CASE STUDY-II

CAYLEY’S THEOREM, LAGRANGE’S THEOREM AND COSETS

G
ROU
P-
1.MUSKA
N
SINGH(02
8)
2.NAMAN OCTOBER 23, 2019
KAUSHIK(SUBMITTED TO -MS.ANCHAL
029)
 3.NISHAN

Contents

 CAYLEY HAMILTON THEOREM………………………………………………………….3

 APPLICATIONS…………………………………………………………………..5

 COSETS…………………………………………………………………………………………..10
 APPLICATIONS…………………………………………………………………11

 LAGRANGE’S THEOREM………………………………………………………………….12
 APPLICATIONS…………………………………………………………………13
 CAYLEY HAMILTON
THEOREM
In linear algebra, the Cayley–Hamilton theorem
(named after the mathematicians Arthur Cayley and
William Rowan Hamilton) states that every square
matrix over a commutative ring (such as the real or
complex field) satisfies its own characteristic equation.

If A is a given n×n matrix and In  is the n×n identity

matrix, then the characteristic polynomial of A is
defined as

p ( λ ) = det ( λ I n − A )   , where det is the determinant

operation and λ is a scalar element of the base ring.
Since the entries of the matrix are (linear or constant)
polynomials in λ, the determinant is also an n-th order
monic polynomial in λ. The Cayley–Hamilton theorem
states that if one defines an analogous matrix equation, p(A), consisting of the replacement of the
scalar eigenvalues λ with the matrix A, then this polynomial in the matrix A results in the zero
matrix,

p ( A ) = 0. {\displaystyle p(A)=0.} The powers of A, obtained by substitution from powers of λ,

are defined by repeated matrix multiplication; the constant term of p(λ) gives a multiple of the
power A0, which is defined as the identity matrix. The theorem allows An to be expressed as a
linear combination of the lower matrix powers of A. When the ring is a field, the Cayley–
Hamilton theorem is equivalent to the statement that the minimal polynomial of a square matrix
divides its characteristic polynomial.

The theorem was first proved in 1853 in terms of inverses of linear functions of quaternions, a
non-commutative ring, by Hamilton. This corresponds to the special case of certain 4 × 4 real or
2 × 2 complex matrices. The theorem holds for general quaternionic matrices. Cayley in 1858
stated it for 3 × 3 and smaller matrices, but only published a proof for the 2 × 2 case. The general
case was first proved by Frobenius in 1878.
Examples

 1×1 matrices

For a 1×1 matrix A = (a1,1), the characteristic polynomial is given by p(λ) = λ − a, and so
p(A) = (a) − a1,1 = 0 is obvious.

 2×2 matrices
Applications
 Determinant and inverse matrix

For a general n×n invertible matrix A, i.e., one with nonzero determinant, A−1 can thus be
written as an (n − 1)-th order polynomial expression in A: As indicated, the Cayley–Hamilton
theorem amounts to the identity

The coefficients ci are given by the elementary symmetric polynomials of the eigenvalues of A.
Using Newton identities, the elementary symmetric polynomials can in turn be expressed in
terms of power sum symmetric polynomials of the eigenvalues:
 n-th Power of matrix
The Cayley–Hamilton theorem always provides a relationship between the powers of A (though not
always the simplest one), which allows one to simplify expressions involving such powers, and evaluate
them without having to compute the power An or any higher powers of A.

Notice that we have been able to write the matrix power as the sum of two terms. In fact, matrix power of
any order k can be written as a matrix polynomial of degree at most n - 1, where n is the size of a square
matrix. This is an instance where Cayley–Hamilton theorem can be used to express a matrix function,
which we will discuss below systematically.

 Matrix functions
When the eigenvalues are repeated, that is λi = λj for some i ≠ j, two or more equations are identical; and
hence the linear equations cannot be solved uniquely. For such cases, for an eigenvalue λ with multiplicity
m, the first m – 1 derivative of p(x) vanishes at the eigenvalues. Thus, there are the extra m – 1 linearly
independent solutions

which, when combined with others, yield the required n equations to solve for ci.

Finding a polynomial that passes through the points (λi, f (λi)) is essentially an interpolation problem, and
can be solved using Lagrange or Newton interpolation techniques, leading to Sylvester's formula.

For example, suppose the task is to find the polynomial representation of

.

More recently, expressions have appeared for other groups, like the Lorentz group SO(3, 1), O(4, 2) and
SU(2, 2) as well as GL(n, R). The group O(4, 2) is the conformal group of spacetime, SU(2, 2) its simply
connected cover (to be precise, the simply connected cover of the connected component SO+(4, 2) of
O(4, 2)). The expressions obtained apply to the standard representation of these groups. They require
knowledge of (some of) the eigenvalues of the matrix to exponentiate. For SU(2) (and hence for SO(3)),
closed expressions have recently been obtained for all irreducible representations, i.e. of any spin.

 Algebraic number theory

COSETS
In mathematics, if G is a group, and H is a subgroup of G, and g is an element of G, then

gH = { gh : h an element of H } is the left coset of H in G with respect to g,

and
Hg={ hg : h an element of H } is the right coset of H in G with respect to g.

If the group operation is written additively, the notation used changes to g + H or H + g.

Cosets are a basic tool in the study of groups; for example they play a central role in
Lagrange's theorem that states that for any finite group G, the number of elements of every
subgroup H of G divides the number of elements of G.

The element g belongs to the coset gH. If x belongs to gH then xH=gH. Thus every
element of G belongs to exactly one left coset of the subgroup H. Elements g and x
belong to the same left coset of H if and only if g-1x belongs to H. Similar statements
apply to right cosets.

If G is an abelian group, then gH = Hg for every subgroup H of G and every element g of G.

