C11 EMHistory

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The coordination committee formed by G.R.No.Abhyas-2116/(pra.kra43/16)SD-4 dated 25.4.2016

has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on 20.06.2019 and
it has been decided to implement it from academic year 2019-2020.
HISTORY
Standard Eleven
2019
Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and

Curriculum Research, Pune.
The digital textbook can be obtained through DIKSHA APP

on a Smartphone by using Q. R. Code given on title page
of the textbook and useful audio-visual teaching-learning
material of all lessons will be also available through the Q.
R. Code given on the title page.
First Edition : 2019 © Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum
Research, Pune - 411 004.
The Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum
Research reserves all rights relating to the book. No part of this book
should be reproduced without the written permission of the Director,
Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum
Research, ‘Balbharati’, Senapati Bapat Marg, Pune 411004.
History Subject Committee

Authors
Dr. Sadanand More, Chairman
Dr. Shubhangana Atre
Dr. Shubhangana Atre, Member Dr. Priya Gohad
Dr. Somnath Rode, Member
Dr. Satish Chapale, Member
Translation
Dr. Priya Gohad, Member
Dr. Nalini Waghmare, Member Dr. Shubhangana Atre
Dr. Priya Gohad
Dr. Prashant Deshmukh, Member
Smt. Varsha Sarode, Member-Secretary
Cover and Illustrations
Shri. Devadatta Balkawade
History Study Group
Cartographer
Prof. Shivani Limaye
Shri. Vaijnath Kale Shri. Ravikiran Jadhav
Dr. Dhananjay Choudhari
Prof. Shridhar Ghundare Typesetting : DTP Section,
Shri. Sameer Mankar Balbharati, Pune
Dr. Dhanaji Masal Paper : 70 GSM Creamwove
Shri. Krishna Deshmukh
Print Order : N/PB/2019-20/10,000
Dr. Siddhartha Jadhav
Prof. Anurath Kale Printer : Sahil Print Arts , Thane
Dr. Mushir Shaikh
Shri. Sandip Doiphode Coordination
Shri. Balasaheb Chavare
Smt. Varsha Sarode
Shri. Sachin Dengale
Assistant Special Officer, History and Civics
Smt. Shivkanya Kaderkar
Prof. Nagesh Kadam Production
Dr. Ravsaheb Shelke
Sachchitanand Aphale
Shri. Mohan Shete
Prof. Ashwini Bedge Chief Production Officer
Prof. Sushama Nangude Prabhakar Parab, Production Officer
Shri. Balkrishna Chopade Shashank Kanikdale,
Asst. Production Officer
Chief Coordinator
Mrs. Prachi Ravindra Sathe
Publisher
Invitees Vivek Uttam Gosavi, Controller
Dr. Ganesh Raut Maharashtra State Textbook Bureau,
Shri. Mogal Jadhav Prabhadevi, Mumbai - 400 025.
NATIONAL ANTHEM
Preface
Friends,
From this year, as students of the XIth Standard, you will be studying
‘History’, not jointly with ‘Political Science’ but as a separate subject. Starting
from the times before ‘Common Era’ till the ‘Mediaeval Period’, the continuous
social and cultural history of India, with special reference to Maharashtra, is
unfolded in this textbook. We are glad to present this book to you.
The chain of continuous actions-reactions in the history of human
progress, from the first stone tools created by Homo habilis to modern robotics
and artificial intelligence, is instrumental in shaping the social-cultural history.
If we understand this chain of actions-reactions in its entirety, then studying
history leads to a bridge that connects our present to our past. With it studying
history becomes pleasant, a source of gaining knowledge and a medium of
creating knowledge.
We studied history of several stages of human journey from the Stone
Age to the Modern Era. It included several events that happened in the
historical time span. We completed this study as a continuous series from
the Vth Standard to the Xth Standard. Events happening in the historical time
are just the markers of major shifts happening at various stages of human
history. It is necessary to pay attention to various social, cultural, political,
technological processes, which are responsible for creating the shifts. These
processes are vital in the shaping of history. If the students are competent to
understand the unending chain of processes, then their capability of constructing
knowledge will also be nourished. This textbook is written with this thought
in mind.
The material made available with QR code, the informative boxes,
coloured illustrations, maps and various suggestions for activities in this
textbook will help you in your studies. You will be able to gather additional
information with the help of various web links provided in the lessons.
This textbook will help you guide you in the right direction to reach your
future goal . We wish you the best in your journey toward higher education.
(Dr. Sunil Magar)

Pune Director
Maharashtra State Bureau of
Date : 20 June 2019
Textbook Production and
Bharatiya Saur Dinank : 30 Jyeshtha 1941 Curriculum Research, Pune
- For the Teachers -

At this stage the students of Std. XI have crossed the threshold of school life.
They are now at the threshold of a new world. It’s a transitional phase for them. They
need to review all that they have already learnt and to get ready to dive deeper in
their chosen subjects, to help them in chalking out their career. What they learn in
Std. XI is their first step toward this goal.
Keeping this in view, the history textbook of Std. XI has been designed to help
the students to revise and review all that they learnt about history starting from
Std. VI. This would be like revisiting the familiar lanes of history of the ancient and
medieval periods and to brace up to understand their subtleties and splendours; to get
new insights to enjoy history as an academic subject. Through this textbook it would
be achieved as a matter of natural course, as the students at this stage are already
competent to analyse and synthesise information and go deeper.
At the cognitive level students of Std. XI are mature enough to peep into the
psychological processes at collective level, which form the base of socio-political
processes. Thus, this textbook will gently lead them into independent thinking and help
them in holistic comprehension of these processes. It would be useful for them in all
walks of life and in their respective fields of future specialisation.
The ability to read map and to place the historical information in its geographic
context is crucial for a history student. Hence, historical maps are incorporated in
this textbook, wherever necessary. In order to enable the students to supplement the
information in these maps, appropriate weblinks have been also provided.
As it will become clear from the contents of this textbook, it encompasses an
enormous time-span of about 10000 years. It opens with the beginning of cultivation
in various regions of the Indian subcontinent around 8000-7000 B.C.E. and continues
till the medieval period. Each lesson in this textbook forms a marker of a broader
step of socio-cultural progression in history. In other words, the emphasis is more
on the conceptual and processual continuation while planning the lessons, rather than
sequential arrangement of historical events.
The first four lessons cover a span of more than 9000 years of proto-history, from
about 10000 B.C.E. to 700 B.C.E. Next five lessons from no. 5 to 9 take us through
the ancient period of Indian history. Lesson 10 and 11 deal with the transitional and
hence an overlapping period between the ancient and medieval period of history. Lesson
12 and 13 highlight the adventurous history of the ancient Indians, when the Indian
culture spread far and wide in the world, over the span of more than 4500 years. The
last three lessons focus on the mediaeval times. The historical context of Maharashtra
as a geographic region is also the prime focus of this textbook.
The textbook strives for a new and more objective outlook of history to emerge
as a natural outcome. In order to achieve it, additional boxes of information regarding
the latest research in the field and supplementary information is provided for making
the learning process more interesting and self-motivated. Even the teachers may find
the information helpful and interesting.
We are glad to give this book in your hands with a belief that it will be appreciated
by you.
(F)
Competency Statement
Unit Competency
Unit 1: • Explains the meaning of the term ‘Proto-history’.
India in the proto-historic • Explains the transition from nomadic to settled life in proto-historic period.
period (with special • Explains the processes like beginning of cultivation, stages in the development
reference to Maharashtra) of agricultural production and consequent changes in the life style of proto-
historic people.
• Explains the establishment of permanent settlements and their organisation.
• Explains the process of urbanisation.
• Explains the interdependence between development of trade and urban
centres.
• Finds correlation between the interdependence of decline in trade and decline
of urban centres.
Unit 2: • Explains the relationship between written sources and historical period.
India before 6th Cent. • Critically analyses the early political institutions and social institutions in
B.C.E. (with special ancient India.
reference to Maharashtra) • Comprehends the transitional processes in the political and social,
technological, economic, religious fields during the period of second
urbanisation.
• Explains about the contacts established by the early Indians with distant
regions with the help of maps.
• Explains the rise of the first Empire of India and its background.
• Describes India’s relations with other countries by using a map.
Unit 3: • Explains the characteristics of the empires that emerged in the post-Mauryan
India from 6th Cent. Period and changes in various fields during the Mauryan Period.
B.C.E. to 13th Cent. C.E. • Explains the nature of changes.
(with special reference to • Critically reviews various dynasties in South India in detail and their extent.
Maharashtra) • Critically reviews the fact that Indians had established strong trade relations
with Rome during this period.
• Develops sense of pride in the history of ancient India as within a span of few
centuries Indian trade had expanded far and wide reaching Southeast Asia
and with the expansion of trade the Indian culture also spread in the distant
regions.
Unit 4: • Explains the political environment in mediaeval India.
India from 13th Cent. C.E. • Explains the advent of Arabs.
to 19th Cent. C.E. • Explains political conflict between Allauddin Khalji and Yadavas of Deogiri.
(with special reference to • Explains the progress in trade and commerce.
Maharashtra) • Traces trade routes in ancient India on Map.
• Shows places of cultural impact of India on map.
• Explains the process of Urbanisation in the Mediaeval Period.
• Describes the information about the developments in the field of art,
architecture, literature, etc.
• Analyses the causal factors that led to the establishment of Mughal rule in
India.
• Explains the land revenue systems of this period.
• Analyses the factors leading to establishment of ‘Swarajya’ by Chhatrapati
Shivaji Maharaj.
• Understands the political and administrative systems in ‘Swarajya’.
• Describes ‘Peshwa’ period.
Contents
Sr.No. Lesson Name Pg. No.
1. First Farmers .................................................. 1

2. First Cities of India ........................................ 11
3. Chalcolithic Villages in India ......................... 21
4. Vedic Period ................................................... 28
5. Janapadas and Republics .............................. 34
6. Second Urbanisation in India ......................... 38
7. India and Iran (Persia) .................................... 48
8. India during Mauryan period.......................... 56
9. Post Mauryan India ........................................ 64
10. Changing Times .............................................. 69
11. Kingdoms in South India ................................ 77
12. India, Nations in the northwest of ................. 84
the Indian Subcontinent and China
13. India, Shri Lanka and Southeast Asia ............ 91
14. Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom 102
15. India during Mughal period ............................ 110
16. Swarajya to Empire (Maratha period) ........... 117
• S.O.I. Note : The following foot notes are applicable : (1) © Government of India, Copyright : 2019. (2) The responsibility for the
correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. (3) The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve
nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line. (4) The administrative headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are
at Chandigarh. (5) The interstate boundaries amongst Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya shown on this map are as interpreted
from the “North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act. 1971,” but have yet to be verified. (6) The external boundaries and coastlines of
India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India. (7) The state boundaries between Uttarakhand & Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar & Jharkhand and Chattisgarh & Madhya Pradesh have not been verified by the Governments concerned. (8) The spellings of
names in this map, have been taken from various sources.
1. First Farmers
1.1 River Valley Civilisations of the most ancient river valley civilisations
1.2 Beginning of Cultivation : of the neolithic age. The river valley
Agricultural Production civilisations grew in four regions of the
1.3 The First Farmers in India world. Those regions were Mesopotamia,
Egypt, Indian Subcontinent and China. How
1.4 Agricultural Settlements :
did this all happen? We shall briefly review
Organisation and Administration
it in this lesson.
1.5 Trade and Transport
1.6 Beginning of Urbanisation
You would like to know : Scientists
in the Bar Elan University of Israel
1.1 River Valley Civilisations have found out that ancient people had
attempted cultivation, some 23000
Homo habilis made the first stone tools.
years ago. They have recovered its
These tools were useful only for simple jobs
archaeological evidence from ‘Ohalo’,
like scraping meat from the hides of dead
animals, splitting bones to extract marrow,
a palaeolithic camp site near the Sea
breaking nuts, etc. To strike the stone with of Galili. At Ohalo the evidence of
just enough impact and to remove flakes Barley and some other cereals, seeds
from a stone in order to shape a tool, was of fruits has been found along with
the mankind’s first big step in the field of traces of human occupation. There
technology. The later species of mankind were also a few seeds of various
after Homo habilis were more advanced. weeds. These weeds are of evolved
They advanced human technology much types and they are found only with
further. cultivated crops. This fact confirms
Through close observation of the seasonal that the cereals found at Ohalo were
cycles in the nature, the Mesolithic people the remains of cultivated crops and not
could domesticate various plants and animals. of the wild variety. Additional evidence
It resulted into the rise of the ‘Neolithic of grinding stones also came forth
Age’. Cultivation and pastoralism (animal from this site. They were used to grind
husbandry) became a way of life for neolithic the cereals before cooking them.
people. It was the end of nomadic-semi
nomadic life for them. Settled villages came (1) The Valley of Euphrates and
into being. The archaeological evidence Tigris - Mesopotamia : Ancient Mesopotamia
shows that systematic agriculture began some included modern Iraq, Syria as well as the
12000-11000 years ago. Beginning of western regions of Iran and south-eastern
agriculture and rise of settled villages are the regions of Turkey.
two phenomena that are inevitably associated Mesopotamia is the Greek name of the
with each other. The progress in the techniques region between the two rivers, Tigris and
of systematic cultivation resulted in the rise Euphrates. Mesos means the ‘middle one’.
1
Potamos means ‘river’. The region between
two rivers is ‘Mesopotamia’. The Mesolithic You would like to know : Egypt
people began to stay in this region for longer was originally known as ‘Kemet’.
times because of the availability of ample Egypt got this name because of the
water. Also both the rivers flooded annually, black soil that was deposited by the
making the soil on their banks very fertile. Nile floods. Later Egypt came to be
The camps of Mesolithic people developed known as ‘Hwat-ka-Pta’. It means
into the first settled neolithic villages. These the temple of God. The Greeks
first villages are dated to 10000 years B.C.E. changed it to ‘Egyptus’. In the course
The farmers in these villages grew wheat and of time it was changed to ‘Egypt’.
barley. The Arabic name of Egypt is ‘Misra’.
(2) The Valley of Nile - Egypt : The
country in the northern parts of the African ancient remains in Egypt and published it.
continent and in the valley of the Nile river These studies received a momentum because
is ‘Egypt’. of the decipherment of the Rosetta inscriptions.
Napoleon Bonaparte had taken along It became possible to read the Egyptian
many scholars from various fields during his hieroglyphs.*
invasion of Egypt in 1798. They studied the
*Hieroglyphs = pictorial script
2
The first neolithic villages in Egypt came (4) The Valleys of Sindhu (Indus) and
into being at about 6000 B.C.E. The beginning Saraswati - Indian Subcontinent : The region
of agriculture in Egypt coincides with the of the valleys of Sindhu and Saraswati is
same time. The first crops grown in these now divided between India and Pakistan.
villages were wheat and barley. The archaeological excavations at
(3) The Valley of the Huang He - Harappa on the banks of Ravi in Punjab and
China : The valley of Huang He river is Mohenjo Daro on the banks of Sindhu in
considered to be the region of origin of the Sindh, indicate the existance of a fully
Chinese culture. The Chinese culture evolved developed civilisation in the Indian
here. subcontinent which was dated to circa 3000
Agriculture in the neolithic villages of B.C.E.
China began at about 7000 B.C.E. Wheat, A number of archaeological sites of
foxtail millet and rice were grown by the neolithic villages have been now discovered.
farmers in these villages. It proves that there were well settled villages
in the Indian subcontinent as early as 8000
B.C.E. There is a general consensus among
You would like to know : ‘Yellow
the scholars that the Harappan cities evolved
River’ is the English translation of
from these early villages.
the Chinese name ‘Huang He’. The
yellow silt brought by her has earned Barley was the main crop grown by the
farmers in these villages. However, wheat
her this name. ‘River’ and ‘Mother’
was also grown on a smaller scale. The
are her other names. These names
farmers in these villages were the first
indicate her extraordinary place in
farmers of the Indian subcontinent. They
the Chinese culture. The name ‘River’
kept cattle and goat-sheep. They lived in
indicates that she is considered to be mud houses.
the only river of importance. The fact
The archaeological site at Mehrgarh in
that she is considered to be the
Baluchistan has yielded evidence of the
mother of the Chinese culture, is
continuous human occupation from the
obvious in the name, ‘Mother’. neolithic times to the rise of Harappan
Huang He and Yangtse in China civilisation and the material culture of the
are the rivers, which receive waters respective periods.
from the Himalayan glaciers as do 1.2 Beginning of Cultivation :
the rivers Ganga, Sindhu and Agricultural Production
Brahmaputra. Huang He flows so The transition from hunter-gatherer’s life
rapidly that it continuously keeps to the beginning of cultivation was a very
changing its course. The torrential slow process drawn over thousands of years.
floods caused because of it used to Beginning of cultivation is also the beginning
be very disastrous causing great loss of the neolithic age. It spans through 10000
of life and assets. Hence, she had – 8700 B.C.E. It may vary to some extent
earned one more name, ‘Sorrow’ or from place to place. This period marked the
the ‘River of Tears’. Now the terrible beginning of domestication of animals along
river has been brought under control with the beginning of cultivation. Barley was
by creating a number of dams and the main crop in this period. Other crops
bunds on her. were wheat and flaxseed.
3
The blades used for Mesolithic tools were removed from siliceous stones by the
technique known as ‘Fluted Core technique’. These blades are as tiny as our fingernails.
So they are called ‘microliths’. The Mesolithic people used wooden arrows fixed with
microlithic arrowheads.
Mesolithic Blades
(Microliths) Microliths used
as arrowheads
Fluted Core
The serrated knife made by

