recycling

Article
Concepts for Reusing Composite Materials from
Decommissioned Wind Turbine Blades in
Affordable Housing
Lawrence C. Bank 1, *, Franco R. Arias 1 , Ardavan Yazdanbakhsh 1 , T. Russell Gentry 2 ,
Tristan Al-Haddad 2 , Jian-Fei Chen 3 ID and Ruth Morrow 3
1 City College of New York, Grove School of Engineering, New York, NY 10031, USA;
farias01@citymail.cuny.edu (F.R.A.); ayazdanbakhsh@ccny.cuny.edu (A.Y.)
2 Georgia Institute of Technology, School of Architecture, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA;
russell.gentry@coa.gatech.edu (T.R.G.); tristan.al-haddad@coa.gatech.edu (T.A.-H.)
3 David Keir Building, Queen’s University Belfast, Stranmillis Road, Belfast BT9 5AG, UK;
j.chen@qub.ac.uk (J.-F.C.); ruth.morrow@qub.ac.uk (R.M.)
* Correspondence: lbank2@ccny.ccny.edu

Received: 5 December 2017; Accepted: 16 January 2018; Published: 17 January 2018

Abstract: The very rapid growth in wind energy technology in the last 15 years has led to a rapid
growth in the amount of non-biodegradable, thermosetting fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite
materials used in wind turbine blades. This paper discusses conceptual architectural and structural
options for recycling these blades by reusing parts of wind turbine blades in new or retrofitted
housing projects. It focuses on large-sized FRP pieces that can be salvaged from the turbine blades
and can potentially be useful in infrastructure projects where harsh environmental conditions (water
and high humidity) exist. Since reuse design should be for specific regional locations and architectural
characteristics the designs presented in this paper are for the coastal regions of the Yucatan province
in Mexico on the Gulf of Mexico where low-quality masonry block informal housing is vulnerable
to severe hurricanes and flooding. To demonstrate the concept a prototype 100 m long wind blade
model developed by Sandia National Laboratories is used to show how a wind blade can be broken
down into parts, thus making it possible to envision architectural applications for the different wind
blade segments for housing applications.

Keywords: CFRP; composite materials; design; FRP; GFRP; housing; Mexico; recycling; reuse; waste;
wind turbines; wind energy

1. Introduction
A typical 2.0 MW turbine with three 50 m blades has approximately 20 tonnes of fiber reinforced
polymer (FRP) material and an 8 MW turbine has approximately 80 tonnes of glass (G) and carbon
(C) fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) material (1 MW ~10 tonnes of FRP, see [1–4].) As of December
2016, the global cumulative installed wind power capacity was 486,790 MegaWatts (MW) (Figure 1) [5].
Based on a predicted moderate growth scenario from the Global Wind Energy Council [6] for future
global wind power installations a total of 16.8 million tonnes of FRP materials will need to be disposed
of or recycled by 2030 and 39.8 million tonnes by 2050 (Figure 2). However beneficial to sustainable
energy production, this sharp growth in the wind industry will also lead to substantial and potentially
unsustainable amounts of non-biodegradable composite material to be dealt with in the future.

Recycling 2018, 3, 3; doi:10.3390/recycling3010003 www.mdpi.com/journal/recycling

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Figure 1. Global Cumulative Capacity [5].

Figure 1.
Figure Global Cumulative
1. Global Cumulative Capacity
Capacity [5].
[5].

Figure 2. Global Wind Energy Predictions [6].

