Journal of Manufacturing Processes 13 (2011) 141–146

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Manufacturing Processes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro

Technical paper

Investigation on microstructural and mechanical properties of microwave

processed dissimilar joints
M.S. Srinath, Apurbba Kumar Sharma ∗ , Pradeep Kumar
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee – 247 667, India

article info abstract

Article history: In the present work, microwave joining of stainless steel (SS-316) to mild steel (MS) in bulk form has been
Received 13 December 2010 successfully carried out using a multimode applicator at 2.45 GHz and 900 W. Principles of hybrid heating
Accepted 7 March 2011 were employed using a susceptor medium so as to initiate coupling of microwave with the metals. A nickel
Available online 20 April 2011
based metallic powder was used as a sandwich layer between the bulk pieces. Samples were exposed to
microwave radiation in atmospheric conditions. Resulting joints were characterized using field emission
scanning electron microscope (FESEM), X-ray diffractometer, microhardness tester and universal testing
machine. Microstructure study showed the faying surfaces were well fused and got bonded on either
side of the base material. Formation of cementite and metallic carbides were evidenced. The average
observed Vickers’ microhardness of core of the joint area was observed to be 133 Hv with 0.58% porosity.
The ultimate tensile strength of the joint was found to be 346.6 MPa with percentage elongation of 13.58%.
Fractography reveals that the joints failed due to both shearing of the brittle carbides and oxides as well
as due to plastic flow of the ductile matrix under tensile loading.
© 2011 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction processing, however, heating is not dependent on surface area,

Joining of dissimilar metals is generally more challenging
than that of similar metals due to several factors such as
the differences in chemical compositions, mechanical properties
and thermal expansion coefficients. However, compared to the
welding of similar metals, there is limited information about
structure–property relationships in dissimilar material welds
between SS-316 and mild steel. Increasing application of these
steels calls for a better understanding of the mechanics associated
with welding of dissimilar metals.
Heating of a material using electromagnetic (EM) energy is
based on a material’s capacity to efficiently absorb set energy.
However, using EM energy, it is quite possible for a range
of materials to heat quickly than using conventional heating
methods. In the EM spectrum microwaves with a frequency band of
300 MHz–300 GHz, are found to be very effective in the application
of material processing. Microwave processing has the possibility
of increased material and energy efficiency when compared to
the conventional heating methods. In microwave processing, by
transferring energy via electromagnetic waves, heat transfer is
not limited to the surface of a material, but is transferable to all
particles, which increases the heat transfer rate. In microwave
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 1332 285421; fax: +91 1332 285665.
E-mail addresses: srinadme@gmail.com (M.S. Srinath), akshafme@iitr.ernet.in,
akshafme@gmail.com (A.K. Sharma), kumarfme@iitr.ernet.in (P. Kumar).
1526-6125/$ – see front matter © 2011 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jmapro.2011.03.001
but dependent upon volume; hence, an inverse heating profile is
present. Efficiency of conversion of electromagnetic radiation into
heat is ∼100%. A new temperature profile exists for microwave
processing as energy is transferred using microwaves having the
ability to penetrate surface layers [1–6].
The microwave heating technology began with heating food
and later on extending applications to the processing of a wide
variety of materials, like ceramics, polymers and composites;
now offers wide applications in the area of metallic material
processing too. In recent years, interest has grown rapidly in
the processing of metallic materials in the form of sintering,
joining and coating/cladding through microwave energy. The
growing interest is partly the result of increased awareness among
materials scientists, processing engineers, and potential users
about the benefits of microwave processing.
Microwave application in material processing yields very fast
and clean processing. However, application of microwaves for
metallic material processing is a challenging area of research
owing to reflection of electromagnetic waves by most of the
metals at ordinary conditions. Recent literature has shown very
limited research in the area of metallic material processing in the
form of sintering under certain conditions [7–10]. Further, work
has been reported in brazing of selected metals under specific
conditions [11,12]. Joining of bulk metallic materials in different
forms in a home microwave system has also been reported [13,14].
However, cladding/coating of metallic and non-metallic powders
on metallic substrates has been reported in the form of patent [15].
142 M.S. Srinath et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 13 (2011) 141–146

This creates an opportunity to utilize the advantages of microwave

energy for processing of metallic material to meet the challenging
and growing needs in many industrial applications. In the current
work, joining of SS-316 to MS in bulk form has been successfully
carried out. Joint characteristics have been discussed in relation to
joint microstructures.