hafting microliths
The serrated knife made by hafting microliths
It is apparent that the common animals and vegetation for food increased.
prerequisites were present in Mesopotamia, This period had also witnessed extinction of
Egypt, China and Indian Subcontinent to species of gigantic animals like mammoth.
initiate the onset of the Neolithic age and However, varied species of fish, and small
agriculture. The last Glacial period in the animals like goat, sheep, deer, etc. were
history of our planet came to an end at amply available for food. The heavy tools of
about 12000-11000 years ago. It was the Palaeolithic times were of no use either for
beginning of a new epoch, which is known fishing or for hunting small animals.
as ‘Holocene’. The technique of removing long stone
With the beginning of the Holocene, blades had been developed in the Upper
glaciers began to melt and the water volume Palaeolithic age. In the Mesolithic age the
in the water bodies like rivers and ocean same technique was used and blades as small
increased. As a result, the availability of as fingernails were removed to make tools.
These blades known as microliths were either
hafted* on the tips of wooden/bone shafts or
in the grooves made on those shafts. Thus,
modified composite tools like fishing harpoons,
spears and arrows could be made. Ample
cereals and fruits, grown naturally, were
available. Tools like sickle and scythe were
made by hafting microliths for harvesting
the cereals and fruits.
*To haft - fix with the help of rope and resin/gum

Mammoth
4
Thus, the technology evolved; the transition was drawn over a prolonged period.
techniques of hunting and obtaining food Nevertheless, considering radical changes in
improved; food became available in plenty. the way of life during the Neolithic Age, the
This resulted in making the Mesolithic people Australian archaeologist Gordon Childe
stay at one place for a longer time of the coined the term ‘Neolithic Revolution’.
year. Harvesting of naturally grown cereals 1.3 First Farmers of India
led them into systematic cultivation. The Neo means ‘new’. Lithic means ‘of
technique of agricultural and pastoral stone’. Neolithic age got its name because of
operations (animal husbandry) continued to the stone tools of completely new types. It
evolve. The nature of these operations is included short and long heads of axe, made
such that the farmer is compelled to settle of polished stone and polished stone rings.
down permanently near the cultivated land. The axe heads were hafted on wooden shafts
He doesn’t need to go out in search of food. and used for cutting trees, scraping wood to
This is how the villages were settled on a give it a desired shape, etc. It was essential
permanent basis. This prepared the ground to clear jungles by felling trees in order to
for the rise of the Neolithic Age. This obtain land for cultivation and settlement.
The new tools came handy for this work.
You would like to know : The We have already seen that the site of
Palestinian city of Jericho on the banks Mehrgarh came into existence around 7000
of the river Jordan, is a historical city B.C.E. This site is of great importance among
with hoary past. It first settled as a the neolithic villages in the Indian subcontinent
village in 9000 B.C.E. It was one of established by the first farmers. The Mehrgarh
the first neolithic permanent settlements. farmers cultivated barley and wheat. There
It started getting organised into a well-
is another site of a neolithic village that is
knit society at about 8000 B.C.E. The
contemporary to Mehrgarh. The site was
village at this time had a protective
found at ‘Lahuradeva’ in Sant Kabirnagar
wall around it, complete with a watch
tower. This is undoubtedly an evidence district of Uttar Pradesh.
of an organised society. In Maharashtra, the mesolithic man
The beginning of cultivation at existed during 10000-4000 B.C.E. He stayed
Jericho and in the surrounding region in natural caves and under rock-shelters. He
began earlier than the establishment of moved along the river banks. He made
the village by a few centuries. Its microliths from silicious* stones. However,
evidence has been discovered at Gilgal, no evidence of purely neolithic sites have
a site near Jericho. A fire stricken been found in Maharashtra. What we have
house at Gilgal was excavated, which instead, are the Chalcolithic villages. The
yielded burnt remains of figs. After Chalcolithic people were the first farmers of
carrying out laboratory analysis of Maharashtra. Inamgaon, in the Shirur taluka
these fig remains, scientists have of Pune district, is an important site of the
concluded that the neolithic people at
village of Chalocolithic farmers in
Gilgal had systematically planted fig
Maharashtra.
cuttings. This stands to be the first
attempt of planned cultivation. *Siliceous stones - stones like quartz, chalcedony,
agate, etc.
5
1.4 Agricultural Settlements : making of pottery seems to have begun in
Organisation and Administration the 2nd phase of the neolithic period. Pottery
Researchers have attempted to estimate making, along with the polished stone tools,
the population of neolithic villages with the is supposed to be an essential characteristic
help of various mathematical and statistical of the neolithic cultures. The earthen pots
models. With the help of those estimates we were used for the purpose of cooking, serving
may gather some idea with regards to food and for storage. In the beginning these
population compositions of those villages. pots were handmade. At a later stage, wheel-
When Mesolithic people were witnessing the made pottery was introduced. The neolithic
transition from nomadic-semi nomadic life to pottery in the beginning was in monochrome
settled life, there could have been 25-40 (single colour), with a burnished* surface.
people in any given group. Life dependent Some pots had carved designs. Also the
on regular cultivation would need that number techniques of stamping and applique work**.
to increase at least to 50. A village with at Gradually neolithic people began to decorate
least a population of 100 could meet the their pots with painted designs. Thus, in the
needs of individual members who would be latter half of the neolithic age, pottery making
completely dependent on agriculture and had become an art that required special
animal husbandry. skills.
Neolithic villages were small in size. *Burnished - polished by rubbing with a wooden
Permanently occupied dwellings (mostly or stone tool
round huts) were characteristic of these **applique work - pasting wet clay ribbons and
villages. Other than these dwellings, some making patterns on them
places in the central part of the village were
perhaps used as common storage places of To master the art of pottery-making one
food-grains and other things. This internal needs to possess knowledge of following
settlement pattern of the village indicates that things:
the transactions related to food production (1) To know the source of clay of
were centrally controlled. Accordingly a excellent quality. (2) To manage to obtain
hierarchical chain of power positions must clay. (3) To knead and prepare the clay for
have been established. At the same time pottery production. (4) To be able to turn the
other social norms were also established. For pot to the desired shape. (5) To have artistic
example: boundaries of individual households- skill for decorating the pottery. (6) To know
families, ownership of land, food production the technique of baking pottery at proper
to meet the needs of individual household- temperatures (approximately 850º-900º
family and rules of kinship. The tradition of Celsius).
imparting training of unique family skills of The class of skilled potters, equipped
production to the younger members is with essential knowledge of all stages of
supposed to have begun as early as the pottery-making, was already established in
neolithic times. In other words, it may be the 2nd phase of the neolithic period. Ancient
said that the hierarchical social and family pottery can throw light on various aspects of
structure and the concept of inheritance have ancient cultures. We get to know about the
its roots in the neolithic times. cultural history, the material richness of the
The culture known as ‘Jomon Culture’ place where it was found. With the help of
of Japan was a mesolithic culture, which has pottery we can also know about the contacts
yielded evidence of pottery making. Except of the residents of the place with other
this example, everywhere else in the world cultures.
6
The neolithic period also saw rise of Excavations at neolithic sites yield beads,
other skilled artisan classes based on waste material cast away during bead making
specialised crafts. It is apparent that the skill process, faulty and incomplete beads and the
of making beads of various types was tools used by the bead maker. The following
acquired by neolithic artisans from the are the stages of bead making:
beginning. They made beads of various types (1) To know the sources of siliceous
of siliceous stones and chank shells. stones and chank shells. (2) To obtain the
raw material. (3) To transport the raw
For additional information : material to the manufacturing site. (4) To
Some important Neolithic sites in India manufacture finished beads from the stones
of irregular shape and the core of chank
1. The northwest region of the
shells. The artisan has to be conversant with
Indian continent : Phase I (7000-
every stage of the bead manufacturing.
6000 B.C.E.) No evidence of pottery
(earthen pots). Phase II (6000-4000 In brief, agricultural production, as well
B.C.E.) Beginning of pottery as production of agricultural tools, pottery,
making, e.g. Mehrgarh. beads etc. is a chain of various skill based
2. Jammu and Kashmir - around operations, which are completed step by step.
2500 B.C.E. neolithic settlements It is a complex system, which calls for
established at the sites of Burzhom systematic division of labour and training of
and Gufkral. people for various skills. This process leads
to craft specialisation and creates various
3. Uttar Pradesh - around 6000
classes of skilled artisans.
B.C.E. neolithic settlements
established at the sites of Chopani 1.5 Trade and Transport
Mando, Koldihwa and Mahagara. The nomadic-semi nomadic groups of
4. Bihar - around 2000 B.C.E. Mesolithic people had a system of barter
neolithic settlements established at among themselves. The wheel was not yet
sites like Chirand, Senuwar, etc. invented. It means that the means of
5. Northeast India - The evidence of mechanical transport were not available to
neolithic settlement was first them. In the latter half of the neolithic age
discovered at the site of Daojali people had started using beasts of burden for
Hading in Assam. The village was transporting goods.
established around 2700 B.C.E. The Tools like axe, scrapers and chisels
neolithic tools found here show enabled neolithic people to cut trees and to
more affinity to neolithic tools work on wood. Most probably round shaped
found in China. pieces of wooden logs were used as wheels.
6. South India - The neolithic Such round pieces can easily gain momentum.
settlements in Karnatak, Andhra The neolithic people invented wheel and
Pradesh and Tamilnadu first came the technology they had developed so far,
into being around 4th - 3rd century underwent a revolution.
B.C.E. Karnatak sites - Sangankallu, The neolithic people began to produce
Maski, Brahmagiri, Tekkalkota, wheel-made pottery. The wheel technology
Piklihal, Hallur, etc. Andhra Pradesh made it possible to produce pottery on mass
site - Nagarjunikonda. Tamilnadu scale. The invention of wheel also made it
- Payyampalli possible to obtain raw material from distant
places in much lesser time. It became easier
7
to send the finished goods to distant markets social organisation and administration.
where it was in more demand. It helped to Eventually the villages expanded. Along with
develop trade and transport on a greater it, awareness of collective land holdings and
scale. the village boundaries became prominent.
Thus, it was felt that the village community
had a natural right over the immediate
By the Way : territory around the village periphery. This
The neolithic wheel kind of awareness of natural right over a
might have been particular region is known as ‘territoriality’.
similar to the wheel Rules and social norms were created in order
seen here. We do to manage the collective resources, water
not know, how old sources, crafts dependent on it, trade and
is this wheel. It community life, etc. Consequently rituals and
appears here as an their details gained importance. The need of
illustration, only to managing and keeping records of trade,
give some idea of a rituals, writing systems and administrative
wooden wheel, made by using a round machineries developed. It gave rise to
shaped piece cut from a wooden log. administrative centres. Such administrative
centres attract large number of population
1.6 Beginning of Urbanisation which includes officials, people from various
occupations. As a result, periphery of the
After settling down at one place for a
original settlement kept expanding and cities
long time, a feeling of ownership arose
came into being. Thus began the process of
among the neolithic people. This feeling was
urbanisation in the neolithic age.
focused on their individual dwellings and the
piece of land cultivated by them. This has In the next lesson we shall learn about
been already mentioned in the context of the first cities of India.
Exercise
Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (3) The neolithic people at Gilgal had
complete the sentence. systematically planted trees.
(1) ‘Yellow River’ is the English (a) Guava (b) Sapodilla
translation of the Chinese name (c) Fig (d) Indian blackberry
. (4) in the Shirur taluka of
(a) Kemet (b) Mother Pune district, is an important site of
(c) Sorrow (d) Huang He the village of Chalocolithic farmers
(2) The Australian archaeologist in Maharashtra.
coined the term ‘Neolithic (a) Saradwadi (b) Ranjangaon
Revolution’. (c) Pabal (d) Inamgaon
(a) Gorden Willey
(B) Find the incorrect pair and write
(b) Gorden Childe
the correct ones.
(c) Herodotus
(1) The valley of Tigris and Euphrates
(d) Collingwood - Mesopotamia
8
(2) The valley of Nile - Iran Q.4 State your opinion.
(3) The valley of Huang He - China (1) There were radical changes in
(4) The valley of Sindhu (Indus) and the way of human life during the
Saraswati - Indian subcontinent neolithic age.
(2) The neolithic people invented
Q.2 (A) Write correct chronological order.
wheel and the technology they
(1) Making of microliths
had developed so far, underwent a
(2) Beginning of the Neolithic Age
revolution.
(3) Beginning of the ‘Holocene’ epoch
(4) Beginning of agriculture and Q.5 Observe the map on page 2 of your
domestication of animals. textbook and answer the following
questions based on it.
(B) Complete the concept map. (1) What is the name of the sea at the
north of the African continent?
(2) In which continent did the Harappan
civilisation originate ?
(3) What is the name of the ocean at
Stage 1 Stage 2 the south of India?
Bead-making Q.6 Write short notes.
Method and Stages
of production (1) Neolithic ‘Jericho’
Stage 3 Stage 4 (2) ‘Holocene’ epoch
Manufacturing finished Q.7 Answer the following questions in
beads from the stones of
irregular shape and the
detail.
core of chank shells. (1) Write in detail about the ‘first
farmers’ and beginning of agriculture
in India.
(2) What knowledge was essential for
(C) Find the odd man out. the neolithic people to make pottery?
Countries with ancient civilisations : (3) Write about the trade and transport
Egypt, China, India, England in the neolithic age.
(4) Write about the beginning of
Q.3 Explain the following statements with
urbanisation in the neolithic age.
reasons.
(1) The camps of Mesolithic people Activity
developed into the first settled Write in detail about any of the ancient
villages of neolithic people in civilisations.
Mesopotemia.
(2) ‘Huang He’ river is considered to be 
the mother of the Chinese culture.
(3) In the latter half of the neolithic
age, pottery-making had become an
art that required special skills.
9
Neolithic Age
8000-3000 B.C.E.
First Farmers You womenfolk began

