture. A fatigue failure cap usually be recognized from the appearance of the fracture surface. Fig. 2.13 shows a smo, region, due to the rubbing action as the crack propagated through the section. A rough regio, where the member has failed in a ductile manner when the cross section was no longer able ;, carry the load. Frequently the progress of the fracture is indicated by a series of rings or Deng marks’ progressing inward from the point of initiation of the failure, Smooth region Rough region Fig. 2.13: Appearance of Fatigue Fracture Three basic factors are necessary to cause fatigue failure. These are: @) A maximum tensile stress of sufficiently high value. (ii) A large enough variation or fluctuation in the applied stress, Gii) A sufficiently large number of cycles of the applied stress. In addition, there is a host of other variables, such as stress concentration, corrosion, temperature, overload, metallurgical structure, residual Stresses and combined stresses, which tend to alter the conditions of fatigue. OO Scanned with CamScanner212 FATIGUE TESTING: (June 2010 (3 Marks), May 2013) The fatigue testing can also be conducted using rotating beam fatigue testing as shown in Fig. 2.18. The fatigue specimen is gripped on to a motor at one end to provide the rotational motion whereas the other end is attached to a bearing and also subjected to a load or stress. The test machine has high-speed electrical motor with a speed of 1000 rpm. - A collect is attached with a rotating lever arm which is further connected with a small A force is applied on the bearing, which causes the spi pas ofthe specimen Specimen is rotated about the longitudinal axis, the upper lowes oy Tu tat giuge length are subjected to tensile and compressive stresses resPe< roceeds until specimen failure take place. The revolution counter is used to obtain the number of cy<), failures corresponding ty the stress applied. When the specimen breaks then the count automatically disengages. * In onder to obtain the fatigue limit, ie. endurance limit of a metal, it is Necessary Prepare a number of specimens which are representative of that metal. The first specim,. metal is tested at a relatively high stress so that the failure will occur at a small numbe, applications of the stress. The other specimens of the metal are tested relatively at a lower 5," than the previous one. With the decrease in stress value, the life of specimen increased. »," number of repetition required to produce rupture, i.e., fracture increases as the stress decrea..” ‘Specimen with stress below the endurance limit will not rupture. The life of the specimen expressed in number of cycles required upto failure at maximum applied force. The resu)t; . fatigue tests are commonly plotted on diagrams in which values of stress are plotted as ordin,. and values of cycles of stress for rupture as abscissae. The curve is called S-N diagram, wher. ; stands for stress and N for number of cycles. These diagrams are drawn using semi-logarith,,. plotting. ie. plotting ‘N’ on logarithmic scale. “ ‘This part of the specimen is in compression (— ve force) = = Sw — is in tension (+ ve force) Weight (W) on specimen Fig. 2.18: Rotating Beam Fatigue Testing Machine Scanned with CamScannerINFLUENCE OF IMPORTANT FACTORS ON FATIGUE: [May 2012, 2013] Fatigue strength is seriously reduced by the following factors: (Notch effect. Gi) Surface effect. ii) Corrosion fatigue. (Gv) Thermal fatigue. (v) Pre-stressing. (1) Notch Effect: Fatigue strength of the material is reduced by the presence of a notch in the material. In machine elements, it contains fillets, keyways, screw threads and holes. Fatigue cracks in structural parts usually start at such geometrical irregularities. “The effect of fatigue is generally studied by specimens containing a ‘V’ notch or a circular notch. The effect of notches on fatigue strength is determined by comparing the S-N curves of notched and unnotched specimens. (2) Surface Effect: "All fatigue failures start atthe surface. The factors which afect on te surface ofa fatigue specimen are roughly divided into three categories: @) Surface roughness. Gi) Changes in surface properties. Gi) Surface residual stress. ° oa polished mens in which the fine seratches (stress raises) are oriented parallel with the direction of the principal tensile stress; give the highest values in fatigue tes: Sich polithed specimens are usualy used in laboratory fatigue tess and ae MON Pt ; Fig. 222 shows that mirror polished specimen gives more fatigue strength and fatigue strength reduces with increase in surface roughness, 216 a | Corr in sat water | 400 e000 1000 —1200~—1400~—~1800—tB00 “Tenaie strength MPa Fig, 2.22: Fatigue limit of steel i) Changes in Surface Properties: aa Fatigue failure is dependent on the surface conditions. Decarburization ofthe su . the suri heated el us ue primar Cabin nd Nig ale ss stronger and harder, which improves fatigue properties. The fatigue performance is when notched fatigue specimens are nitrided. a Scanned with CamScanner(3) Corrosion Fatigue: ; The simultaneous action of cyclic stress and chemical at i ioe fatigue. Corrosive attack without superimposed stress often produce pliee fof met sure The pits act as notches and produce a reduction in fatigue strength. When corrosion and fatig:* occur simultaneously, the chemical attack greatly accelerates the rate at which fatigue crac Propagate. Materials which show a definite fatigue limit when tested in air at room temper wet shows no indication of a fatigue limit when the test is carried out in a corrosive environmet When the fatigue test is carried out in the air not affected by the speed of testn over a rang from about 10 to 200 Hz, when the testis carried out in the corrosive enviroment there 8? efinite dependence on testing speed. Since the corrosive attack is a time-dependet hig phenome the bight the ting “Speeds, the smaller the damage due to corrosion. In usual Zpmnbined influences of corrosion and cyclic stress ea iC NOUS subjecting specimen in ‘A number of methods are available for