2. Material selection and experimentation

Microwave joining of bulk metallic material is a challenging

task, owing to the fact that metallic materials reflect microwaves
at room temperature. The following sections describe the experi-
mental procedures adopted for development of the bulk dissimilar
metallic joints and different characterization techniques employed
to investigate the joint properties.

2.1. Material selection

The SS-316 and MS are the most widely used metallic materials
in the fabrication industries. Experiments were carried out
with commercial grade SS-316 and MS plates having dimension
25 mm × 12 mm × 6 mm. Table 1 shows the chemical composition
and mechanical properties of the SS-316 and MS which are used
in the present experiments. Joints were prepared in the form of
square butt. A nickel based powder with particle size of 40 µm was
used as a sandwich layer. The powder was mixed with epoxy resin
(Bisphenol-A, Blumer 1450XX) to make paste like slurry.

2.2. Joining process

The specimens were mechanically polished with emery papers,

degreased with acetone, ultrasonically cleaned and finally dried
prior to joining. The prepared slurry was uniformly spread over
the candidate surfaces between the two bulk pieces. Experiments
Fig. 1. Typical flow chart of the microwave joining process.
were carried out in a 1 kW multimode microwave system. Bulk
pieces were exposed up to 450 s in the multimode applicator at a
frequency of 2.45 GHz and a power level of 900 W. All experiments
were carried out in atmospheric condition. Fig. 1 illustrates the
detailed stepwise description of the microwave joining of bulk
metallic material carried out in the present study. At room
temperature, the bulk steel reflects microwaves because the skin
depth of steel is in the order of 3.1 µm at 2.45 GHz which is much
lesser than the size of bulk pieces used in the present work. In order
to avoid this problem, metallic pieces were placed in an insulator
masks so that they are not directly exposed to microwaves.
Charcoal powder was used for initial coupling of microwaves with
Fig. 2. Schematic view of the experimental process for microwave joining.
metallic materials, as a susceptor medium. Principles of microwave
hybrid heating (MHH) were effectively used. Fig. 2 illustrates the
schematic view of the experimental process of the microwave
hybrid heating used for joining of metallic materials. Microwave
processing parameters are summarized in the Table 2.

2.3. Joint characterization

Fig. 3. Typical ASTM standard tensile specimen.

The joints were characterized through XRD, FESEM, microhard-

ness, porosity measurement and strength test. The XRD patterns
were obtained at room temperature in a Bruker AXS with Cu–Kα
X-ray. The scan rate was maintained at 1° min−1 and the scan range
was from 5° to 100°. Analysis of the metallic joint microstructure
was carried out in a field emission scanning electron microscope
equipped with energy dispersive X-ray detector (FEI Quanta 200
FEG-SEM, Czech Republic) and optical microscope. Quantitative
analysis through energy dispersive X-ray detector (EDAX) was car-
ried out. The microwave joined SS-316 to MS specimens were cut
into sections across the joint, followed by mechanical polishing and
etching. The microhardness on different surfaces of the joints was
evaluated by Vickers’ microhardness tester (Mini load, Leitz, Ger-
many) at the load of 50 g applied for duration of 30 s. The porosity
of the joint area was measured using linear count method. Joint mi-
crostructures were also studied through an optical microscope. The
joined specimens were also subjected to standard tensile test us-
ing a universal testing machine. The specimens were prepared ac-
cording to the ASTM (E8M) standard having gauge length of 18 mm
and width 3.5 mm. The schematic of a standard tensile specimen
is shown in Fig. 3. Specimens were subjected to uniaxial tension at
 M.S. Srinath et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 13 (2011) 141–146 143

Table 1
Chemical composition and properties of SS-316 and MS.
Chemical composition (%) Mechanical properties
Material C Cr Ni Mo Mn P Si S Vickers’ microhardness Ultimate tensile strength

Stainless Steel (SS-316) 0.03 18.5 8 2–3 2 1 0.04 0.03 330 Hv 515 MPa
Mild Steel (MS) 0.20 – – 1 0.6 0.04 0.06 0.05 250 Hv 590 MPa