to grow food in the yards.
Now there is no need to
go hunting everyday.
Yes ! There is
always some
food available.
The villagers have

chosen me as their Is there any
‘Chief ’. It’s a problem ?
great responsibility.
Yes ! Now
There should Our ancestors I need to
be equal had to wander in complete a few
justice to all. the wilderness for chores.
food and water.
Our coming
generations will We should take
be here in this village. good care of
We are well-rooted in our land, water
this soil, now. and cattle.
I took a round There used to be a small village here.

in the village market. Now look ! We are a big city ! Let’s pray !
Saw some people May our city be safe forever !
from neighbouring May there never be any hard times !
villages.
Good !
We will have
better trade
with them.
10
2. First Cities of India
2.1 Characteristics of Harappan Harayana. The total area covered by it is

Civilisation about 1500000 Sq. Kms. The Harappan
2.2 Interrelationship between Cities civilisation belonged to ‘Bronze Age’. So far,
and Villages more than 2000 sites of the Harappan
2.3 Production, Trade, Organisation civilisation have been recorded. The remains
and Administration found at cities like Harappa, Mohenjodaro,
2.4 Decline of the Cities Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi,
etc. are the evidence of the past glory of this
2.1 Characteristics of Harappan civilisation.
Civilisation The history of these cities had three
It has been mentioned earlier that the stages: (1) Early Harappan period
roots of the Harappan civilisation are to be (2) Mature Harappan (urban) period (3) Late
found in the pre-Harappan culture of Neolithic Harappan period.
times at Mehrgarh in Baluchistan. This The question regarding the authors of the
culture is known as ‘Togao culture’. It shows Harappan civilisation still remains mysterious.
traces of the beginning of the Harappan Some of the main characteristics of the
culture. Jean Francois Jarrige and Richard Harappan cities are noted below.
Meadow conducted the excavations at (1) Systematic Town Planning :
Mehrgarh. Another neolithic culture of the Houses of baked bricks complete with
pre-Harappan period is known as ‘Ravi or bathrooms, toilets, wells, etc., existance of
Hakra culture’. Its remains have been found granaries, Impressive public monuments,
during the excavations at sites like Harappa English bond masonry (method of using two
(Punjab, Pakistan), Kunal, Bhirrana and headers and two stretchers alternatively while
Farmana (Harayana). building a wall – this method is specially
A few years ago it was strongly believed useful in earthquake prone regions), Excellent
that the Vedic Aryans arrived in India at drainage system, public baths, two or more
about 1500 B.C.E. However, no information divisions of the city with each division
was available regarding the period before enclosed by independent fortification walls,
that. This situation continued till the discovery Streets crossing each other in right angles
of Harappa in 1921 and Mohenjodaro in and the resulted blocks used for building
1922. The discovery of the Harappan houses (grid pattern).
Civillisation at these two places stretched the (2) Central Administration :
antiquity of Indian history to 3500-3000 Administrative control over the distribution of
B.C.E. At that time a well-developed and water and other resources, Standardisation :
rich civilisation had flourished in the Indian For example, the size of bricks in the ratio
subcontinent. It extended from Afghanistan to of 1:2:4, weights increasing in the proportion
Maharashtra and from Makaran coast to of 8, set style of shapes and painted designs
11
of pottery, majestic and non-residential is important. At that time, he was the
buildings for public administrative offices. Director General of the Archaeological
(3) Social organisation : Social hierarchy Survey of India. During the excavation he
based on position of power, classes of skilled could trace the fortification wall around the
artisans and individuals based on craft citadel of Harappa.
specialisation, belief systems and artefacts/ The first settlement of the Early Harappan
architecture indicative of them, evidence of period was established around 3300 B.C.E. It
burials indicative of rituals after death. evolved to the Mature Harappan (urban)
(4) Economy : Mass production of goods phase around 2600 B.C.E. It reached its
for trading purpose : For example, well- peak during 2450-1900 B.C.E. Around 1900
shaped, beautiful earthen pots, statues, metal B.C.E. some internal changes begin to appear
objects of gold, silver, copper and bronze, in the Harappan cities. This is the time of
various types of beautiful beads, etc., the onset of the Late Harappan phase. This
concentration of factories and residences of phase indicates the decline of Harappan
artisans in a particular area of the city for civilisation.
the sake of convenience of production, The evidence of the first excavations at
flourishing internal and distant trade, Harappa had indicated that the city of
administrative control over trade transactions. Harappa was divided into two parts - the
(5) Use of Developed Writing System : ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’. However,
The script on Harappan seals. recent excavations show that it had four
divisions. Apart from the citadel and the
Some Cities of the Harappan
lower town there were factories and the
Civilisation
quarters of artisans in the Southeast part of
Harappa : Harappa is situated on the
the city. The area toward the north of the
banks of the river Ravi (District Sahiwal in
citadel had a granary and the quarters of the
Punjab, Pakistan). The ancient site of Harappa
workers working there. It is obvious that the
had spread on 150 Hectares. The first
officials staying in the citadel supervised
excavation at Harappa began in 1921. More
over the granary and the workers working
excavations were conducted at the site, from
there. A few working platforms were found
time to time. Among them the excavations
near the granary.
conducted in 1946 by Sir Mortimer Wheeler
For additional Information : 1. The bed remains dry through the year except
archaeological cultures are named after the during the monsoon. It is known as
site where the characteristic pottery and Ghaggar in India and as Hakra in Pakistan.
artifacts of the culture were discovered for A number of Harppan settlements were
the first time. discovered along its dry beds during
2. The river known as ‘Ghaggar- exploratory surveys.
Hakra’ flows only during the monsoon. It 3. Many scholars are of the opinion
originates in the Siwalik hills in the that the dry beds of Ghaggar-Hakra are
Himachal Pradesh and flows to Rajasthan the traces of the vanished river ‘Saraswati’.
through Punjab and Haryana. From there Satellite images of are being studied in
it enters the desert of Cholistan in Pakistan. depth by scholars to gather more
Ultimately it enters the Rann of Kutch. Its information about these dry beds.
12
You would like to know : Before the of Harappa by the reports written by Masson
discovery of the Harappan civilisation, and Burnes. He conducted excavations at
Alexander’s invasion in 326 B.C.E. was the Harappa during 1872-73 C.E. After that for
only evidence available in the context of next 48 years no excavations were conducted
ancient History of India and Pakistan. How at the site. However, during this long interval
this situation entirely changed because of the the curiosity for Harappan site among the
discovery of the Harappan cities, is a fascinating European scholars had not vanished. A
story. It began in the year of 1829. Charles general impression prevailed among them
Masson, a British traveller was the first one to that the Harappan seals had some connection
visit and write about the archaeological remains with the Mesopotamian civilisation.
at Harappa. He thought that these remains
could be that of the capital of King Porus who The drawing of a
Harappan seal published
fought with Alexander. Lieutenant Alexander by Sir Alexander
Burnes, a British officer was the next one to Cunningham. The
visit this site. Harappan seal here
appears to be rectangular.
Sir Alexander Cunningham was the first However, Harappan
Director General of the Archaeological Survey seals, in reality are
of India. His attention was attracted to the site square in shape.
13
Mohenjodaro : The excavations at
Mohenjodaro by Rakhaldas Banerjee began
in 1921-22. He concluded, because of the
similarity between the seals and other
artefacts, that
the ancient
civilisations of
Mesopotamia
and Harappa A multi-roomed house at Mohenjodaro
had cultural Chandigarh. Considering the economic and
Harappan Pots
ties with each human resources required for the creation of
other. In 1923- a pre-planned city like Mohenjodaro, it is
24 to gather more information about obvious that it was created to serve a
Mohenjodaro Madho Sarup Vats, Kashinath distinctive purpose.
Narayan Dikshit, Earnest Mackay and others
Kalibangan : The site of Kalibangan is
conducted further excavations under Sir John
205 kilometres away from Bikaner. It is
Marshall’s direction. He was the Director
located in the Hanumangarh district of
General of the Archaeological Survey of
Rajasthan. It was one of the important urban
India at that time. During these excavations
centres of the Harappan civilisation, situated
various artefacts, houses and public
on the banks of the river Ghaggar. L. P.
monuments were unearthed.
Tessitore, an Italian linguist had visited
Mohenjodaro was built on the banks of Kalibangan during his study tour of the
the river Sindhu (Indus) in Pakistan (District region. He had reported that Kalibangan is
Larkana, Sindh). It was not possible to reach an ancient site and it could be prehistoric. It
the bottom layer during the excavations was confirmed to be a Harappan city only
because of the high levels of groundwater. after the excavations began there in 1960. It
However, it is likely that a neolithic settlement was conducted under the direction of Brijabasi
contemporary to the one at Mehrgarh existed Lal, the then Director General of the
there. Archaeological Survey of India and Balkrishna
Areawise, Mohenjodaro is the biggest Thapar.
city, among those discovered in Pakistan so At Kalibangan two settlements, one of
far. It was thought that the city was divided the Mature Harappan period and the other of
into two fortified sections, namely the the Early Harappan period, were found.
‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’. However, Kalibangan was a small city compared to
there was an additional section of the market. Harappa and Mohenjodaro. The division of
In this section were found various workshops, the city into the ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower
kilns for baking pottery and beads. Town’ was found here also. The site of
The remains at Mohenjodaro were Kalibangan is important for two things. The
considerably intact. So the glory of the city first is the ploughed field of the Early
was revealed in way of the houses, majestic Harappan period. This field is dated to about
buildings, wide streets, etc. Thus the evidence 2800 B.C.E. The furrow marks in this ancient
of the impressive town planning, and public field are similar to the furrows of modern
administration, characteristic of the Harappan fields in the surrounding area. The other
civilisation came into light. The town planning thing is the series of six to seven fire altars
of the Harappan cities can be easily compared in the citadel. Evidence of fire alters inside
with the town planning of a modern city like the houses of common people has also been
14
unearthed. Apart from this there was a house
with a series of fire altars outside the
fortification wall. Some of them contained
animal bones. According to some
archaeologists, this might be indicative of
fire worship.
Lothal : The centre of the Harappan
civilisation at Lothal was situated near the
Gulf of Kutch, in Gujarat, 80 kilometres
away from Ahmedabad. It is known for the
remains of Harappan dock. Lothal was
excavated from 1955 to 1960 under the The Water Tank at Dholavira
supervision of S.R. Rao. sites, extentwise Dholavira is the fifth largest
The ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’ at city. Its town planning is somewhat different
Lothal do not have separate fortification compared to other Harappan cities.
walls. Rather they are surrounded by a single An Early Harappan settlement was
fortification wall. discovered at Dholavira. There was a
Lothal was established on the banks of protective wall built around it by using mud
the river Bhogao. The presence of platforms bricks (unbaked bricks) and dressed stones.
built for stalls, a warehouse, and the dock The layers above this settlement had the
confirm that Lothal was an important Harppan city of Mature Harappan phase. It
Harappan port and trading centre. The was surrounded by an outer fortification wall.
architecture of the dock at Lothal is an The settlement within the outer fortification
example of the engineering excellence of was divided into four sections.
ancient people. At present Lothal is away (1) Citadel (2) The adjacent section
from the sea. However, in the ancient times reserved for high officials (3) Lower Town
Lothal was in the delta region of the gulf of – These three sections had walls, which
Kutch. It is clear that the Harappan settlers separated them from each other. (4) The
of Lothal had a good knowledge of the high fourth section inside the outer fortification
and low tides and accordingly the rising and did not have any additional separating walls.
receding pattern of Bhogao waters. The dock This fourth section was perhaps meant for
was built to facilitate the entry of boats the workers. A dam of baked bricks and
during the high tide and their exit during low stone was built to obstruct the water of two
tides. Once the boats entered the dock, the streams, which flowed near the closed city
water was drained out through a sluice gate and the water was diverted to canals and
into a canal. The sluice gate of baked bricks lakes. This was the most ancient system of
was built to reduce the water level in the planned water management.
dock as and when required. Then the repair