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Global
Global Wind
Wind Energy Predictions [6].
Energy Predictions [6].
The Mexican wind industry has been installing wind turbines over the past nine years. Figure 3
shows The Mexican wind
a forecast industry has been installing wind turbines over the past nine years. Figure [7].33
The Mexicanofwind the installed
industrycapacity
has been (12,823 MWwind
installing total)turbines
for each over
of Mexico’s
the pastprovinces
nine years. in 2020
Figure
shows
The a
two forecast
provinces of the installed
with capacity
the largest (12,823
anticipated MW windtotal) for
energy each of Mexico’s
capacities provinces
in 2020 in
are Oaxaca 2020 [7].
shows a forecast of the installed capacity (12,823 MW total) for each of Mexico’s provinces in 2020and [7].
The two
Yucatan. provinces
Large numbers with the largest
of largest
wind turbineanticipated wind
blades energy
facing capacities
inevitable in 2020
decommissioning are Oaxaca and
closeand to
The two provinces with the anticipated wind energy capacities in 2020 are Oaxaca
Yucatan.
vulnerable Large numbers
communities of wind turbine blades facing inevitable decommissioning close to
Yucatan. Large numbers ofon the turbine
wind Gulf ofbladesMexico coast
facing would make
inevitable it feasible to
decommissioning transport
close blade
to vulnerable
vulnerable
segments communities
to these on
communities the Gulf
for reuse. of Mexico coast would make it feasible to transport blade
communities on the Gulf of Mexico coast would make it feasible to transport blade segments to these
segments
Over to
thethese
past communities
40 years formalfor reuse.
and informal settlements have developed in small towns along
communities for reuse.
Over
the northern the past 40 years
coast40ofyears formal
the formal
Yucatan and the
informal settlements have developed in small towns of along
Over the past andininformal Gulf of Mexico.
settlements haveTodeveloped
assess theinvulnerability
small towns along these
the
the northern
settlements to coast
the of the
effects Yucatan
of climate in the
change, Gulf628of Mexico.
household To assess
surveys the
were vulnerability
conducted of seven
in these
northern coast of the Yucatan in the Gulf of Mexico. To assess the vulnerability of these settlements
settlements tointhe
communities effects of theclimate change, 628[8].household surveys were conducted in seven
to the effects of his region
climate in
change, summer
628 of 2014
household surveys The housing
were in this
conducted inregion
seveniscommunities
constructed of
in
communities
hollow concrete in his
(CMU)region in
blocks the summer
confined by of 2014 [8].
cast-in-place The housing
corner in
columns. this Theregion
roof is
is constructed
constructed of
of
his region in the summer of 2014 [8]. The housing in this region is constructed of hollow concrete
hollow concrete
precast blocks
inverted (CMU)
T-beams blocks confined by cast-in-place corner columns. The roof is constructed of
(CMU) confined byand matching hollow
cast-in-place blocks. After
corner columns. Theassembly the roof is of
roof is constructed covered
precast with a 15–
inverted
precast inverted
20 mm layer T-beams and matching hollow blocks. After assembly the roof is covered with a 15–
T-beams andofmatching
cast-in-place
hollowpea-gravel
blocks. concrete. The foundation
After assembly the roof is is compacted
covered with rubble
a 15–20withmm a cast-in-
layer
20 mm
place layer of
strip footing.cast-in-place pea-gravel
Concreteconcrete.
lintels and concrete. The foundation is compacted rubble with a cast-in-
of cast-in-place pea-gravel Theheader beamsisare
foundation cast-in-place.
compacted rubble Houses
with aare typically single
cast-in-place strip
place
or strip footing. Concrete lintels and header beams are cast-in-place. Houses are typically
edge single
multi-room measuring 30–50 m
footing. Concrete lintels and header2 beams are cast-in-place. Houses are typically singleThe
2. A house under construction is shown in Figure 4. of the
or multi-room
or multi-room
roofing system measuring 30–50 onmthe . A house
house under construction is shown in Figure 4. The edge of of the
measuring 30–50can m2 . be seen
A house under alongside
construction is shown to in
the left
Figure in Figure
4. The edge4.ofThe interior
the roofing systeman
roofing system
approximately 30can
year beoldseen
houseon isthe house
shown in alongside
Figure 5. to
The the left
underside in ofFigure
the 4. The
inverted-T-beam interior of the
and an
can be seen on the house alongside to the left in Figure 4. The interior of an approximately 30 year old
approximately
roofing 30 year
be old house is shown
effectsin Figure 5. The underside of the inverted-T-beam and the
house is blocks
shown can in Figureseen. Severe
5. The underside ofofthe
moisture damage
inverted-T-beam to
andboth
the the roofblocks
roofing and walls can be is seen.
also
roofing
observed. blocks
Theof can be
household seen. Severe effects of moisture damage to both the roof and walls is also
Severe effects moisture surveys
damagerevealed to both the thatroof
homeandowners
walls iswere
alsomost concerned
observed. about the damage
The household surveys
observed.
caused by The household
wind-driven surveys
rain and revealeddue
flooding thattohome ownersand
hurricanes were most
also concerned
normal weather about the damage
conditions [8].
revealed that home owners were most concerned about the damage caused by wind-driven rain and
caused by wind-driven rain and flooding due to hurricanes and also normal weather conditions [8].
flooding due to hurricanes and also normal weather conditions [8].
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Figure 3. Mexico 2020 Forecast [7].

Figure 3. Mexico 2020 Forecast [7].
Figure 3. Mexico 2020 Forecast [7].
Figure 3. Mexico 2020 Forecast [7].

Figure 4. Typical confined concrete masonry construction in Yucatan communities (photo: L. Bank).
Figure 4. Typical confined concrete masonry construction in Yucatan communities (photo: L. Bank).
Figure 4. Typical confined concrete masonry construction in Yucatan communities (photo: L. Bank).
Figure 4. Typical confined concrete masonry construction in Yucatan communities (photo: L. Bank).

Figure 5. Interior of house showing moisture damage (Photo: J. Biles).

Figure 5. Interior of house showing moisture damage (Photo: J. Biles).