Table 2 of SS-316 to MS are presented in Fig. 4. Fig. 4(a) shows the bulk
Microwave processing parameters used in the joining experiments. SS-316 and MS pieces joined through microwave hybrid heating,
Applicator Multimode while Fig. 4(b) shows the completely fused interface of the bulk
Microwave frequency 2.45 GHz pieces while observed through optical microscope. Metallurgical
Base material Commercially available SS-316 and MS bonding has been achieved. Results are discussed with appropriate
Interfacing material Ni based powder illustrations in the following sections.
Susceptor material Charcoal
Exposure time 450 s
Exposure power 900 W 3.1. XRD observation

Typical XRD spectra of SS to MS joint are presented in Fig. 5.

The XRD spectrum of the Ni based powder used as the interfacing
layer is shown in Fig. 5(a). The high intensity peaks indicate the
dominance of nickel in the powder and presence of other elements
is indicated through suppressed peaks. Fig. 5(b) shows the XRD
spectrum of the SS-316 to MS joint produced through microwave
hybrid heating. It is observed from the XRD spectrum that few
intermetallics and iron carbide are present in the joint zone. The
highest peak corresponding to 2θ ≈ 18.2° indicates the formation
of nickel chromium oxide, which could be due to slow cooling
rate and the entire process was carried out in the atmospheric
conditions. Further, the peak corresponding to 2θ ≈ 44.2° is
indicative of the formation of chromium carbide (Cr23 C6 ); while
other peaks have relatively less intensity. Formation of cementite
(Fe3 C) has been observed at peak intensity corresponding to 2θ ≈
37.7°. These phases are attributed to rapid heating of the Ni based
sandwich layer and sudden removal of the heat source associated
with the end of irradiation cycle. The volumetric heating of the
bulk interfaces in microwave irradiation is the result of frictional
losses at the molecular level owing to the formation of dipolar
configuration. The dipolar movement at the molecular level ceases
immediately with the withdrawal of microwave field leading to
an ambient temperature condition. Formation of various carbide,
oxide and intermetallics influences the dielectric properties of the
sandwich layer appreciably and further enhances the coupling of
microwaves in the sandwich layer. This causes rise in temperature
in the joint zone leading to localized melting and bonding of the
interface layers.

3.2. SEM observation

Fig. 6 illustrates the SEM micrograph of SS–MS joint developed

Fig. 4. (a) A view of the SS-316 to MS butt joints produced through microwave
hybrid heating; (b) Optical micrograph of the joint zone.
ambient condition on a HOUNSFIELD Monsanto (H25KS/05) ma-
chine at a strain rate of 8.3 × 10−3 mm/s. Average of three mea-
surements was accepted.
3. Results and discussion
Joining of dissimilar metals in the form of SS-316 to MS is one
of the requirements of most of the fabrication industries. However,
a sustainable and green manufacturing approach is desirable for
achieving this requirement. In the present work, a new processing
route for joining of dissimilar materials, SS-316 to MS has been
developed. Experiments were conducted for joining of bulk SS-316
to MS. Joining process has been successfully carried out using a Ni
based powder as an interface layer. Few microwave induced joints
through microwave hybrid heating. The microstructures shown
in Fig. 6(a) and (b), indicates good metallurgical bonding with
substrate and complete melting of Ni based powder particles.
Initially susceptor material, charcoal couples with microwave
which induces rapid heating. This heat is transferred to the metallic
powder particles in the sandwich layer within a short duration.
At elevated temperature, the metal powder starts coupling with
microwave. This result in volumetric uniform heating in the
metallic material, which melts the powder particles and wetting
of the bulk interface takes place. On cooling, a uniform joint is
obtained. Homogeneous and dense joint surface of fused SS and MS
metal with fewer pores and voids without visible cracks has been
clearly observed. The observed homogeneity of the joint is due to
the uniform microwave heating as illustrated in Fig. 6. A fully fused
weld interface can be clearly seen. A well-bonded microstructure
on the sandwich powder layer and powder-bulk interface is an
indication of good joint efficiency.
144 M.S. Srinath et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 13 (2011) 141–146

Fig. 5. Typical XRD spectra of (a) Ni based powder; (b) Dissimilar joint developed through microwave hybrid heating.

Fig. 6. Microwave induced dissimilar joint; (a) Back Scattered Electron micrograph; (b) SEM micrograph.