Rakhigarhi : In the Hissar district of
work of the boats was completed and with
Haryana is situated the site of Rakhigarhi, a
the rise of water the boats could sail back.
Harappan city. It is on the distance of 150
Dholavira : Dholavira was discovered kilometres from Delhi. It is located on the
by J.P. Joshi, the Director General of
banks of Chautang (ancient Drishdvati river).
Archaeological Survey of India. The site is
Rakhigarhi is the largest Harappan site,
in ‘Khadirbet’ in Gujarat (Dist. Kutch).
among all the sites from India and Pakistan.
Excavations at the site were started by R.S.
Its total area was more than 350 Hectares.
Bisht in 1990. Among the excavated Harappan
The excavations at Rakhigarhi started in
15
1963. It continued in 1997-2000. Later, administration. The raw material needed for
Dr.Vasant Shinde of the Deccan College, Harappan industrial production included clay,
Pune also conducted excavations at the site. various siliceous and semi-precious stones,
At Rakhigarhi, all characteristics of the metals, etc. The interrelationship between
Harappan cities were present. It was the Harappan cities and villages was dependent
main centre of the Harappan civilisation in on the mechanism of making available,
its eastern region. At this site too, evidence things like food grains and the raw materials.
of fire altars like Kalibangan have been Not that all the pre-Harappan settlements
found. were transformed into cities and towns.
Indeed, cemeteries were found at various Some of them did not change notably. There
other Harappan sites, but the human skeletal was a network of small towns, small and big
remains from there were not studied to villages and camp sites of semi-nomadic
analyse the hereditary characteristics of the people, which functioned to cater to the needs
population. However, the human bones from of major urban centres of the Harappan
Rakhigarhi were subjected to genetic analysis. civilisation. It included villages in remote
Scientists believe that in due course it would regions as well. The best example of it is
provide satisfactory answers to the question the Harappan settlement of ‘Shortugai’ in the
of the origin of Harappan people. Badakshan province of Afghanistan. This
region is rich with mines of lapis lazuli.
For Additional Information : (1) Many There was a great demand for this semi-
sites of the Early Harappan and Mature precious stone in Mesopotamia. The
Harappan (Urban) phases have been found Mesopotamian epics
in the basin of the river Ghaggar. The describe Goddess Inanna’s
latest research based on the evidence from palace, the walls of which
sites like Kunal, Bhirrana, Farmana, were embedded with this
Girwad and Mitathal, etc. indicate a stone. This stone was a
possibility of the rise of the Mature very important commodity Lapis lazuli stone
Harappan more than 5000 years ago. If
in the Harappan trade
this is proved in due course, then it may
with Mesopotamia.
be said that it first developed in the
Ghaggar basin. Evidence from Rakhigarhi 2.3 Production, Trade, Organisation
may prove to be instrumental in reaching and Administration
positive conclusion in this context. In the early phase of agriculture, making
(2) The Harappan sites of Mohenjodaro, earthen pots and farming were the jobs of
Harappa, Ganweriwala in Pakistan and women. The pots fashioned by women were
Rakhigarhi and Dholavira in India have handmade. They used a digging stick for
been declares as World Heritage sites. sowing the seeds. With these methods women
could manage production, just enough to
2.2 Interrelationship between Cities meet the family needs or at the most those
and Villages of the extended family. Surplus production
We have seen that the Harappan cities was not possible with their methods.
arose as a result of the process of the The use of bullocks as draft animals (for
development and expansion of the pre- ploughing and transport) had begun in the
Harappan settlements. The city people are Early Harappan period. The use of wheel
dependent on the natural resources and enabled speedy and mass production of pottery.
villages in their vicinity in order to meet the Use of ploughs pulled by bullocks enhanced
needs of urban way of life and urban the agricultural production. The clay replicas
16
of ploughs are recovered from the Harappan were also exclusively industrial settlements.
site at Banawali in Harayana. It became Chanudaro in Sindh was an important
possible to obtain necessary commodities in industrial town. It is apparent that the
exchange of agricultural produce. This was outposts in Gujarat were specially established
the beginning of barter system. The food grains for the convenience of trade. It was easier
were exchanged, especially to obtain salt, to reach the sources of copper, chank shells
metals and precious objects. and semi-precious stones from the outposts
During the Mature (urban) Harappan like Kuntasi, Nageshwar, Bagasara, etc. in
period the sphere of commodity exchange Kutch-Saurashtra. It was also easier to ship
expanded and their import-export increased out the finished goods from these outposts
to a great extent. The internal and distant located near the coast of Saurashtra. Carrying
trade received momentum. Trade with distant out all the operations like procurement of the
places like Mesopotamia became regular. raw material, production of finished goods
Trade with Mesopotamia had begun during and its export from one and the same region,
Early Harappan times. The Akkadian empire certainly proves to be beneficial for trade.
was founded in 2334 B.C.E. by Emperor Harappan people built the trading outposts
Sargon I. During his reign the Harappan with this view in mind. These were small in
trade with Mesopotamia flourished and the extent, but were important industrial centres.
Harappan cities reached their peak. One of Dholavira was the city built to oversee the
the administrative records of emperor Sargon trading transactions. Lothal was an important
describes the trade with distant places. It sea port.
seems that the importance of trade by land
routes passing through Iran and Central Asia For Additional Information :
had diminished in the Mature Harappan Mesopotamia is known for its grand
period and the sea trade had become the temples. The administrative system of
preferred mode. ‘Dilmun’, ‘Makan’ and Mesopotamian cities revolved around the
‘Meluhha’ are mentioned as three important administration of these temples.
Mesopotamian temples are known as
centres on the sea route. Dilmun is identified
‘ziggurats’. The high priest of the temple
with Bahrain, Makan with the coastal region
used to be the ruler of the city. The social
of Oman-Iran-Baluchistan and Meluhha with life, cultural events, power and hierarchy
the region of Harappan civilisation. Copper of officials, etc. were organised in
was available in large amounts in Meluhha. accordance with the rituals and festivals of
The name Meluhha is supposed to have its the presiding deity of the temple. The
origin in the red colour of copper. The notion of a ‘Priest-King’ of the Harappan
commodities exported from Meluhha to civilisation was formulated by presuming
Mesopotamia included copper, ivory objects, its close similarity with the Mesopotamian
lapis lazuli, carnelian beads, textiles, timber culture. Mesopotamia was rich in
as well as monkeys and peacocks. The bodies agricultural production. However, it did not
(mummies) of dead royalties in Egypt were have enough sources of precious metals,
wrapped in blue coloured cloth. Indigo, gems and timber. These things were
necessary for dyeing this cloth was exported imported there. Many of the Mesopotamian
brick inscriptions contain the lists of
by Harappan traders. Harappan traders are
imported commodities and the place names
likely to have received wool, gold and silver
from where they were imported. The
in exchange for these commodities.
exports from Mesopotamia included textiles,
The Harappan cities had a reserved pottery and leather products.
section for the industrial production. There
17
It is clear that a well organised continuous internal conflicts in Mesopotemia.
administrative system existed to manage the Along with it increasing salination of
industrial production, import-export, the agricultural land was the main reason of the
interrelationship between cities managing decline of the Mesopotamian civilisation. It
trading operations and villages around them. weakened the Mesopotamian market that was
The town planning, standardisation of bricks, available to the Harappan goods.
weights, seals, shapes and ornamentation of 2. Deteriorating environment was the
various objects, etc. confirm the presence of main reason of the decline of Mesopotamia.
such administrative system. However the Similarly, climatic changes and deteriorating
nature of Harappan polity, whether it was a environment were the main reasons of the
single state or a federation of small states, decline of the Harappan civilisation too.
is not yet known. The cities like Mohenjodaro, Around 2000 B.C.E. the climate became
Harappa, Dholavira and Rakhigarhi were increasingly arid and there were frequent
perhaps regional capitals. Cities like famines. Degradation of cultivable land was
Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Lothal and on the increase. It is mentioned earlier that
Rakhigarhi were important religious centres. sites of Harappan civilisation have been
2.4 Decline of the Cities discovered in large numbers in the basin of
1. When Harappan civilisation was Saraswati, which is now known as Ghaggar/
discovered, it was presumed that its cities Hakra. The interrelationship between
were destroyed by invading tribes who came Harappan cities and villages that formed the
from outside. Indra is described as ‘Purandara’ support system of the socio-economic life of
meaning the destroyer of fortified cities. The the cities dwindled in this period. The
Harappan cities were fortified, thus befitting devastating earthquake in the Saraswati basin
the definition of ‘pura’. Sir Mortimer Wheeler was the major reason responsible for it. The
on this basis concluded that Indra destroyed earthquake raised the ground level of the
the Harappan cities. In turn, he declared that river bed causing a barrier causing Sutlaj
the Vedic Aryans destroyed the Harappan and Yamuna, the tributaries of the Saraswati
cities under the leadership of Indra. This to change its course. As a result the Saraswati
declaration by Wheeler received a general dried up and the Harappans had to migrate
approval among the scholars at that time. elsewhere. Harappan cities were abandoned.
However, more concrete evidence in the The settlements that came up on the
context of Harappan civilisation is available remains of the Harappan cities were not
now, which does not agree with Wheeler’s developed and rich. These settlements
opinion. It is now known that the Harappan belonged to Late Harappan people. The
civilisation began to decline around 2000- pottery, houses, funerary customs of these
1900 B.C.E. People had to migrate elsewhere. people were different. The Late Harappan
With this, began the Late Harappan period. people were also forced to migrate because
The Harappan civilisation deteriorated as of natural calamities. New villages were
the cumulative effect of various factors such settled by the Mature Harappan and Late
as decline in trade, climatic changes, Harappan people wherever they went. It gave
weakening of the economy, etc. rise to new rural cultures. The spread of
The Harappan trade with Mesopotamia these new cultures is seen in Rajasthan,
was on the decline in the Late Harappan Gujarat, Malawa and Maharashtra. These
period because the Mesopotamian economy new cultures are known as ‘Chalcolithic
had weakened. One reason of it was Cultures’. We will learn about these cultures
in the next lesson.
18
Note : Terminology
(1) Pre-Harappan Cultures - Cultures of the period preceding the Harappan civilisation
(2) Early Harappan period - Early (beginning) Harappan phase
(3) Mature (Urban) Harappan period - Fully developed phase of Harappan civilisation
(4) Late Harappan period - Period after the decline of the mature (Urban) phase
(5) Post Harappan cultures - Rural cultures that came up after the Harappan civilisation vanished.
Exercise
Q.1 Choose the correct alternative and (3) Shortugai (c) Mesopotamia
complete the sentence.. (4) Meluhha (d) Region of Harappan
(1) In the early phase of agriculture, civilisation
making pots and farming
were the jobs of women. Q.3 Explain the statements with reasons.
(a) copper (b) bronze (1) The remains found at cities like
(c) earthen (d) stone Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan,
Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, etc.
(2) Lothal is known for its ancient are the evidence of the past glory of
. this civilisation.
(a) agriculture (b) dock
(c) textiles (d) tools (2) Lapis lazuli had a very important
(3) A general impression prevailed that the place in the Harappan trade.
Harappan seals had some connection (3) Harappan civilisation declined.
with the civilisation. Q.4 State your opinion.
(a) Chinese (b) Greek
(c) Mesopotamian (d) Egyptian (1) The Harappan cities and villages in
the vicinity were interdependent.
(4) The bodies (mummies) of dead (2) The Harappan cities seem to have a
royalties in Egypt were wrapped in well-organised administrative system.
coloured cloth.
(a) white (b) black Q.5 Answer the following question with the
(c) red (d) blue help of given points.
Q.2 (A) Choose the correct reason and Write about the characteristics of
complete the sentence. Harappan cities with the help of given
The major reason for the decline of the points.
Mesopotamian civilisation was - (a) Town planning
(a) foreign invasion (b) Social organisation
(b) deteriorting environment (c) Administration
(c) loss in trade (d) Economy
(d) migration Activity
(B) Find the incorrect pair and write Collect information and illustrations with
the correct ones. the help of internet about the town
(1) Dilmun (a) Bahrain planning of the Harappan cities and
(2) Makan (b) Oman-Iran- Chandigarh. Compare them.
Baluchistan coastal
region 
19
20
3. Chalcolithic Villages in India
3.1 Chalcolithic Period in India