Figure 5. Interior of house showing moisture damage (Photo: J. Biles).
Figure 5. Interior of house showing moisture damage (Photo: J. Biles).
Recycling 2018, 3, 3 4 of 11

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Three end-of-life (EOL) options for FRP wind blades [9] are currently possible—disposal, recovery,
and reuse. The two options to dispose of FRP composites at the present involve landfilling or
Three end-of-life (EOL) options for FRP wind blades [9] are currently possible—disposal,
incineration
recovery, and(with or without
reuse. The twoenergyoptionsrecovery
to dispose and/or
of FRP silica ash recovery).
composites Recovery
at the present options
involve consist of
landfilling
reclamation of the constituent fibers or the resins by thermo–chemical methods
or incineration (with or without energy recovery and/or silica ash recovery). Recovery options consist or recovering of small
pieces of granular FRP material for use as filler material in concrete
of reclamation of the constituent fibers or the resins by thermo–chemical methods or recoveringor other composites by cutting,
of
shredding,
small piecesor grinding
of granular[10,11].
FRPReuse options
material for useconsist of reusing
as filler materialthe in entire
concrete FRPorblade
otherorcomposites
large partsby of it
in new structural applications. Reuse options are the primary focus of this paper
cutting, shredding, or grinding [10,11]. Reuse options consist of reusing the entire FRP blade or large since landfilling and
incineration
parts of it are environmentally
in new harmful and
structural applications. recovery
Reuse options methods
are theare not currently
primary focus of economical
this paperfor glass
since
fiber reinforced
landfilling andpolymer (GFRP),
incineration are of which the vastharmful
environmentally majorityand of current
recovery blades
methods are fabricated. There is
are not currently
economical
significant for glass
current fiber[10]
research reinforced polymer
in recovering (GFRP),
carbon fiberof reinforced
which the polymer
vast majority(CFRP)of current
materialsblades
which
are fabricated. There is significant
have higher value as recycled materials. current research [10] in recovering carbon fiber reinforced polymer
(CFRP) materials which have higher value as recycled materials.
2. Wind Blade Computational Models
2. Wind Blade Computational Models
A publically available 100 m long prototype wind turbine blade model (SNL-100-01) that was
designed A publically
by Sandiaavailable
National100 m long prototype
Laboratories [12] was wind used turbine
in thisblade
study model (SNL-100-01) that
for demonstration was
purposes.
designed
This model,by Sandia
which hasNational
not beenLaboratories
manufactured, [12] was used ininthis
has GFRP most study for shell/skin
of the demonstration purposes.
structure, and a
This model, which has not been manufactured, has GFRP in most of
smaller amount of CFRP in the shear webs and spar caps. The geometry is defined by 25 different the shell/skin structure, and a
smaller amount of CFRP in the shear webs and spar caps. The geometry
airfoil shapes. A total of 393 solid and sandwich composite material lay-ups are used in the blade. is defined by 25 different
Theairfoil shapes.
software toolA Numerical
total of 393 solid and sandwich
Manufacturing andcomposite
Design Tool material
(NuMAD)lay-ups[13] are was
used used
in thebuild
blade.the
The software tool Numerical Manufacturing and Design Tool (NuMAD) [13] was used build the
three-dimensional model. Model parameters are the airfoil types, station parameters, division points,
three-dimensional model. Model parameters are the airfoil types, station parameters, division points,
composite materials, and shear web division points. Figure 6 shows a finalized version of the
composite materials, and shear web division points. Figure 6 shows a finalized version of the SNL-
SNL-100-01 100 m blade. The different colors in the figure represent the locations of the different
100-01 100 m blade. The different colors in the figure represent the locations of the different materials
materials in the blade. Blades in the 30–50 m length range are typically made of only GFRP. Longer
in the blade. Blades in the 30–50 m length range are typically made of only GFRP. Longer blades (50–
blades (50–80 m) also use some CFRP for increased stiffness. Blade designs are proprietary and wind
80 m) also use some CFRP for increased stiffness. Blade designs are proprietary and wind power
power companies
companies do notdorelease
not release
specific specific
detailsdetails
of theirofmaterials
their materials
and shapes.and This
shapes.studyThis study
used used the
the Sandia
Sandia
100 m long glass and carbon blade model as an example. The architectural graphics software software
100 m long glass and carbon blade model as an example. The architectural graphics Rhino
Rhino 3D [14]
3D [14] was was
usedused to render
to render the blade.
the blade. Rendering
Rendering the bladethe blade
with itswith its actual
actual material material thicknesses
thicknesses and
and real
real shape
shape is required
is required to extract
to extract realistic
realistic segments
segments for architectural
for architectural applications.
applications. For structural
For structural and
and aerodynamic
aerodynamic modeling
modeling only
only a wireframe
a wireframe finite-element
finite-element model
model is typically
is typically needed.
needed. Figure
Figure 7 shows
7 shows a
a rendered isometric
rendered isometric view of the SNL-100-01
of the SNL-100-01 blade. blade.

Figure6.6.The
Figure TheSNL-100-01
SNL-100-01 NuMAD
NuMAD Blade
BladeModel
Model[2].
[2].
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Figure 7. The SNL-100-01 blade Rendered in Rhino 3D.