The chemical composition of the joint at different positions
with approximately 50 µm on either side of the joint was also
analysed through energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). A typical
microstructure along with element present on the marked area of
the joint is presented in Fig. 7. Fig. 7 shows the presence of rich Ni
element apart from iron at the joint region that confirms complete
melting of the Ni based powder which was used as the interface
layer. It was clearly observed that dilution of powder particles
on either sides of the joint took place up to a dilution depth
of approximately 100 µm. Further, it is observed that presence
of chromium in the joint zone is an indication of formation of
chromium carbide (Cr23 C6 ) as seen in XRD study (Fig. 5(b)). The
growth of microstructure on the either side of the joint zone can
be clearly seen. It is observed that the presence of carbon on either
side of the joint also varies significantly. It can be clearly seen that
presence of carbon is higher at the MS end than the stainless steel
part.
3.3. Observation on microhardness and porosity measurement
Microhardness of the microwave induced dissimilar joint was
measured on joint and on either side of the base metal by using a
load of 50 g for 30 s. The joint microhardness at the weld zone was
observed to be 133 (Hv ) whereas it was measured to be maximum
of 265 (Hv ) and 201 (Hv ) on the SS-316 and MS respectively as
shown in Fig. 8. Vickers’ microhardness at the joint interface is
observed to be significantly higher nearer to the base metal. The
microhardness increases significantly, on both sides, from the weld
centre towards the base metal. This lower hardness at the weld
zone could be due to large scattering of the nickel on either side
of the joint during uniform nature of microwave heating process
as observed in the Fig. 8. The lower hardness of the joint is an
indication that the microwave induced dissimilar joints might
exhibit higher ductility.
Porosity of the microwave induced dissimilar joints was
measured by linear count method. It was observed that the
porosity in the joint region was 0.58%. The SEM micrograph as
illustrated in Fig. 6(b) shows the presence of micropores, especially
nearer to interfaces. However, there are hardly any pores observed
at the joint zone. This low porosity of the dissimilar joint is mainly
attributed to uniform heating associated with volumetric nature
of heating during microwave hybrid heating. Volumetric heating
resulted in relatively uniform temperature in the entire weld
region which is difficult to obtain in conventional techniques.
3.4. Observation on tensile strength test
The microwave induced joints were also subjected to tensile
strength test through universal testing machine at a uniform strain
rate of 8.3 × 10−3 mm/s. The specimens were prepared according
to ASTM standards with 3.5 mm width and a gauge length of
18 mm. The observed results are presented in Table 3. A typical
 M.S. Srinath et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 13 (2011) 141–146
Fig. 7. Typical EDS spectrum of the SS–MS joint at various positions.
Fig. 8. Vickers microhardness profile at various zones.
Table 3
Tensile strength test data of dissimilar joints.
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) 346.6 MPa
2.3 mm
% Elongation
∼13.58%
fractured specimen is shown in Fig. 9. An ultimate strength of
∼346.6 MPa with elongation ∼13.58% (Table 3) was recorded. The
measured strength is approximately 60% of the base metal strength
of the MS (590 MPa), while it is ∼70% in case of SS-316 (515 MPa).
This is an indication of a successful development of a new process
for joining of dissimilar metallic materials like SS-316 to MS using
microwave energy.
145
Fig. 9. Typical tensile fractured specimen.
The fractured surfaces of the tensile specimens were further
studied through scanning electron microscope. Fig. 10 shows
the fractured surface along with EDS spectra of the microwave
induced dissimilar joints. The details of the fractured surface of
the MS side are presented in Fig. 10(a)–(c), while the SS-316
side is shown in the Fig. 10(d)–(f). The quasi-cleavage facets of
the fractured surface indicate mixed mode of failure occurred
during failure of the joint. It is also observed that, during tensile
loading, the material fails partially through shearing (Fig. 10(c)
and (f)) and due to plastic flow of the relatively ductile phases