3.2 Chalcolithic Maharashtra
3.3 Megalithic Period in India
3.1 Chalcolithic Period in India

Design on Harappan Jar - Cemetery ‘H’
When the Mature (urban) Harappan
civilisation collapsed completely, the people on the Mature Harappan pottery. On one of
of Late Harappan cultures who had settled the cemetery ‘H’ pots dead humans are seen
on the ruins of Mature Harappan cities had carried by peacocks in their stomach. In brief
to migrate elsewhere. The urban Harappans the characteristics of the Late Harappan
and the Late Harappans dispersed. Wherever culture were different.
these people reached, new rural cultures came Some archaeologists are of the opinion
into being. that the Late Harappans were perhaps Vedic
The discipline of architecture, town Aryans. However, more research is required
planning of the Mature Harappan period was to know whether the Late Harappans were
absent in the Late Harappan settlements, the successors of the Mature Harappan people
established on the ruins of the Harappan
or whether they were the Vedic Aryans.
cities. The designs found on the burial pots
in ‘Cemetary H’ at Harappa were different. Rajasthan
These designs include motifs like sun, moon, (1) ‘Ahar’ or ‘Banas’ Culture : The
fish, deer and peacock, which do not occur chalcolthic cultures in India generally belong
Revision in Brief : There were these things to the local people wherever
Neolithic villages before the rise of the they went. Thus, new rural cultures with
Harappan cities. Neolithic people had regional variations came into being.
the technology of making copper objects. These cultures are known as Chalcolithic
They were also skilled potters. Eventually, culture. Chalcolithic cultures belonged to
their technology improved and the people who used tools of copper as well
progress led to the origin of the Harappan as stone. However copper was used
cities. sparingly by chalcolithic people.
People of the Mature Harappan and A number of Chalocolithic sites have
the Late Harappan culture had the been found in Rajasthan, the Ganga
knowledge of wheel-made pottery, valley, Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal, Odisha,
cultivation of wheat and barley, making Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
of copper objects. They must have taught
21
to the post-Harappan period. However, the was surrounded by a fortification wall. These
‘Ahar’ or ‘Banas’ culture in the Mewad characteristics confirm that Balathal people
region of Rajasthan was contemporary to the were in close contact with the Harappans.
Harappan civilisation. Balathal and Gilund The Balathal people obtained copper
near Udaipur are the important sites of Ahar from the Khetri mines in Rajasthan. They
culture. ‘Ahar’ culture at Balathal is dated knew the technology of smelting copper. It
to 4000 B.C.E. seems Balathal was the source for the
It was first discovered at Ahar near Harappans to obtain copper and copper
Udaipur, so it was named as ‘Ahar’ culture. objects.
Ahar is located on the banks of Ahar, a (2) Ganeshwar-Jodhpura Culture :
tributary of the river Banas, So it is also Many sites of the culture known as
known as ‘Banas’ culture. ‘Ganeshwar-Jodhpura’ culture have been
The archaeological evidence shows that found in the vicinity of the copper mines at
Balathal was a centre of mass production of Khetri. The settlements there are earlier than
pottery. The pottery made at Balathal was the Harappan civilisation. During the
supplied to other settlements of Ahar culture. excavations at Ganeshwar copper artefacts
Along with pottery, terracotta bull figurines, like arrowheads, spearheads, harpoons,
objects made of chank shell, stone blades, bangles, chisels and also pottery was found.
chisels, arrowheads, copper tools, etc. were The people of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture
found here, in large quantities. The houses at supplied copper objects to the Harappans.
Balathal were built of baked bricks, by The Ganga Valley
placing two headers and two stretchers Ochre Coloured Pottery and Copper
alternatingly (English bond method). Balathal Hoards : Initially the Ochre Colured Pottery
(OCP) was mostly found in river beds.
By the way : An archaeological Generally the potsherds of OCP are found in
culture is usually named after the worn out, rounded and brittle conditions as
site where it was discovered first. they remained in flowing water for a long
Every culture has its characteristic time. Now, a number of sites of the OCP
pottery. The pottery is the main clue culture are found in Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan and the Western region of Uttar
to identify a particular culture.
Pradesh.
Among the types of pottery of
House floors
the Ahar culture Black-and-Red type
of these people
pottery is important. It is made on
were made by
wheel. The inner side and the outer ramming. On the
portion near the neck is red and rest house floors were
of the pot is black. If the pot is kept found traces of
in a reverted position while baking hearths, terracotta
its inner side turns black and the male figurines
outer surface turns red. Or else, the and bull figurines.
portion, which is covered by husk or Remains of cattle
hay becomes black and the uncovered bones, rice and
portion becomes red. Copper Hoard - Harpoon, barley were also
axe head, ring etc. found. This
22
evidence indicates that people of this culture troughs of various sizes.
stayed in settled villages and practiced Madhya Pradesh
agriculture. (1) Kayatha Culture : Kayatha is a site
The OCP culture in Rajasthan is dated situated on the banks of the river known as
to about 3000 B.C.E. The same culture Chhoti Kali Sindh, at a distance of 25
existed in Ganga-Yamuna Doab around 2000 kilometres from Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh.
B.C.E. Kayatha culture was contemporary to
The Copper Hoards found in India come the Harappan civilisation. The people of
from various regions, such as Uttar Pradesh, Kayatha culture subsisted on agriculture and
Bihar, Bengal, Odisha, and Madhya Pradesh. animal husbandry. They mainly used
The copper objects found in these hoards handmade pots and microliths. Artefacts like
indicate that the artisans who fashioned them copper axes and bangles, necklaces made of
were very highly skilled. The archaeological beads of semi-precious stones and small disc
sites of OCP and the find-spots of the copper beads of steatite were found in the Kayatha
hoards are often seem to be situated in the houses. People of Kayatha culture and
same vicinity, not very distant from each Harappan culture seem to have been in
other. Hence, OCP and copper hoards are contact much before the rise of the Harappan
supposed to belong to one and the same cities.
culture. After the Kayatha culture people of Ahar
Some archaeologists are of the opinion culture arrived in Madhya Pradesh from
that this culture belonged to the Harappan Rajasthan. It is quite possible that both the
people who migrated after the decline of the cultures co-existed in Madhya Pradesh for a
Harappan civilisation. Some scholars linked short time. Remains of Malwa culture are
the copper hoards to the Vedic Aryans. found in Madhya Pradesh in the times after
However, some other scholars reasoning on Ahar culture.
the basis of the proximity of OCP and copper (2) Malwa Culture : The name ‘Malwa’
hoards, believe that it must have been an obviously tells us that this culure originated
independent culture. and spread first in the Malwa region. It
Bihar, Bengal, Odisha existed in Madhya
Copper hoards have been found in Bihar, Pradesh during 1800-
Bengal, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh. 1200 B.C.E.
However, OCP is not found in these regions. ‘Navadatoli’ situated
Chalcolithic sites have been discovered on the river
in these regions. The excavations at sites like Narmada, on the
Chirand, Sonpur, etc. yielded earthen pots of opposite bank of
black-and-red ware. Shapes of these pots are Maheshwar, is an
similar to those of Harappan culture. It seems important site of
that the Harappan people had gone as far as Malwa culture. The
Bihar and the local cultures were influenced A chalice of Malwa
other important sites
by them. In Bengal and Odisha also some culture - Navadatoli are Eran (District
chalcolithic sites have yielded pottery that Sagar) and Nagda
shows Harappan influence as far their shapes (District Ujjain). They were surrounded by
are concerned. They include, bowls and protective walls.
23
Gujarat : The chalcolithic settlements in (1) Savalda Culture : Savalda is in
Gujarat coincide with the following phases Dhule district. It is situated on the banks of
of the Harappan culture : the river Tapi. Savalda culture is dated to
(1) Early Harappan phase (3950-2600 B.C.E.) 2000-1800 B.C.E. This culture seem to have
(2) Mature (urban) phase (2600-1900 B.C.E.) arisen by the cultural contact between the
(3) Post-Harappan phase (1900-900 B.C.E.) Mesolithic people in northern Maharashtra
There are ample sources of semi-precious and the Harappan people in Saurashtra.
stones in Gujarat. Making beads of these People of Savalda culture at Daimabad
stones was a big industry during Harappan used wheel-made pottery. The designs on
times. The neolithic settlements in Gujarat their earthen pots included arrow heads,
played a major role in procuring these stones. harpoons and figures of various animals.
People residing in the neolithic settlements of People of this culture also used copper
Gujarat were mainly pastoral, that is people objects, beads of siliceous stones, arrow
whose primary occupation was animal heads made of bones, mortar and pestle
husbandry. Probably, some of these pastoral stones, etc. Their village at Daimabad was
people were semi-nomadic. protected by a surrounding wall. They built
There are regional variations in the mud houses and they made the floors by
characteristics of chalcolithic cultures of ramming mud and alluvium together.
Gujarat. The chalcolithic pottery of Kutch- There was a cultural contact between the
Saurashtra and Northern Gujarat are distinct Savalda people and the Harappans in
from each other. The chalcolithic villages in Saurashtra. Its evidence has been found at
Kutch-Saurashtra were abandoned by 1900 the site of Kaothe in Dhule district. The
B.C.E. artefacts made of chank shells found at
In the post-Harappan period there were Kaothe confirm that the Savalda people and
two chalocolithic cultures in Gujarat. The The Harappans in Saurashtra had trade
culture in south Gujarat was known as relations.
‘Prabhas’ culture and the one in northeastern (2) Malwa and Jorwe Cultures : The
Gujarat was known as ‘Rangpur’ culture. First Farmers of Maharashtra
The pottery of these chalcolithic cultures was The people of Malwa culture reached
akin to Late Harappan pottery with regards Maharashtra around 1600 B.C.E. Permanent
to the colour, shapes and designs. These villages of farmers were first established in
cultures existed till 1800-1200 B.C.E. Maharashtra by the Malwa people. They
3.2 Chalcolithic Maharashtra were the first farmers of Maharashtra. After
The evidence for the Late Harappans in arriving in Maharashtra they came into
Maharashtra is found at Daimabad. The contact with the
chalocolithic culture before the arrival of the neolithic people in
Late Harappans at Daimabad is known as Karnataka. It
‘Savalda’ culture. The cultures in the resulted into a few
succeeding period of the Late Harappan were changes in the pot
respectively known as ‘Malwa’ and ‘Jorwe’ making technology
cultures. of Malwa people as
far as shapes of the
For a video on Daimabad, visit: pots and designs are
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= EzHb1n954fo Earthen Jar-Daimabad concerned. This was
24
the beginning of a new culture known as form of round platforms made for storage
‘Jorwe’ culture. Traces of Jorwe culture were bins, four flat stones used for resting four
first found at Jorwe in Ahmednagar district. legged storage jars and underground silos
The chalocolithic cultures in Maharashtra plastered with lime. People sometimes stayed
had spread in Tapi, Godavari and Bhima in pit dwellings, though its use was rare.
basins. Daimabad, Prakashe, (District Malwa pottery is mostly of buff
Nandurbar) and Inamgaon were the large (yellowish) colour. Designs on these pots are
villages and the main centres in the respective painted in brown. Jorwe pots are well baked
river basins. Other smaller settlements and giving a metallic sound. They are red in
farmsteads were linked to the large centre in colour with
their vicinity. For example Nevase, Nasik designs
were the large centres. Songaon and Chandoli painted in
in the Pune district, Pimpaldar in the Nasik black. Jorwe
district were smaller settlements. Walki near pottery
Inamgaon was a farmstead. Pimpaldar in the includes
Bagalan ghats was situated at a vantage shapes like
point between Tapi and Godavari basins. spouted pots,
Jorwe Pottery
Hence, it held an important position in the carinated
trade, though it was smaller in extent. Walki bowls and troughs (carination is the central
was situated at the confluence of river Ghod ridge on the pot), lota, globular jars, etc. The
and Mula. It was a very small site. It was Late Jorwe people made pots of the same
a farmstead. shapes, but without any decoration. Potter’s
Inamgaon (Taluk Shirur, District Pune) kilns were found in both Malwa and Early
was subjected to extensive, horizontal Jorwe period. They were round in shape. The
excavations. Therefore, indepth cultural kiln of Early Jorwe period was larger and of
information of the site is available. The greater capacity. In the Late Jorwe period
cultural chronology at Inamgaon : potters did not have a specially built kiln.
(1) Malwa Culture-1600-1400 B.C.E. They baked their pots by directly arranging
them on the ground. Inamgaon was the centre
(2) Early Jorwe Culture-1400-1000 B.C.E.
of pottery production, which supplied pottery
(3) Late Jorwe Culture-1000-700 B.C.E. to surrounding villages.
‘Early Jorwe’ was the flourishing phase A house, quadrangular in shape, spacious,
of the Jorwe culture that succeeded the having multiple rooms, or just a round shaped
Malwa culture. ‘Late Jorwe’ is the phase pit dwelling is the indicator of the economic
when the Jorwe culture declined. The condition of the family staying in it. The
excavations at Inamgaon has unfolded the number of round pit dwellings was negligible.
material culture and the day-to-day life of However, the number of quadrangular
the Jorwe people in great details. spacious houses diminished in the Late Jorwe
During the Malwa phase people at period and the number of round huts increased
Inamgaon lived in spacious, rectangular considerably. These round huts were different
houses. The house walls were wattle-and- than the round pit dwellings. These were
daub type. Houses were partitioned into two erected by tying a number of sticks at the
rooms by a half wall. The evidence of upper end and then pegging the lower ends
storage facilities in the houses came in the on the ground by fanning them out. Such
25
huts are usually erected by nomadic people. There was an earlier burial of the same type
The climate in the Late Jorwe period without the skeletal remains. It was a
increasingly became arid. The round huts is symbolic burial. The Early Jorwe people used
the evidence of climatic change that forced globular jars for burying a dead child. In this
the Jorwe people to take up nomadic life. type of burial the dead child was placed in
The Early Jorwe people at Inamgaon two jars, joined mouth to mouth.
dug a canal for storing flood water of the 3.3 Megalithic Period in India
river. It is obvious that this was done for At about 700 B.C.E. Inamgaon was
irrigation purpose. Distribution of this water completely abandoned by the Jorwe people.
was controlled by the chief of the village. Thereafter it was never occupied till the
The chief stayed in a five roomed house built historic period. This situation prevailed in
at the central part of the chalocolithic most of the Maharashtra. However, a nomadic
Inamgaon. There were many underground people of this period erected stone circles by
silos, inside the house and in the courtyard, using huge slabs of rock. The space within
built for storing food-grains. Inamgaon these circles was used to bury dead people.
farmers cultivated wheat, barley, Sorghum, Because of the huge stone slabs used in their
lentil, horse gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum), erection, these circles are known as megaliths.
etc. meat and fish were also part of their The period of these megaliths is known as
diet. Like other chalocolithic sites Inamgaon ‘Megalithic Age’. They were used for various
also yielded coloureful stone beads, microliths purposes, but mainly they contain the remains
and copper objects. of the dead. They were the memorials of the
The rank of the ‘Chief’ of Inamgaon dead.
was an inherited one. The burials found near
the chief’s house confirm this fact. These
burials were completely different from other
burials found at Inamgaon. Generally, a dead
person was buried in a pit in an extended
position. However, in one of the burials
found near the chief’s house the dead body
was seated in a four legged, bulging jar.
Megalithic Burial
Try to complete the following
activity : With the help of clues provided Such megalithic circles are in many
below prepare a flow-chart. parts of the world. Its tradition was prevalent
since prehistoric times. A few tribes practice
Spread Pots in use
it even today. For instance, the Bodos in
Odisha, Todas and Kurumbas in South India,
Nagas and Khasis in Northeast India. Most
The chalocolithic cultures in Maharashtra
of the megalithic circles in India are dated
to 1500-500 B.C.E. Some of the megalithic
circles in north India are as old as the
House plans Means of livelihood neolithic period. The people who erected the
megalithic circles in Maharashtra are supposed
Burial type Diet to have come from south India. The megalithic
26
circles in Maharastra belong to the Iron Age. culture were nomadic artisans. They were
They are dated to 1000-400 B.C.E. skilled in making iron objects. A furnace of
In the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra smelting iron of megalithic period was
Megalithic burials are found in large numbers, discovered at Naikund near Nagpur.
especially in the districts of Nagpur, Megalithic people used horse for transport
Chandrapur, and Bhandara. Excavations of and travel. Skeletal remains and copper
megalithic burials were conducted at various ornaments of horses were found buried in the
sites like Takalghat, Mahurzari, Khapa, megalithic circles. Megalithic people used
Naikund, etc. It is notable that most of these Black-and-Red pottery.
sites were situated on the ancient trade routes. Megalithic people were certainly
However, settlements of artisans of megalithic instrumental to a great extent in introducing
culture are rarely found. People of Megalithic the ‘Iron Age’ in ancient India.
Exercise
Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.2 (A) Explain the statements with reasons.
complete the sentence. (1) Harappan people had to migrate.
(1) On one of the cemetery H pots dead (2) People of ‘Malwa’ culture were the
humans are seen carried by ........ in first farmers of Maharashtra.
their stomach.
Q.3 State your opinion.
(a) deer (b) peacock It seems that the Harappan people had
(c) fish (d) bull gone as far as Bihar.
(2) The archaeological evidence shows
Q.4 Write short notes.
that Balathal was a centre of mass
(1) Banas Culture (2) Malwa Culture
production of ........
(3) Kayatha Culture
(a) stone pots (b) copper pots
(c) earthen pots (d) glassware Q.5 Write about the chalcolithic cultures in
(3) Permanent villages of farmers were Gujarat with the help of the given
first established in Maharashtra by points.
......... people. (a) Period (b) Means of livelihood
(c) Geographical spread (d) Evidence of
(a) Savalda (b) Malwa (c) Harappa
cultural contact with other people
(d) Kayatha
Activity
(B) Find the incorrect pair, write the
correct ones. With the help of Internet, reference books,
(1) Savalda Culture – Daimabad field trips, newspaper articles, etc. obtain
pictures of excavated artefacts and
(2) Malwa Culture – Navadatoli
architectural remains and arrange an
(3) Ahar Culture – Sonpur
exhibition under the guidance of your
(4) Jorwe Culture - Inamgaon teachers.