Figure 7. The SNL-100-01 blade Rendered in Rhino 3D.
3. Architectural Concepts for Decommissioned 100 m Long Wind Blade Segments
3. Architectural Concepts for Decommissioned 100 m Long Wind Blade Segments
3.1. Root-Foundation System
Figure 7. The SNL-100-01 blade Rendered in Rhino 3D.
3.1. Root-Foundation System
The root segment of the SNL-100-01 blade has circular and elliptical cross sections. The top and
3. Architectural Concepts for Decommissioned 100 m Long Wind Blade Segments
The root
bottom segment
halves of theofblade
the SNL-100-01
shell consistblade has circular
of a variety of FRPand elliptical
materials crossin
arranged sections.
differentThe layers:top and
bottom halves
gelcoat; of
resin; the blade
triaxial
3.1. Root-Foundation System fibershell consist
fabrics; and of a variety
unidirectional of
fiberFRP[12].materials
At its arranged
thickest point, in
the different
root has layers:
an
FRP thickness of 110.6 mm. At its widest point the blade has a chord length (width)
gelcoat; resin; triaxial fiber fabrics; and unidirectional fiber [12]. At its thickest point, the root has an of 7.5 m. A typical
2 MWThe
FRP thickness
root segment
2000s-era wind
of 110.6 mm.
of the
blade SNL-100-01
Atofits
about 30–40
widest
blade
m
point in thehas circular
length would
blade
and elliptical
hashave a maximum
a chord
cross sections.
length chord
(width) length The
of 3top
of 7.5 m.to 4Aand
m.
typical
bottom halves
Based of the
on the blade 2014
Yucatan shellsurveys
consist of[8],a flooding
variety ofis FRP materials
the second arranged
most damaging in different layers:
environmental
2 MWgelcoat;
2000s-era
resin;
wind blade of
triaxial fiber
about
fabrics;
30–40
and
m in length
unidirectional
would
fiber
have
[12].
a maximum
At its thickest
chord length of 3 to 4 m.
occurrence to informal houses (wind and rain being the first). Elevating homespoint, the root
is proposed tohas
avoid an
Based on theofYucatan
FRP thickness 2014 surveys [8], flooding ishasthe second most damaging environmental
flooding damage.110.6 By mm. At its
cutting thewidest
wind point
bladethe blade
root section a(closest
chord length
to the(width)
turbineofhub) 7.5 m. A typical
into short
occurrence to informal
2 MW 2000s-era
segments,
houses
wind suitable
platforms
(wind
blade of about
for home
and rain being
30–40elevations
m in lengthcan the
would first).
be have
Elevating
a maximum
obtained.
homes is
chord length
The resulting
proposed 4tom.avoid
of 3 tohave
platforms
flooding damage.
Based or
cylindrical Bythecutting
onelliptical
Yucatan the
cross wind
2014 blade
surveys
sections. root
One[8],
meter section
flooding (closest
is to
the second
high platforms ofthe turbine
most
different hub)
damaging
root into short
environmental
sections segments,
are shown
occurrence
platforms
alongside to informal
suitable
a rendering of houses
for home (wind
elevations
a typical and
canrain
rectangular be being house
obtained.
masonry the first).
withElevating
The resulting
dimensions homes
platforms
of 7 m is long,
proposed
have to avoid
cylindrical
5 m wide, and or
flooding
elliptical crossdamage.
sections. By cutting
One meterthe wind
high blade
platforms root section
of different(closest
root to the
sections
2.7 m high are shown in Figure 8. The platforms would have to be driven into the ground. If a higher turbine are hub)
shown into short
alongside a
segments,
elevation
rendering platforms
of afor a house
typical suitable for
is desired, larger
rectangular home
masonry elevations
segmented can
houseplatforms be obtained. The
can be extracted
with dimensions resulting
of 7 mfrom long,the 5m platforms
root have
to provide
wide, and 2.7 m
cylindricalembedment.
are shownorin
high adequate ellipticalThe
Figurecross sections.
8.inside
The of One meter
the platform
platforms may
would high platforms
behave
filled with
to beaofdriven
different
rubble. Figure
into root9 shows
thesections are shown
houses
ground. Ifbeing
a higher
alongsideoff
elevated a rendering
the ground ofby
a typical rectangular
suchlarger
platforms masonry
(scaled down house
for the with
100dimensions
m to of
fit 7the
m size
long,of5 the
m wide, and
elevation for a house is desired, segmented platforms can beblade
extracted from the house).
root to provide
2.7 m high are shown in Figure 8. The platforms would have to be driven into the ground. If a higher
adequate embedment. The inside of the platform may be filled with a rubble. Figure 9 shows houses
elevation for a house is desired, larger segmented platforms can be extracted from the root to provide
beingadequate
elevated off the ground
embedment. by of
The inside such platforms
the platform may (scaled
be filleddown
with a for theFigure
rubble. 100 m9 shows blade houses
to fit thebeing size of
the house).
elevated off the ground by such platforms (scaled down for the 100 m blade to fit the size of the house).

Figure 8. Root Sections alongside house model.

Figure 8. Root Sections alongside house model.

Figure 8. Root Sections alongside house model.
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Figure 9. Houses Elevated on Blade Sections from the Root.