In general, given an element g and a subgroup H of a group G, the right coset of H with
respect to g is also the left coset of the conjugate subgroup g−1Hg  with respect to g, that is,
Hg = g ( g−1Hg ). The number of left cosets of H in G is equal to the number of right
cosets of H in G. The common value is called the index of H in G.

A subgroup N of a group G is a normal subgroup of G if and only if for all elements g of G

the corresponding left and right coset are equal, that is, gN = Ng. Furthermore, the
cosets of N in G form a group called the quotient group or factor group.

Integer :

Let G be the additive group of the integers, Z = ({..., −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, ...}, +) and H the
subgroup (mZ, +) = ({..., −2m, −m, 0, m, 2m, ...}, +) where m is a positive integer. Then the
cosets of H in G are the m sets mZ, mZ + 1, ..., mZ + (m − 1), where mZ + a = {..., −2m+a,
−man, a, m+a, 2m+a, ...}. There are no more than m cosets, because mZ + m = m(Z + 1) =
mZ. The coset (mZ + a, +) is the congruence class of a modulo m.
Vectors :

Another example of a coset comes from the theory of vector spaces. The elements
(vectors) of a vector space form an abelian group under vector addition. It is not hard to
show that subspaces of a vector space are subgroups of this group. For a vector space V, a
subspace W, and a fixed vector a in V, the sets are called affine subspaces, and are cosets
(both left and right, since the group is abelian). In terms of geometric vectors, these
affine subspaces are all the "lines" or "planes" parallel to the subspace, which is a line or
plane going through the origin.

Applications :
 Cosets of Q in R are used in the construction of Vitali sets, a type of non-measurable set.

Vitali set is an elementary example of a set of real numbers that is not

Lebesgue measurable, found by Giuseppe Vitali. The Vitali theorem is the
existence theorem that there are such sets. There are uncountably many Vitali
sets, and their existence depends on the axiom of choice.

 Cosets are central in the definition of the transfer.

Transfer defines, given a group G and a subgroup of finite index H, a group

homomorphism from G to the abelianization of H. It can be used in conjunction
with the Sylow theorems to obtain certain numerical results on the existence of
finite simple groups.

 Cosets are important in computational group theory. For example, Thistlethwaite's algorithm for
solving Rubik's Cube relies heavily on cosets.

 Coset leaders are used in decoding received data in linear error-correcting codes.

In coding theory, a linear code is an error-correcting code for which any linear
combination of codewords is also a code word. Linear codes are traditionally
partitioned into block codes and convolutional codes, although turbo codes
can be seen as a hybrid of these two types. Linear codes allow for more
 efficient encoding and decoding algorithms than other codes (cf. syndrome
decoding).

LANGRANGE’S THEOREM

Lagrange's theorem, in the mathematics of group theory, states that for any finite group G,
the order (number of elements) of every subgroup H of G divides the order of G. The
theorem is named after Joseph-Louis Langrange.

This can be shown using the concept of left cosets of H in G. The left cosets are the
equivalence classes of a certain equivalence relation on G and therefore form a partition of
G. Specifically, x and y in G are related if and only if there exists h in H such that x = yh. If
we can show that all cosets of H have the same number of elements, then each coset of
H has precisely |H| elements. We are then done since the order of H times the number
of cosets is equal to the number of elements in G, thereby proving that the order of H
divides the order of G.

To show any two left cosets have the same cardinality, it suffices to demonstrate a
bijection between them. Suppose aH and bH are two left cosets of H. Then define a map
f : aH → bH by setting f(x) = ba -1 x. This map is bijective because it has an inverse given
by :

This proof also shows that the quotient of the orders |G| / |H| is equal to the index [G : H] (the
number of left cosets of H in G). If we allow G and H to be infinite, and write this statement as
Applications

 A consequence of the theorem is that the order of any element a of a finite group (i.e. the
smallest positive integer number k with ak = e, where e is the identity element of the
group) divides the order of that group, since the order of a is equal to the order of the
cyclic subgroup generated by a. If the group has n elements, it follows

 This can be used to prove Fermat's little theorem and its generalization, Euler's theorem.
These special cases were known long before the general theorem was proved.
Fermat's little theorem states that if p is a prime number, then for any integer
a, the number ap − a is an integer multiple of p. In the notation of modular
arithmetic, this is expressed as:

ap-1 = a (mod p)

For example, if a = 2 and p = 7, then 27 = 128, and 128 − 2 = 126 = 7 × 18 is an

integer multiple of 7.If a is not divisible by p, Fermat's little theorem is
equivalent to the statement that ap − 1 − 1 is an integer multiple of p, or in
symbols:
ap-1 = 1 (mod p)

For example, if a = 2 and p = 7, then 26 = 64, and 64 − 1 = 63 = 7 × 9 is thus a

multiple of 7.

 The theorem also shows that any group of prime order is cyclic and simple. This in turn
can be used to prove Wilson's theorem, that if p is prime then p is a factor of

In number theory, Wilson's theorem states that a natural number n > 1 is a

prime number if and only if the product of all the positive integers less than n
 is one less than a multiple of n. That is (using the notations of modular
arithmetic), the factorial (n-1)! = 1 x 2 x 3 x ..... x (n-1) satisfies :

(n-1)! = -1 (mod n)

exactly when n is a prime number. In other words, any number n is a prime

number if, and only if, (n − 1)! + 1 is divisible by n.

 Lagrange's theorem can also be used to show that there are infinitely many primes: if
there were a largest prime p, then a prime divisor q of the Mersenne number (2p-1)
would be such that the order of (Z/qZ)* in the multiplicative (Z/qZ)* group divides the
order of which is q-1 . Hence p<q , contradicting the assumption that p is the largest
prime.