minimize ne ronment by metallic and non-metallic coating minimi: i dug imizing corrosion fatigue Fatigue failure can be produced no stresses are produced by mechanical causes. Thermal stresses result when the change in o =aEAT Where a = linear thermal coefficient of expansion E = elastic modulus Ifa failure occurs by one application of thermal stress, the condition is called thermal shock. However, if a failure occurs after repeated applications of thermal stress, of a lower magnitude, it is called thermal fatigue. It exists at high temperature. Austenitic stainless steel is sensitive to this phenomenon because of its low thermal conductivity and high thermal expansion. (5) Pre-Stressing: Pre-stressing is the process of loading an engineering component under controlled conditions to a cyclic stress for a fixed number of cycles prior to any possibility of fatigue failure. When the magnitude of pre-stressing is lower than the operating stress level then it is known as under-stressing. Under controlled conditions when the magnitude of the stress is higher than operating stress level the condition is called overstressing. The number of pre-stressing cycles is always lesser than the number of cycles needed to cause fatigue failure. Pre-stressing is desirable under conditions of under-stressing. An under stressed components always exhibits best fatigue resistance. For an over-stressed component, the failure resistance is lesser compared to components that have been pre-stressed. Thus under stressing cause significant improvement in fatigue behavior by strengthening the weak regions and enhancing their dynamic response to operating stress. Scanned with CamScannerScanned with CamScannerFig. 2.18: Rotating Beam Fatigue Testing Machine 213. FATIGUE LIMIT OR ENDURANCE LIMIT: (Dee. 2014 (6 Maris ‘When 2 series of strese spotted against the numberof cyces to failure at each ses on 8 semilog sae, for ion, tel, and ferrous alloys, a stres is reached below which face does not ceur for an infinite numberof cycles. Ths value of stress is called fatigue limit © acurance limit tis shown in Fig, 219 (a). However, for non-ferrous metals and allays like AL Mg, Cu and ther alloys no such definite limit exsts and asthe stres is decreased, the number ‘yc to failure progressively goes on increasing. These materials donot have ¢ acini oo hence its to report fatigue strength (or. eta ans Pom au engi (or endurance strength) instead of aig limit. * 7 10 10" (200,10) yimber of Cycles 9 (Endurance strength foe ig 219 Badurance Limit fr mea eae ee nt nares tent mY oe a speced suber of pees witout face (sully 10s) fark)! 235. SNCURVE: tune 2010 (8 Marks), June 2009 3 Mark) ‘The basic method of presenting engineering ati data by teans ofthe SUCH 2 plot of stress against the numberof ye to are NA log scale is wed for NV The vale of ste that i pled can be alteraing ses (mai es (me) o€ TU (an): Mest determinations of the fatigue properties of materials have Deen made in comple reversed bending, where the mean stress is zero. Fig. 2.21 gives typical SN curves from. = sxens ns 1 i len donlnmedy {- i SREH Fatigue lini 7” —alun era} Gn term meta | i” eo a 10° 10" 108 10” (wae tees otra | ig. 221: Fatigue Curves Fig. 221 shows tat, the umber of ee of sess which a metal can endure before failure inceaes with decreasing sess Fotigoe ets at low seve are ual ered Oat for 1 cycles and sometimes to 5 « 19 cys of nonferrous metas Fora ew important engineerin ‘teil uch as ste and tania the SN carve becomes horizontal ata ceraln Hing ees low tis lining sree, which sled the fatigue let or endurance Limit the maga! et cndre en finite nae of yes without are Mt nonlerout metas tkesluminim, magnesium and copper alloy, have an SN carve win slopes gadally downward wth nceaing nome of cose eons Sieve ae gear ee efron aus turacterize the fatigue proper of mater by eng the faigue ‘Seuige tan array numberof ee, for example 10 cylos bite he fatigue strength of engineering mater in ger lowe than thee nll eng Art ef the atu sergio the eae sen clase fgets ‘omalybnerved hat nthe cnt fst, the fatigue sent ise npr he le seem: Therefore, improving the eal strength by edo wk Rest esters ‘cmalynerans the fatigue strength ofthe mater. However fe onto seta och oo ‘minim alloy the ftgueratois ound eppronimaely OS Oe reeset eae ‘gn do not necesary increase the fatigue avenge ofthe nen Scanned with CamScanner29 FATIGUE FAILURE: (May! June 2011, 2014 (10 Marks), Dec. 2010, 2011, 2013 (10 Marks), Nov. 2012 (10 Mark, With frequent stress fluctuations, the material may fail at a stress level far below its Stay, ultimate tensile strength is called as ‘Fatigue Failure’. It is generally observed that these faij,,, ‘occur only after a considerable period of service. Fatigue failure occurs in aircraft, compress, Pumps, turbines, etc., subject to repeated loading and vibration. Until today it is often stateg thy fatigue accounts for at least 90 Percent of all service failures due to mechanical causes. Fatigue failure Particularly occurs without any previous warning. Fatigue results in brittle - appearing fracture, with no Gross deformation at the fracture. A fatigue failure Pe Tegion, due to the rubbing action as the crack Propagated through the section. A Tough regic, where the member has failed in a ductile manner when the cross section was no longer able t& cary the load. Frequently the Progress of the fracture is indicated by a series of rings or dene, marks’ progressing inward from the point of initiation of the failure, Rough region Fig. 2.13: Appearance of Fatigue Fracture Three basic factors are Necessary to cause fatigue failure. These are: @) A maximum tensile stress of sufficiently high value. Gi) A large enough variation or fluctuation in the applied stress. Gii) A sufficiently large number of cycles of the applied stress, In addition, there is a host of other variables, such as stress concentration, corrosion, temperature, overload, metallurgical structure, residual stresses and combined stresses, which tend to alter the conditions of fatigue. Scanned with CamScanner