3.2. Doors and Window Covers

Most door and window fixtures in the informal houses along the Yucatan coast are scavenged
and are particularly susceptibleFigure 9.to waterElevated
Houses ingress.on Three
Bladeshear webs
Sections fromconnect
the Root.the top and bottom halves
Figure 9. Houses Elevated on Blade Sections from the Root.
of the blade shell and run along the length of the blade. The shear webs are made of a sandwich
3.2. Doors and
composite thatWindow Covers
has a 60-mm-thick foam core (shown in yellow in Figure 10) in the center and 3-mm
3.2.CFRP
Doorsskins
and Window Covers
Most door and window fixtures in side
(show in black) on either of the core.
the informal housesTwo of the
along the shear
Yucatan webs
coastareare91.9 m long,
scavenged
extending
Most
and from
aredoor 2.4 m
and window
particularly to 94.3 m, and
fixtures
susceptible are connected
in theingress.
to water informal to
Three the
houses carbon
shearalong fiber
websthe spar
Yucatan
connect caps (which
coast
the top and are are primarily
scavenged
bottom halvesand
areunidirectional
particularly CFRP
of the blade susceptible
shell andandrunprovide
to water the
along the length
flexural
ingress. ofstiffness
Three theshear to the
webs
blade. blade).
Theconnect
shear websThetop
the third
areandshear
made ofweb
bottom is 43.8ofmthe
halves
a sandwich
long,
blade extending
composite
shell andthat
runfrom
has a16.4
along m to
60-mm-thick
the 60.2 foam
length m
ofand
the provides
core (shown
blade. extra
The rigidity
inshear
yellow intoFigure
webs themade
are trailingofedge
10) in the (the flatter
center
a sandwich edge)
andcomposite
3-mm
in the wide mid-section of the on
blade. These straight, slender pieces of shear
FRP material are91.9
excellent for
thatCFRP
has a skins (show infoam
60-mm-thick black) either
core (shown side of the in
in yellow core. Two
Figure of in
10) thethe center websandare3-mm m long,
CFRP skins
applications
extending involving
from doors, window shutters, flooding barriers, structural insulated panels (SIPs),
(show in black) on2.4 m to side
either 94.3 m,of and
the are
core.connected
Two of to thetheshear
carbon fiberare
webs spar caps
91.9 m(which are primarily
long, extending from
and facades. CFRP and provide the flexural stiffness to the blade). The third shear web is 43.8 m
unidirectional
2.4 m to 94.3 m, and are connected to the carbon fiber spar caps (which are primarily unidirectional
long,Figure 10 shows 16.4
extending the three shear webs extracted from the SNL-100-01 wind blade model. Two
CFRP and providefromthe flexuralm to 60.2 m and
stiffness to provides
the blade). extra
Therigidity
third to the trailing
shear web isedge
43.8 (the flatter
m long, edge)
extending
rectangular virtual cutting planes, one meter apart, are superimposed onto
in the wide mid-section of the blade. These straight, slender pieces of FRP material are excellent forthe shear webs. These two
from 16.4
planes
m to
show the
60.2 m and
longitudinal
provides extra rigidity
cuts thatshutters,
would be
to the trailing
neededbarriers,
to produce
edge (the flatter
solid straight
edge) in the wide
applications involving doors, window flooding structural insulatedone meter
panels high
(SIPs),
mid-section
sandwich of the blade.
panels. Figures These
11 andstraight,
12 show slender
cut-outpieces of FRP
segments ofmaterial
the shearare excellent
webs being usedfor applications
as doors
and facades.
involving
and windowsdoors, window
Figure 10covers
showsfor
shutters,
thethe model
three
flooding
shearhouse, barriers,
websrespectively.
structural insulated panels
extracted from the SNL-100-01 wind blade model. Two
(SIPs), and facades.
rectangular virtual cutting planes, one meter apart, are superimposed onto the shear webs. These two
planes show the longitudinal cuts that would be needed to produce solid straight one meter high
sandwich panels. Figures 11 and 12 show cut-out segments of the shear webs being used as doors
and windows covers for the model house, respectively.

Figure 10. Extracted Shear Webs with Horizontal Cutting Planes.

Figure 10. Extracted Shear Webs with Horizontal Cutting Planes.

Figure 10 shows the three shear webs extracted from the SNL-100-01 wind blade model.
Figure
Two rectangular virtual 10. Extracted
cutting planes,Shear
one Webs
meterwith Horizontal
apart, Cutting Planes. onto the shear webs.
are superimposed
These two planes show the longitudinal cuts that would be needed to produce solid straight one meter
high sandwich panels. Figures 11 and 12 show cut-out segments of the shear webs being used as doors
and windows covers for the model house, respectively.
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Figure 11. Shear Web—Door.

Figure 11. Shear Web—Door.
Figure 11. Shear Web—Door.

Figure 12. Shear Web—Window Cover.