present at the joint interface. However, due to the presence of hard
phases like chromium carbide (Cr23 C6 ) as observed in XRD study
(Fig. 5(b)), this plastic flow could not continue and shearing occurs.
This initiates the failure of the material and the dislodgement
of the material takes place through concave eye formation as
observed in the fractured surface (Fig. 10(a) and (d)). This leads
146 M.S. Srinath et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 13 (2011) 141–146
Fig. 10. Fractured surface along with EDS spectra of the microwave induced dissimilar joints; (a) MS side surface showing dislodgement; (b) EDS spectra of the MS side
fractured surface; (c) MS side showing shearing and plastic flow of the joint material; (d) SS-316 side surface showing dislodgement; (b) EDS spectra of the SS-316 side
fractured surface; (c) SS-316 side showing shearing and plastic flow of the joint material.
to both ductile as well as brittle mode of failure at the joint
interface.
4. Conclusion
Joining of metallic material in bulk form using microwave
energy is very difficult owing to reflection of microwaves at room
temperature. The present work reports the results on development
of metallic material joint in the form of dissimilar metals through
microwave hybrid heating process. Further characterization of the
joints is in progress. The work establishes the basis for potential
metallic material joining in bulk form, which is ecofriendly and
significantly fast. The following major conclusions could be drawn
from the present work:
1. Metallurgical joining of SS-316 to MS in bulk form has been
achieved in this work.
2. Complete fusion of the interface layer and metallurgical
bonding with bulk interfaces is due to the volumetric uniform
heating throughout the joint.
3. Formation of metallic carbides (Cr23 C6 ) and cementite (Fe3 C)
have been confirmed during microwave induced dissimilar
joint.
4. Complete melting of the interface layer with dilution of the
powder on either side of the joints (∼100 µm) takes place
during microwave hybrid heating process.
5. Bulk joint with Vickers’ microhardness around 133 (Hv ) has
been obtained with a measured porosity of the dissimilar joint
of approximately 0.58%.
6. The microwave processed dissimilar joints exhibit ultimate
tensile strength of 346.6 MPa with an elongation of 13.58%
owing to complete melting of the interface layer and complete
bonding with the bulk interfaces.
References
[1] Osepchuk John M. A history of microwave heating applications. IEEE Trans
Microwave Theory Tech., MIT 1984;32(9):1200–24.
[2] Sutton WH. Microwave processing of ceramic materials. Am Ceram Soc Bull
1989;l68:376–86.
[3] Thostenson ET, Chou TW. Microwave processing: fundamentals and applica-
tions. Composites Part A 1999;30:1055–71.
[4] Clark DE, Sutton WH, Lewis D. Microwave processing of materials. Annu Rev
Mater Sci 1996;26:299–301.
[5] Sharma AK, Aravindan S, Krishnamurthy R. Microwave glazing of alu-
mina–titania ceramic composite coatings. Mater Lett 2001;50:295–301.
[6] Luo Jirun, Hunyar Christian, Feher Lambert, Link Guido, Thumm Manfred,
Pozzo Paola. Potential advantages for millimeter-wave heating of powdered
metals. Int J Infrared Millim Waves 2004;25(9):1271–83.
[7] Roy R, Agrawal D, Cheng J, Gedevanishvili S. Full sintering of powdered metal
parts in microwaves. Nature 1999;399:668–70.
[8] Chillar P, Agrawal D, Adair JH. Sintering of molybdenum metal powder using
microwaves energy. Powder Metall 2008;51(2):182–7.
[9] Mondal Avijit, Agrawal Dinesh, Upadhyaya Anish. Microwave heating of pure
copper powder with varying particle size and porosity. J Microw Power
Electromagn Energy 2009;43(1):5–10.
[10] Rodiger K, Dreyer K, Gerdes T, Willert Porada M. Microwave Sintering of
Hardmetals. Int J Refract Met Hard Mater 1998;16:409–16.
[11] Budinger David Edwin. Microwave brazing process. US Patent. 2008.
p. 228119.
[12] Barmatz Martin, Jackson W, Radtke Robert P. Microwave technique for brazing
materials. US Patent. 2000. p. 6054693.
[13] Siores E, Rego D. Microwave applications in materials joining. J Mater Process
Technol 1995;48:619–25.
[14] Sharma AK, Srinath MS, Kumar Pradeep. Microwave joining of metallic
materials. Indian Patent. 2009. Application no. 1994/Del/2009.
[15] Sharma AK, Gupta Dhreej. A method of cladding/coating of metallic and non-
metallic powders on metallic substrates by microwave irradiation. Indian
Patent. 2010. Application no. 527/Del/2010.