27
4. Vedic Period
4.1 Vedic Culture : Vedic literature, the basis of astronomical events. He was
Linguistics and Archaeology also of the opinion that the original home of
4.2 Vedic Literature and Social the Aryans was in the Arctic region.
organisation of Vedic Times This debate began in the 16th century.
4.3 The Early Vedic Culture as unfolded Till then the concept of the ‘Aryans’ was not
through Vedic Literature known. In the 16th century the European
4.4 Later Vedic Period academics became aware of the similarities
between Sanskrit and Latin-Greek languages.
It resulted into the notion of the ‘Indo-
4.1 Vedic Culture : Vedic literature,
European’ language family, which gave a
Linguistics and Archaeology
momentum to the search of a Mother
It is now confirmed by the research of
many years that the Harappan civilisation By the way : The notion of a
was not destroyed by foreign invaders but it language group with a common mother
declined because of various factors like language seems to have been toyed with
natural calamities and the deterioration of by some European scholars since the
environment. There are multiple unanswered 12th century C.E. However the awareness
questions, such as, who were the Aryans, did of a direct link between Sanskrit and
they arrive in India from a distant place or Latin attained the status of academic
were they natives of India, which are the discussions on much later in the 18th
archaeological sites where the remains of century. We can trace the beginnings of
their culture are found, how to identify those this kind of interest to the 16th century.
remains, etc. Most of the information about In the year 1583, an Italian merchant by
their culture is derived from the Vedic the name Fillippo Sassetti came to Kochi
literature. This literature is fundamentally in (Cochin) the port city in Kerala. He
the form of the faith systems of the Vedic never returned to his motherland. He
tribes and eulogies of their deities. stayed in Kerala and Goa. During his
Mention of the material culture occurs in stay he wrote detailed letters to his
the Vedic literature as an unintended aspect. family members about Indian life,
Also, there are references to god Indra’s language and culture. He happens to be
victories over their enemies. It was attempted the first European who wrote about his
to find answers to above questions, on the observations of the Indian society. He
basis of these details. There are various also studied Sanskrit. He was the first
opinions about the chronology of the Vedic one who observed the similarities between
culture. However, there is a general agreement Sanskrit and Latin. His observations
that the Vedic people composed Rigveda in could be said to be the first, to give
India around 1500 B.C.E. However, Lokmanya impetus to the notion of a family of
Tilak calculated this date as 6000 B.C.E. on Indo-European languages.
28
language from which developed the Indo- (urban) Harappan phase was earlier. Many
European languages. It further led to the scholars are inclined to accept that succeeding
development of a branch of linguistics known Late Harappan culture was equivalent to the
as ‘Philology’. Philology is a discipline, Vedic culture.
which traces the etymological history and The Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra) to the
meanings of words. east, Sindhu to the west and the five rivers
At about the same time European of Punjab – Shatdru (Sutlaj), Vipasha (Bias),
scholars had also developed interest in the Asikni (Chinab), Parushni (Ravi) and Vitasta
ancient Indian literature. As a result of this (Jhelum) – together comprised the region
interest ‘Asiatic Society of Bengal’ was known as ‘Saptasindhu’. Besides these rivers
established by Sir William Jones in 1784. mentioned in the Vedic literature are Kubha
This period saw the beginning of compiling (Kabul), Gomati (gomal), Suvastu (Swat),
and translating Sanskrit texts in European etc. Vedic people called the region enriched
languages. Also, systematic research in the by these rivers as the ‘God’s Country’
field of Vedic literature and archaeological (Devnirmit Desh). However, there is no
cultures had gained academic importance. mention of the region of their origin, if they
On the basis of the research in these two had arrived in India from outside.
fields, notions like the authors of Vedic Some scholars believe that Vedic Aryans
civilisation came form the West; they brought had stayed in the region of Saptasindhu from
the knowledge of horses and speedy chariots the beginning. Now many scholars are
having spoked wheels, as well as the science searching for the answer to the question,
of mounted archery, got deeply rooted among whether the Harappans and the Vedics were
academics. In brief, it was believed that the one and the same. Apparently no final
techniques of Vedic warfare was superior to answer has been found yet. The answer may
that of the Harappans, who stayed in fortified be found if researchers could decipher the
cities. Also, it was supposed that the Harappan script.
Harappans were the enemies of the Vedic 4.2 Vedic Literature and Social
people, mentioned as ‘Dasyu’ in the Vedic organisation of Vedic Times
literature.
The Vedic literature is supposed to be
The archaeological research has now the earliest literature of India. Its language
proved that the origin, spread and decline of is Sanskrit. The four Vedas namely, Rigveda,
Harappan civilisation took place mainly in Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvveda form
some parts of Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the core of the Vedic literature. The texts of
Iran as well as in Punjab, Harayana, these four Vedas are known as the ‘Samhitas’.
Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Geographic ‘Vid’ in Sanskrit means to know and ‘Ved’
region described in the Vedic literature means the knowledge.
concurs with it. However, there is no
The Rigveda contains Suktas (hymns)
agreement among the scholars about the
composed to eulogise the deities. The verses
chronology of the Vedic Aryans. Therefore,
in Rigveda are known as ‘Rucha’. A number
in spite of a number of academic declarations,
of Ruchas strung together makes a Sukta
nothing conclusive can be said about the
(hymn). Many Suktas make one Mandala.
interrelationship between the Vedic and the
Harappan cultures. Chronologically Mature The Yajurveda offers explanation of the
sacrificial rituals. It explains when and how
29
the mantras should be used. A Rigvedic by dividing the span of human life into four
richa, when recited in sacrificial rituals, is successive stages, namely
regarded as Mantra. The Yajurveda is a Brahmacharyashram, Grihasthashram,
combined composition of the Rigvedic richa Vanaprasthashram and Sanyasashram. In the
in verse and the explanation of its use as a first stage one was expected to spend an
mantra in prose. austere life and earn knowledge and necessary
The Samaveda is a text that gives the occupational skills. In the second stage one
rules of reciting mantras in a musical form. was expected to fulfil one’s prescribed duties
The Samaveda is regarded as the text that with one’s wife by his side. In the third stage
is fundamental in the development of Indian one was expected to retire from the active
music. life of the householder and if the need be,
The Atharvaveda is about the day-to-day to give advise to the younger people. It was
life. It contains information about charms also desirable that one shuld stay away from
and medicines for various problems and human settlement. In the fourth and the last
diseases. It also talks about the norms of stage one was expected to renounce all the
statesmanship. family bonds, accept a wandering life and to
go away. A Sanyasi was not permitted to
Later, Brahmana texts, Aranyaka texts
settle at one place for a longer time.
and Upanishadas were created. They are also
considered as integral part of the Vedic 4.3 The Early Vedic Culture as
literature. Vedic literature was created over a unfolded through Vedic Literature
prolonged time. Its completion took about The Rigvedic culture is the culture of the
1500 years . It is the only source of Early Vedic period. The tribes of the Early
information about the life of Vedic people. It Vedic period staying in the Saptasindhu
offers a glimpse of the organisation of Vedic region have been mentioned in the Rigveda.
society, Vedic family and the day-to-day life Among them occur the names like Puru,
of the Vedic people. Anu, Yadu, Druhyu, Turvash, etc. They
Varna System were the tribes who subsited on agriculture.
The Vedic society was organized into The Rigveda mentions a battle known as
four classes known as ‘Varna’, namely, ‘Dashradnya Yuddha’ that was fought among
Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. ten tribal chiefs. In the Early Vedic period
The varna system is first mentioned in the along with the Rigvedic tribes, other local
tenth mandala (chapter) of the Rigveda. In tribes also stayed in the Saptasindhu region,
the later Vedic period the varna system lost who did not belong to the Rigvedic people.
its flexilblity. Also the caste system got They were called ‘Das’, ‘Dasyu’ and ‘Pani’.
rooted firmly by this period. In the beginning Panis were looked upon as enemies by the
the varna or the caste was decided by one’s Vedic people. Panis used to steal the cattle
occupation. Later it came to be determined of the Vedic people.
on the basis of birth. Hence it became The tribal settlements and the Vedic
impossible to change one’s varna and caste, people residing there have been mentioned as
in which he/she was born. ‘Krishtya’ in the Rigveda. ‘Krish’ means
Ashrama System ploughing. Hence the people who ploughed
The Ashrama System of the Vedic culture and also their settlements were metioned as
lays down the norms of living an ideal life ‘Krishtya’. The importance of agriculture is
30
You would like to know : There is certain that the Later Vedic people
a school of thought, according to which, migrated by two different routes. The
the Late Harappans, that is the Vedic Vedic literature mentions ‘Uttarapath’
people, migrated because of adverse (The northern route) and ‘Dakshinapath’
climatic conditions and natural calamities. (the southern route). Both of these routes
They migrated to Ganga-Yamuna Doab in pass through regions, which differed
the east and also went toward the west drastically. Accordingly their environment
to Iran, Iraq, Egypt, etc. The evidence also differed. Considering this, it becomes
of the inscriptions found at ‘Boghazkui’ clear that the ancient people managed to
in Iraq is used to confirm it. These traverse through extremely difficult
inscriptions contain the text of a treaty terrains.
between two tribes called Hittite and The northern route extended from
Mittanni. It begins by invoking deities Central Asia to Saptasindhu and from
like Indra, Varuna and Nasatya. This and there to Himalayan foothills and then
similar evidence is offered by some of the proceeding to Ganga-Yamuna Doab,
European and Indian scholars to prove reaching the delta region thereafter.
that Vedic people arrived in India from The southern route formed a link
the West. This is one of the examples to between the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and the
illustrate the way the riddles in history are southern regions of India. It extended from
created. the southern part of Sindh, through Kutch,
So far, scholars have been unable to South Rajasthan, Malwa and from there
solve the riddle of the ‘Aryans’ by putting to the Deccan Plateau. We have seen in
together the archaeological and literary the previous lesson that the Harappan
evidence. Nevertheless, it seems to be people reached Maharashtra via this route.
clearly emphasised in the 10th mandala of the palace of Lord Varuna having 1000 doors.
Rigveda. This description is an allegory, indicative of
It states, that for the farmer his the imagination of the poet. There is no
ploughshare is the means of obtaining food. evidence available so far to support this kind
The deities, Ashwins and Indra were supposed of Vedic architecture.
to be the gods of agriculture. It is mentioned Along with agriculture the Early Vedic
that the Ashwins hold the plough and make people also practised animal husbandry.
available food in large quantities. ‘Urvara’ Cattle, Buffaloes and horses formed part of
means cultivable land prepared by ploughing. their pastoral wealth. The god who protected
Indra is mentioned as the ‘Lord of Urvara’ their animals was known as ‘Pushan’. The
(Urvarapati). Barley was the main crop chariot makers in this period were known as
grown by the Vedic people. The 10th mandala ‘Rathakara’ and the carpenters were known
of the Rigveda mentions well water used for as ‘Takshan’. Rathakar and Takshan were
irrigation. According to its description a stone artisans of importance. A Rathakara was
wheel tied with earthen jars (Rahatgadage in supposed to have a good knowledge of
Marathi) was used to draw water from the carpentry too. The carpenters used to make
well. It is instructed to secure the belts firmly wooden utensils, equipments necessary for
around the jars. The Rigved describes the performing the sacrificial rituals and other
31
objects of domestic utility. The Rigveda Varuna and Ashwins were the lords of water
mentions boats with hundred oars known as routes. The Rigveda also mentions trade by
‘Aritram’. These descriptions afford a glimpse exchange, negotiations and traders travelling
of the skills of the carpenters of those times. far and wide to earn profits. At times, though
The Rigveda does not have a specific rarely, an ornament called ‘Nishka’ was used
term for the potter. However there are like money.
separate terms for utensils of specific use. 4.4 Later Vedic Period
‘Ukha’ was the term used for a cooking pot.
Later Vedic Period is dated to around
The other terms like ‘patra’, ‘kumbha’,
1000-600 B.C.E. The information about this
‘kalash’ etc. also occur. A potter is mentioned
period is gathered from the treatises written
as an artisan in the Yajurveda for the first
in that period. The material culture as
time as ‘Kulal’.
reflected in the epics, Ramayana and
‘Vayya; means the weaver, and its Mahabharata was studied with the help of
feminine as it occurs in the Rigveda is archaeological evidence. A picture of the
‘Vayyaa’. Along with this there are terms migration in the Later Vedic period can be
associated with the textile industry. ‘Tantum’ gathered from the Saptasindhu region toward
(warp), ‘Otum’ (weft), Shuttle (tasar), are a the east and its geographic markers from the
few of them. Rigveda also mentions woollen literature of that period. This period saw the
cloth. ‘Urna’ is the word for wool. However, spread of Later Vedic culture from the
Rigveda does not mention cotton or silk foothills of Himalayas in the north to the
cloth. Vindhya mountains in the south. There is a
The artisan who worked on leather story of Videgha Mathava (Videha Madhava)
was known as ‘Charmnma’. Various objects in this context that occurs in the Shatapatha
of leather are mentioned in the Rigveda. Brahmana. It appears in this story that the
Objects made of gold (hiranya), of copper- Later Vedic people were settling and bringing
bronze or iron (ayas) are mentioned. Iron the land under cultivation from the west to
was not yet common in the Early Vedic the east.
period. The artisans who made the metal The Later Vedic period saw a gradual
objects were known as ‘Karmar’. The Varna formation of confederacies of the Vedic
system seems to have established by the end villages. They were known as ‘Janapada’.
of the Early Vedic period. The 10th mandala Generally, the seniors and the elites in a
of the Rigveda in which this system finds the Janapada collectively took social decisions.
first mention is supposed to be composed at They functioned like oligarchic states. The
the end of the Early Rigvedic period. powerful Janapadas among them gradually
The chariot has been already expanded into Mahajanapadas. In the next
mentioned. A cart was known as ‘Anas’. The lesson we will study the history of the 4
river transport was known as ‘Navya’. centuries from 1000-600 B.C.E.
Pushan was the lord of the land routes while
32
Exercise
Q1. (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.2 Complete the concept map given below.
complete the sentence.
Tribes Dashradnya Yuddha
(1) The importance of agriculture is
clearly emphasised in the
mandala of the Rigveda.
(a) 4th (b) 10th (c) 8th (d) 6th Early Vedic
(2) A potter is mentioned as an artisan Culture
in the for the first time.
(a) Rigveda (b) Yajurveda
(c) Samaveda (d) Atharvveda Means of Deities
(3) The god who protected the animals Livelihood
was known as .
(a) Indra (b) Pushan Q.3 Choose the correct reason and complet
(c) Ashwin (d) Varun the sentence.
(B) Find the incorrect pair and write Panis were looked upon as enemies
the correct ones. by the Vedic people because -
(1) Nishka – Gold ornament (a) they belonged to a different tribe.
(2) Barley – Main crop of the Vedic (b) their language was impure
people (c) Panis used to steal the cattle of
(3) Krishtya – The apparatus of drawing the Vedic people
water from the well (d) Panis did not obey the orders of
(4) Navya – river transport the Vedic people.
(C) Write the names Q.4 State your opinion.