Figure 12. Shear Web—Window Cover.
Figure 12. Shear Web—Window Cover.
3.3. Roof Frames
3.3. Roof Frames
3.3. Roof Frames13, the leading-edge (the rounded panels at the front of the blade shell) has been
In Figure
In
removed Figure
from13,a13, the segment
blade leading-edge
to leave (the
therounded
threepanelspanels
shear webs atand
thethefront of the blade shell)
trailing-edge has been
In Figure the leading-edge (the rounded at the front of the blade shell)panels.
has been The leading
removed
removed
top and from
bottom a blade segment
panelstohave to
then leave the three shear webs and the trailing-edge panels. The leading
from a blade segment leave thebeen
threeseparated
shear webs to and
makethe two roof frames.panels.
trailing-edge The shearThe webs
leading (discussed
top and
top and bottom
above) panels
run uphave panels
to 80 have
m been then been
downseparated
the bladeseparated to make two roof frames. The shear webs (discussed
bottom then to length,
make two areroofover 2 m high
frames. at their
The shear webs highest point,above)
(discussed most
above) run up
importantly, theyto are
80 m down the
straight, makingbladethemlength,
easy areto over
line 2 mgeometrically
up high at theirwith highest
other point, most
structural
run up to 80 m down the blade length, are over 2 m high at their highest point, most importantly,
importantly,
elements foundthey are
inmaking straight,
housing making them
construction. To up easy the
extract to lineroofup geometrically
frames, the panels with
mustother structural
be sliced at an
they are straight, them easy to line geometrically with other structural elements found
elements
angle found in housing
so thatconstruction.
the cut bisectsTotheconstruction.
shear thewebs To extract
andframes, the
passes the roof
through frames,
themust the
jointbe panels
at the must
tip at
of an be sliced
the angle at
trailing-edge an
in housing extract roof panels sliced so that
angle
as seen so that the
in Figure cut bisects the shear webs and passes through the joint at the tip of the trailing-edge
the cut bisects the13. Bisecting
shear the blade
webs and passessegment
throughinthe this manner
joint at theresults
tip of thein one roof frameasfrom
trailing-edge seenthein
as seen in
bottom of Figure
the blade13. and
Bisecting thefrom
another blade segment
the top. in this
These two manner
roof results
frames insimilar,
are one roof butframe
not from the
identical.
Figure 13. Bisecting the blade segment in this manner results in one roof frame from the bottom of
bottom
Bothblade of the
have the blade and another from
same cross-sectional the top. These two roof frames are similar, but not identical.
the and another from the top.length,
These height,
two roof and material
frames construction.
are similar, but not However,
identical.the Bothtophave
roof
Both
frame have
has the
a same cross-sectional
concave-down roof length,
curvature, height,
while and
the material
bottom construction.
roof frame However,
has an the toppoint
inflection roof
the same cross-sectional length, height, and material construction. However, the top roof frame has a
frame
midway has a concave-down
along its roof roof This
curvature. curvature,
geometricwhile the bottom
difference roof frame in has an inflection point
concave-down roof curvature, while the bottom roof frame can has be
an observed
inflection point Figure 14, where
midway along both
its
midway along
half-trusses are its roof
displayedcurvature.
next to This
one geometric
another. difference can be observed in Figure 14, where both
roof curvature. This geometric difference can be observed in Figure 14, where both half-trusses are
half-trusses are displayed next to one another.
displayed next to one another.
Recycling 2018, 3, 3 8 of 11
Recycling 2018, 8, 3 8 of 11
Recycling 2018, 8, 3 8 of 11

Figure 13. Blade Segment Cut.

Figure 13. Blade Segment Cut.
Figure 13. Blade Segment Cut.

Figure 14. Roof Frames.