(1) A branch of linguistics - (1) There is a debate about the original
(2) A battle fought among the ten tribal home of the Aryans.
chiefs - (2) The Rigvedic people subsisted on
(3) Cultivable land prepared by agriculture.
ploughing - Q.5 Explain the following concepts.
(1) Origin of Aryan people
(2) Indo-European family of languages

33
5. Janapadas and Republics
5.1 ‘Jana’ and Janapadas

5.2 Janapada 5.2 Janapada
5.2.1 Territoriality and The term ‘janapada’ occurs in the
Autonomous Functioning Brahmana texts for the first time. Thereafter,
5.2.2 Expansion and Development it is frequently used in the Vedic literature
of the Janapadas and the epics – Mahabharata and Ramayana,
5.3 Federation of States (Ganarajya) as also in the Jain and the Buddist literature.
Considering the ancient Indian geographic
perception with reference to the janapadas,
5.1 ‘Jana’ and Janapadas the said literature seems to divide the Indian
Vedic people used the term Jana to subcontinent into five sections : ‘Praachya’-
designate a group of people, united under a of the east, ‘Praatichya’- of the west,
common bond of singular kinship structure. ‘Udichya’ - of the north, ‘Dakshina’ - of the
Their settlement was known as ‘Grama’. A south, ‘Madhyadesha’ - The central region.
cluster of gramas consisting of the same jana However, this division does not include
was known by the name of that particular the entire subcontinent. It mainly focuses on
jana. In the beginning, however, the concept the region to the north of the Vindhya ranges.
of jana included only an extended family The geographic awareness seems to have
(kul), its settlement (grama) and the cattle- expanded in the Puranic literature. The
pen (goshtha-gotra-gaulwada). The concept Purana texts mention the regions to the south
of jana was not yet inclusive of the concept of the Vindhyas also. These are,
of territoriality. Hence, the geographic ‘Dakshinapatha’ and ‘Aparanta’, that is the
boundaries of a jana were not defined. coastal region of Konkan.
In the last lesson we saw that the Vedic 5.2.1 Territoriality and Autonomous
people migrated and spread from the Functioning
Saptasindhu region to the delta region of the It may be noted, that the sense of
Ganga. Vedic janas gradually began to settle territoriality and the ensuing awareness of
in the new region. The concept of jana autonomy were the main factors responsible
increasingly acquired the sense of territoriality. for the formation of ancient janapadas in
The sense of territoriality instilled the sense India. However, their administrative system
of geographic boundaries among the janas. It was not much different from that of the
resulted into the emergence of informal local janas in the Rigveda. Two assemblies known
administrative structures among the janas. as ‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’ were at the apex of
Thus, independent Janapada came into all administrative decision making process,
existence. A region occupied by a janas was since the very beginning of the Vedic period.
called as Janapada. Gradually the Janapadas The chief of the janapada was known as
had more formal administrative structures ‘Rajan’. The Sabha and Samiti had the
transforming them into independent states. authority either to elect or to remove the
These were the first well-established states of chief. However, the administrative objectives
ancient India. However, this does not and policies, the norms of social organisation,
necessarily mean that every Janapada evolved etc. were flexible enough to accommodate
into an independent state. changing socio-geographic milieu.
34
When the successive generations got kula (clan) known as the Bharatas in
established in a geographic periphery, the Rigveda, got merged with the Kurus. The
newly emerging social organisation was also two kulas united to such extent that the
changing. Now, it was not confined only to people in Bharata clan came to be regarded
the basic kinship structure. People from the as the ancestors of the Kurus.
outside of the kinship framework also got 3. The more powerful janapadas
included in the janapadas. The social conquered the less powerful ones.
organisation of the janapadas, which was
based on collective functioning began to For additional information: Some of
change and one’s immediate family became the ancient janapadas and the literary texts
more important. Accordingly, the social that mention their names.
organisation came to revolve around the head • Praachya : Anga, Magadh
of the family and family based rituals. Co- (Atharvaveda)
operation at individual level and among the : Kikata (Rigveda and
families became the base of the social Atharvaveda)
organisation. Pundra (Mahabharata)
This period also saw the rise of the • Praatichya : Anu, Alin, Bhalan,
warrior class. These people were well-trained Druhyu, Parashu,
in warfare. This class of warriors played a Pakhta, Puru, Turvasha,
major role in the shift of the primary Yadu (Rigveda),
organisation of the janapadas to more Gandhara (Rigveda and
complex state organisation. Janapadin is a Athrvaveda),
term mentioned in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi, used Shalva (Mahabharata)
to indicate the warrior class. • Udichya : Krivi, Vaikarna
(Rigveda)
5.2.2 Expansion and Development of the Balhik (Atharvaveda)
Janapadas
• Dakshina : Andhra (Mahabharata)
The expansion and development of the
Pulinda (Emperor
janapadas seem to have occurred in three Ashoka’s edicts)
different ways:
• Madhyadesha : Aja, Chedi, Bharata,
1. Expansion and development of a Matsya, Shigru, Trutsu,
society formed into a Jana by uniting of a Ushinara, Yakshu
number of generations of a singular kula (Rigveda), Kuru,
(family). For example, the janapadas, namely, Shrinjaya (Rigveda and
Matsya, Chedi, Gandhara, Kashi, Kosala, Atharvaveda)
etc.
2. Janapadas rising out of the union of 5.3 Federation of States (Ganarajya)
more than one kula. For example, the The Later Vedic literature, Jaina and
Panchala janapada. Who were the five janas Buddhist literature indicate that most of the
united under the name of Panchalas, is not janapadas were monarchic states. However,
exactly known. According to the renowned some of the janapadas were of oligarchic
historian, Hemchandra Raychaudhuri type. The ancient literature mentions different
following were the janas who merged together types of states. Terms like Rajya, Svaarajya,
as Panchalas : Krivi, Turvasha, Keshi, Bhaujya, Vairajya, Maharajya, Saamrajya
Shrinajaya and Somaka. Later, Kurus and and Parmeshthya occur in this context.
Panachalas are mentioned together as Kuru- However, nothing more can be said about the
Panchalas. By the time of Mahabharata the nature of these states. We get to know that
35
Uttar Kuru and Uttar Madra were of
For additional information : Ancient
‘Vairajya’ type. It means that the state was
Indian literature mentions two more types
not ruled by a monarch but the members of
of ganasanghas. ‘Ayudhjivi’ sangh and
the janapada run the state collectively. The
‘Varta-Shastropajivi’ sangh. They existed
ancient literature mention such type of states
in the northwest regions of the Indian
as ‘ganasangha or sangharajya’ (oligarchy/
subcontinent. The ganasangha of the
republic).
Trigartas was mentioned as Ayudhajivi.
‘Gana’ means the ruling class comprising These people were skilled warriors and
members of equal social status. Similarly warfare was the means of their livelihood.
sangha means a state formed by many kulas For example Yaudheya, Malava and
or janapadas by coming together. By 6th Kshudraka. ‘Varta’ means trade and
century B.C.E. many sangharajyas had come commerce. The people in the Varta-
into existence. Shastropajivi ganasanghas lived by trade
There were three main types of the and commerce, agriculture and animal
ancient federation of states in India. husbandry, as well as their skills in
(1) Ganarajya of the members of the same warfare. People in the Kamboj and
kula. For example, Malava and Shibi. Surashtra ganasanghas earned their
livelihood by these means.
(2) Ganarajya created by more than one
kulas coming together. For example,
Vajji Ganasangha. It included eight Each elective representative of respective
kulas. Vajji, Lichchhavi, Dnyatruk and regional zone was designated as
Videha were the important ganas among ‘Ganamukhya’. Every ganamukhya was the
them. Lichchhavi was most influential member of the assembly known as
gana of them. ‘ganaparishada’. Ganaparishada was the
highest decision-making authority concerning
(3) More than one ganrajyas coming together
all the administrative matters of the
to create a sangharajya. For example
ganasangha. The decisions made by the
Yaudheya-Kshudrak Sangh.
ganaparishada, were implemented by
We can get a glimpse of the administrative designated functionaries of various cadre.
system of the ancient ganasanghas in the The ganapramukha was the principal
Buddhist texts. Each ganasangha had its own functionary presiding over the administrative
system of decision making and its system. He was known as the ‘Adhyaksha’
implementation. We may find approximate or ‘Raja’. The rest of the main designated
parallels of these systems in the following functionaries included, Uparaja
types: (Upadhyaksha), Senapati and Bhandagarika
1. Democratic States : Some of the (Koshadhyaksha).
ganasanghas were divided into regional zones 2. Oligarchic States : In this type the
called ‘Khanda’. They functioned through a elite class in the society held all the powers
group of elected individuals, who were found of decision-making and administration. Panini
capable. Each of the elected members and Kautilya mention them as
represented his respective khanda. These ‘Rajshabdopajivi’ sangh. Panini includes
elected members were installed with collective Vajji, Andhaka, Vrishni, Yaudheya in the
authority for the smooth running of the Rajashabdopjivi type. Kautilya includes the
ganasangha. This was a democratic system. Vrijji or Vajji, Madrak, Kuru, Panchala, etc.
Ganasanghas which functioned in this in this type. This type of ganasanghas were
democratic way existed in Punjab and Sindh more prevalent in the eastern region of Uttar
at the time of Alexander’s invasion. Pradesh and Bihar.
36
We have seen that the janapadas mainly
By the Way : The ganasanghas emerged as the result of the sense of
of Vajji, Shakya, Lichchhavi and Malla geographic boundaries (territoriality) and
were closely associated with the life of autonomous functioning. Some of the powerful
Gautama Buddha. Gautama Buddha was janapadas expanded and developed to the
born in the Shakya family. His father extent that they were acknowledged as
Shuddhodan was an elected president ‘Mahajanpadas’ by the 8th century B.C.E. In
(Rajan) of the Shakya Ganaparishad. the next lesson we will study the sixteen
mahajanpadas of ancient India.
Exercise
Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (3) Praatichya - Anu, Pundra, Bhalan,
complete the sentence.. Parashu
(1) ‘A region occupied by the ‘janas’ (B) Choose the correct reason and
was called as . complete the sentence.
(a) Ganarajya (b) Janapada The ganasangha of the Youdhey, Malav,
(c) Mahajanapada (d) Gotra Kshudraka were mentioned as Ayudhajivi.
(2) The principal functionary of a Because –
ganasangha was known as . (a) it was in the northeast region of the
(a) Senapati (b) Bhandagarika Indian subcontinent.
(c) Raja (d) Uparaja (b) these people were skilled warriors
(3) The author of the ‘Ashtadhyayi’, and warfare was the means of their
which mentions ‘janapadin’, was livelihood.
. (c) they were skilled in trade and
(a) Kautilya (b) Panini commerce.
(c) Chanakya (d) Vyas (d) these were the ganasanghas dependednt
(4) The sense of territoriality and the on agriculture and animal husbandry.
ensuing awareness were the
main factors responsible for the Q.3 Complete the concept chart.
formation of ancient janapadas in
India. Later Vedic Ancient Literature Brahamana
(a) of unity (b) of authority Literature mentioning Texts
(c) of autonomy (d) of public ‘Janapada’
authority
(B) Find the incorrect pair and write
the correct ones. Q.4 Explain the concept with examples.
(1) Praachya – of the east (1) Ganarajya and Sangharajya
(2) Praatichya – of the west (2) Vartashastropajivi ganasangh
(3) Udichya – of the north (3) ‘Jana’ and ‘Janapada’
(4) Aparanta – the region to the north
Q.5 Answer the following question in detail.
of Vindhya ranges
Describe the democratic and oligarchic
Q.2 (A) Find the odd man out. states in ancient India.
(1) Praachya - Anga, Magadh, Kikat,
Activity
Shalva
Present an act in the class, based on the
(2) Madhyadesha - Aja, Bharata,
simulation of the administrative system of
Vaikarna, Matsya
an oligarchic state.