Figure 14. Roof Frames.
Figure 14. Roof Frames.
3.4. Interlocking Roof System
3.4. Interlocking Roof System
The FRPRoof
3.4. Interlocking material
Systemfound in the sandwich panels of the leading-edge of the blade comprises up
to a third of thematerial
The FRP entire wind
found blade structure.
in the sandwich A substantial
panels of the amount of the FRP
leading-edge ofmaterial
the blade can be salvaged
comprises up
The
from
to FRP material
the entirefound
the ofleading-edge
a third wind in the structure.
(rounded
blade sandwich Apanels
front) portion ofofathe
substantial leading-edge
decommissioned
amount of the FRP ofblade.
the blade
It is
material comprises
canimportant
be salvageduptoto a
third of the
understand entire the wind blade
geometric structure.
arrangement A substantial
and material amount of
composition
from the leading-edge (rounded front) portion of a decommissioned blade. It is important to the FRP
of thematerial
panels can
if be salvaged
large-sized FRP from
blade segment
the understand
leading-edge are to be extracted
the(rounded
geometric and used
arrangement
front) portion afor
ofand architectural/structural
material composition
decommissioned blade.ofItthe applications.
panels if Figure
is important 15 shows
large-sized
to understand FRP the
two blade
blade
geometric segment segments
arrangement are to extracted
be
and extracted from
material and 30used
andfor
composition 47 architectural/structural
moffrom the rootif of
the panels theapplications.
blade.FRP
large-sized Alsoblade
in Figure
Figure 15 15,
segment the
showsare to
leading
two blade
be extracted edge
and FRP
segments
used panels
for are cut
extracted and30
from extracted
and 47 from
architectural/structural m from thethe
restroot
applications. of theof blade segments.
the blade.
Figure 15 Alsotwo
shows These
in Figure
bladepanels
15, are
the
segments
then reduced
leading
extracted edge30
from down
FRP
and intomsmaller
panels
47 are
from shells,
cutthe
androot asofshown
extractedthe fromin Figure
blade. the rest16,
Also ofwhere
in the blade
Figure the
15,virtual
segments.cutsThese
the leading are
edgerepresented
panels are
FRP panels
by
thenthe black
reduced planes.
down into smaller shells, as shown in Figure 16, where
are cut and extracted from the rest of the blade segments. These panels are then reduced down into the virtual cuts are represented
by the Arranging
black planes. the cut-out segments in a configuration as seen in Figure 17 yields a possible roofing
smaller shells, as shown in Figure 16, where the virtual cuts are represented by the black planes.
system for affordable
Arranging housing.
the cut-out segments in a configuration as seen in Figure 17 yields a possible roofing
Arranging the cut-out segments in a configuration as seen in Figure 17 yields a possible roofing
system There are two important
for affordable housing. issues to consider when extracting the leading edge panels and
system for affordable housing.
repurposing
There are themtwoforimportant
use in thisissues
roofingtosystem.
consider when extracting the leading edge panels and
There
repurposing are
First, twois aimportant
there
them slight
for use in issues
warping
this to system.
in blade
roofing consider
geometry when
that isextracting
due to thethe twistleading
along the edge
lengthpanels
of theand
repurposing
windFirst,
blade.them
there for
Theismost use
a slightin this
noticeable
warpingroofing
effect system.
of this
in blade can be observed
geometry that is dueat the transition
to the between
twist along the root
the length ofand
the
First,blade.
wing
wind thereThe
segment isofamost
slight
the warping
blade. As the
noticeable inblade
effectblade geometry
tapers
of this canoff,
be the that is due
angle
observed of totransition
twist
at the the twistbetween
decreases along
and the the length
warping
the of
root andis the
wind blade.
less
wing The most
significant.
segment thenoticeable
ofNonetheless,
blade. As effect
thethe of this
extracted
blade canoff,
leading
tapers beedge
observed
the shellsof
angle attwist
will the
nottransition
be perfectly
decreases between
and straight, the
the warping rootisand
making
wingthesegment
less of the
interlocking
significant. blade.
roof
Nonetheless, As the
the blade
configuration tapers
difficult
extracted off, the angle
to arrange.
leading edge of will
The
shells twist
gaps decreases
not formed inand
be perfectly the warping
between
straight, the is less
shell
making
segments may
the interlocking
significant. prove
Nonetheless, to be an
roof configuration issue
the extracteddifficult when
leading toproviding
edgearrange. a leak-proof
shells The
will gaps
not be roofing
formed system.
in between
perfectly This
straight, the may be the
shell
making
segments roof
interlocking may configuration
prove to be andifficult issue when providing
to arrange. Theagapsleak-proof
formedroofing system.
in between theThis
shellmay be
segments
Recycling 2018, 3, 3 9 of 11

Recycling 2018, 8, 3 9 of 11
may prove
Recycling 2018,to8, 3be an issue when providing a leak-proof roofing system. This may be addressed 9 ofby
11
cutting
Recycling a small
2018, 8, 3 amount of materials off to produce tapered edges (in thickness direction)
addressed by cutting a small amount of materials off to produce tapered edges (in thickness direction) to make them
9 of 11
perfectly
addressed
to make themfit.
byAn alternative
cutting a small
perfectly isamount
fit. An toalternative
seal the gaps
is todue
of materials tothe
off
seal misfit
to gapswith
produce other
duetapered materials.
edges
to misfit with(in thickness
other direction)
materials.
addressed
to make them by cutting a small
perfectly fit. Anamount of materials
alternative offthe
is to seal to produce
gaps duetapered edges
to misfit with(in thickness
other direction)
materials.
to make them perfectly fit. An alternative is to seal the gaps due to misfit with other materials.

Figure 15. Separated Leading Edge (Top) and Trailing Edge Segments (Bottom).
Figure 15. Separated Leading Edge (Top) and Trailing Edge Segments (Bottom).
Figure 15. Separated Leading Edge (Top) and Trailing Edge Segments (Bottom).
Figure 15. Separated Leading Edge (Top) and Trailing Edge Segments (Bottom).

Figure 16. Leading Edge Virtual Cutting planes.

Figure 16. Leading Edge Virtual Cutting planes.
Figure 16. Leading Edge Virtual Cutting planes.
Figure 16. Leading Edge Virtual Cutting planes.

Figure 17. Interlocking Roof Panel Configuration.

Figure 17. Interlocking Roof Panel Configuration.
Figuretapers
Second, as the wind blade 17. Interlocking
off after Roof Panel its
reaching Configuration.
maximum chord length, the material
Figure 17. Interlocking Roof Panel Configuration.
Second,
thickness for as
thethe wind
foam blade tapers
decreases. off after
This means thatreaching
at someits maximum
points chord
along the length,
blade closerthe
to material
the root
Second,
thickness for as
thethe wind
foam blade tapers
decreases. This off after
means reaching
that at some its maximum
points along chord
the length,
blade the
closer to material
thesome
root
the FRP pieces will be thicker than the pieces found further down the blade. This will raise
thickness
the for
FRP pieces the foam decreases.
will be thicker This means that at some points along the blade closer to the root
concerns when selecting curvedthan the pieces
segments found
for the further down
interlocking-roof the blade.
system. This
Having will raise
segments some
that are
the FRP pieces
concerns when will be thicker
selecting curved than the pieces
segments for found
the further down
interlocking-roof the blade.
system. This
Having will raise
segments some
that are
too thin or thick with respect to their adjacent segments will create additional gaps that need filling.
concerns when
too thin or thickselecting curved
with respect to segments for the
their adjacent interlocking-roof
segments will createsystem. Having
additional gapssegments
that needthat are
filling.
too thin or thick with respect to their adjacent segments will create additional gaps that need filling.
Recycling 2018, 3, 3 10 of 11

Second, as the wind blade tapers off after reaching its maximum chord length, the material
thickness for the foam decreases. This means that at some points along the blade closer to the root the
FRP pieces will be thicker than the pieces found further down the blade. This will raise some concerns
when selecting
Recycling 2018, 8, 3curved segments for the interlocking-roof system. Having segments that are too thin 10 of or
11
thick with respect to their adjacent segments will create additional gaps that need filling. However,
However,
this wouldthisnot would not be
be an issue an the
if all issue if all the
concave concaveare
segments segments
taperedare tapered
in one in one
direction direction
and and all
all the convex
the convexare
segments segments
tapered are tapered
in the in the
opposite opposite direction.
direction.

4. A Conceptual Housing Community

Building or retrofitting
retrofitting an affordable
affordable housing
housing community
community withwith salvaged
salvaged wind blade parts might
resemble
resemble something
something like
like that
that depicted
depicted in Figure 18. In this representation,
representation, the root-foundation system
has been used in all
all the
the houses,
houses, elevating
elevating them
them off
off the
the ground.
ground. All doors and windows
windows have been
modelled using the shear webs panels. Lastly, the roof frame and the interlocking roof configuration
are shown in different
different scenarios.
scenarios.

Figure 18. Conceptual Housing Community.

Figure 18. Conceptual Housing Community.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
The purpose of this paper was to present a conceptual solution to the impending issue of
The purpose of this paper was to present a conceptual solution to the impending issue of recycling
recycling decommissioned wind turbine blades. As discussed, a wind turbine blade, in this case, the
decommissioned wind turbine blades. As discussed, a wind turbine blade, in this case, the SNL-100-01,
SNL-100-01, can be presented as a wireframe model. From this rudimentary wireframe model, a
can be presented as a wireframe model. From this rudimentary wireframe model, a blade can be
blade can be reassembled as a 3D model for better architectural/mechanical analysis. Computer
reassembled as a 3D model for better architectural/mechanical analysis. Computer software like
software like NuMAD and Rhino 3D made it possible to extract segments from a decommissioned
NuMAD and Rhino 3D made it possible to extract segments from a decommissioned SNL-100-01
SNL-100-01 wind blade and find real-life structural applications for affordable housing communities.
wind blade and find real-life structural applications for affordable housing communities. However,
However, this paper is a first step towards making the disposal of wind blades efficient and
this paper is a first step towards making the disposal of wind blades efficient and environmentally
environmentally friendly. In time, this process of repurposing decommissioned wind blade parts
friendly. In time, this process of repurposing decommissioned wind blade parts must be further
must be further researched with regards to mechanical systems (MEP), structural analysis, logistics,
researched with regards to mechanical systems (MEP), structural analysis, logistics, and detailing,
and detailing, other architectural and infrastructural applications; cost and ease of dis- and re-
other architectural and infrastructural applications; cost and ease of dis- and re-assembly; social
assembly; social accessibility and acceptability.
accessibility and acceptability.
Acknowledgments: This work was partially supported by NSF grants 1321464 and 1701413, a grant from
Acknowledgments:
PowerBridgeNY—New This work
York was
State partially
Energy supported
Research by NSF grants
and Development 1321464
Authority and 1701413,
(NYSERDA) andaagrant
grant from
PowerBridgeNY—New York StateNorthern
the Department for the Economy Energy Research and Development
Ireland under Authority
the US-Ireland (NYSERDA)
R&D Partnership and a grant
Programme from
(Project
the Department for the Economy Northern Ireland under the US-Ireland R&D Partnership Programme (Project
No. USI
No. USI 116).
116). James
James Biles
Biles of
of CCNY
CCNY isis especially
especially thanked
thanked for
for conducting the housing
conducting the housing survey
survey as
as are
are the
the NSF
NSF team
team
members Fabio Matta and Ann Johnson (deceased) and the many undergraduate students who
members Fabio Matta and Ann Johnson (deceased) and the many undergraduate students who participated.participated.

Author Contributions: L.C.B., F.R.A. and T.A.-H. proposed the different housing design concepts; L.C.B.
provided data on the Mexican context; F.R.A. built the NuMAD and Rhino models; J.-F.C., R.M. and A.Y.
provided input on structural, architectural and materials, respectively. L.C.B. and F.R.A. wrote the paper.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funding sponsors had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the
Recycling 2018, 3, 3 11 of 11

Author Contributions: L.C.B., F.R.A. and T.A.-H. proposed the different housing design concepts; L.C.B. provided
data on the Mexican context; F.R.A. built the NuMAD and Rhino models; J.-F.C., R.M. and A.Y. provided input on
structural, architectural and materials, respectively. L.C.B. and F.R.A. wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funding sponsors had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the
decision to publish the results.

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