37
6. Second Urbanisation in India
6.1 Rise of Mahajanapadas For additional information:

6.2 Ashmak/Assak Mahajanapada The Sanskrit ‘Ashmak’ and the Pali
6.3 Second Urbanisation in India ‘Assak’ are supposed to be two versions
of the same name. This can be further
6.4 Mahajanapadas and The explained by the following examples.
Contemporary Cities
(1) ‘Avantyashmak’ is a term
6.5 Mahajanapadas – Administrative mentioned in Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’. It
System, Guilds means Avanti and Ashmak were two
6.6 Philosophy and Various Sects adjacent states.
6.7 New Religious Trends (2) Three states of ‘Ashwayana’,
‘Ashwakayana’ and ‘Hastikayana’ are
mentioned in Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’.
When Alexander invaded India, his
6.1 Rise of Mahajanapadas
advent through Afghanistan and Punjab
The ambition of territorial expansion was fiercely resisted by some warrior
led to a conflict among the janapadas. tribes. The Greek historians have
Some janapadas proved more powerful than mentioned their names as ‘Aspasioi’,
the others in this conflict. The stronger ‘Assakenoi’ and ‘Astakenoi’. These
janapadas began to annex the conquered three names are equivalents of
territories to their own and thus, they ‘Ashwayana’, ‘Ashwakayana’ and
successfully expanded their boundaries. By ‘Hastikayana’ respectively. Assaka
600 B.C.E. sixteen mahajanapadas were mentioned in the Buddhist literature
established in India, from the northwest may be identified, according to some
region to Magadha. Conquering other historians, with the Ashwakayanas in
janapadas and annexing their territory the northeast region, which may not
permanently to one’s own, became a regular have any association with the Ashmakas.
practice in the times of mahajanapadas. (3) It seems that the king of Assaka
Ultimately, this conflict resulted into the was known as ‘Andhakraja’ during
creation of the large empire like Magadha. Gautama Buddha’s times. The region on
Ancient India once again witnessed the rise the banks of the Godavari was known
of cities. This process is known as the as ‘Andhakratta’. Sage Bavari, a
‘Second Urbanisation’. contemporary of Gautama Buddha, had
The names of sixteen mahajanapadas his ashram in this region. Originally he
are found in the Jaina and Buddhist was from the state of Kosala. According
literature and also in the Purana texts. to ‘Suttanipata’, a Buddhist text, he
Buddhist texts were written in a period, came from Shrvasti, the capital of
which was closer to the period of the Kosala to Assaka. It was situated on
mahajanapadas. Hence the names occurring the Godavari and in the region of
in the Buddhist texts are accepted as more ‘Dakshinapatha’. This evidence confirms
reliable. that the name Assaka in Pali is
equivalent to Sanskrit Ashmaka.
38
6.2 Ashmak/Assak Mahajanapada According to ‘Mahagovinda Suttanta’, a

Among the sixteen mahajanpadas the Buddhist text, Brahmadatta was the king of
one known as Ashmak or Assak is identified Assaka and the name of his capital was
with the region of present day Maharashtra. ‘Potana/Podana’. Potana is identified with
Ashmaka/Assaka was the only Nandura in Buldhana district. Potana was
mahajanapada that was situated in the also known by the names, ‘Potali’ and
region known as ‘Dakshinapatha’. ‘Paudanya’. Other janapadas situated in the
Remaining fifteen mahajanapadas were in region of Dakshinapatha were ‘Vidarbha’,
north India. Suttanipata describes the region ‘Bhoja’, ‘Dandaka’ and ‘Kalinga’. The first
of Dakshinapatha in great details. It was the three were part of present day Maharashtra.
region of an important trading route. It Also the tribal states of the Andhas, Shabaras,
started at Shravasti and proceeded through Pulindas and the Mutibas were also located
Ujjayini and Mahishmati. From there one in the Godavari and Krishna basins.
would reach Pratishthan after crossing the According to Jaina texts, Bahubali, the
Vindhyas. son of Rishabhanath the first Jaina
39
You would like to know : The following have been a feudatory of the king of Kasi.
examples will throw light on the challenges (3) The Jataka story known as ‘Chulla
faced by historians when a single name is Kalinga Jataka’ describes the battle
mentioned in varying contexts. between King Assaka and the Kalinga
(1) The jataka story known as ‘Nimi Jataka’ king of Dantapur. King Assaka defeated
gives us the list of kings who ruled the the Kalinga king and married his sister.
state of Videha from its capital city, This marital alliance helped to establish
Mithila. It includes a king whose name congenial relations between the two states.
was ‘Assaka’. In the Hathigumpha inscription of
(2) The Jataka story known as ‘Assaka Kharavela, it is mentioned that King
Jataka’ tells us about a king named Kharvela, without fearing the dreaded
Assaka who ruled the state of Kasi, and name of Satakarni, attacked the city of
his queen. In this story, it is mentioned Asikanagara in the west and created a
that Potali was the capital of the king fright among its residents. Some historians
Assaka. The capital of ancient state of identify ‘Assaka’ occurring in the Jataka
Kasi was Varanasi. However, it is inferred stories with ‘Asiknagara’ mentioned in the
that the mention of Potali as the capital Hathigumpha inscription.
of king Assaka may indicate that he might
Tirthankara was given the kingdom of Characteristic pottery of janapadas and

Ashmaka and Podanpur was its capital. mahajanapadas has been recovered from
The magnificent statue of Bahubali stands various archaeological sites. Also, many
at Shrvanbelgola, in the Hassan district of sites have yielded iron implements and
Karnataka. Bahubali had attained Keval punch marked coins of silver and copper.
Gyan (Omniscience). The punch marked coins have been
6.3 Second Urbanisation in India mentioned in the ancient Indian literature
The janapadas with definite geographic as ‘Karshapana’ or ‘Pana’.
borders and administrative system were The following things are perceived as
established roughly around 1000 B.C.E. The markers of urbanisation : Development of
ambition to expand geographic boundaries the cities as administrative centres, network
and the political conflict caused by it left of surrounding villages to cater to the needs
some janapadas more powerful than others. of urban centres (hinterland), interlinking of
It resulted into the creation of sixteen the village administration with the central
mahajanapadas from Afghanistan in the administration, well defined rules of taxation,
northeast to Bengal in the east, stretching internal and distant trade, well-established
to the banks of the Godavari in the south. network of land routes and waterways (both
The capital cities of the mahajanapadas rivers and oceans), purchase and sales of
and some other cities, which flourished goods by increasingly using monetary
because of prospering trade once again exchange along with the barter system, a
brought the age of urbanisation in India. It stable legal system and judiciary. All these
is known as the ‘Second Urbanisation’. characteristics of urbanisation were present
The ‘Mahaparinibbansutta’ mentions in the times of mahajanapadas.
names of six cities, which were of great 6.4 Mahajanapadas and The
importance. They are, Champa, Rajagriha, Contemporary Cities
Shravasti, Saketa, Kushambi and Varanasi. 1. Kasi : This mahajanapada was a
By the 6th century B.C.E. these and a few powerful one in the beginning of the
other cities had become very prosperous.
40
Pay attention to this : The Harappan in it, etc. is available in various literary
civilisation originated as a matter of course texts. For instance, enough information is
of co-ordinating trade and production available in the jataka literature about the
processes. Various factors involved in this cities visited by Gautama Buddha in his
chain as well as their smooth functioning lifetime. A moderately accurate picture of
gave rise to the Harappan city centres. the administration of these cities can also
However, as far as the statehood and the be gathered from this literature. The names
administrative machinery of the Harappan of the kings, who were contemporary to
civilisation is concerned, there is a Gautama Buddha are also mentioned in
considerable ambiguity about it. the jatakas. The geographic details
In the context of the second described in the context of Gautama
urbanisation, however, information about Buddha’s travels are supposed to be very
the geographic location of each reliable. They form a reliable source for
mahajanapada, its capital and other cities writing the history of ancient India.
Mahajanapadas and their capitals : 2. Kosala : Ancient Kosala encompassed

1. Kasi – Varanasi the regions of Uttar Pradesh in India and
2. Kosal – Shravasti Lumbini in Nepal. Sharavasti was its capital
3. Anga – Champa city. King Prasenjit (Pasenadi*) was a
4. Magadha – Girivraja/Rajgriha disciple of Gautama Buddha. Kosala was
5. Vrujji/Vajji – Vaishali destroyed and annexed permanently to
6. Malla/Malava – Kushinara/ Magadha by King Ajatashatru.
Kushinagara * Pasenadi is the Pali version of the name Prasenjit.
7. Chedi – Shuktimati/Sotthivati
8. Vamsha/Vatsa – Kaushambi 3. Anga : The city of Champa was the
9. Kuru – Indraprastha/Indrapattan capital of Anga. It was a centre of the
10. Uttar Panchala – Ahichchhatra, marine trade. It was permanently annexed
Dakshina Panchala – Kampilya to Magadha by King Bimbisara.
11. Matsya – Viratnagar 4. Magadha : Magadha had its first
12. Shoorsena – Mathura capital at the city of Girivraja, also known
13. Ashmak /Assaka – Potali / Potana / as Rajagriha. Girivraja was surrounded by
Podana five hills making it formidable for the
14. Avanti – Ujjayini and Mahishmati enemies. King Bimbisara was a
15. Gandhara – Taxila contemporary of Gautama Buddha. The
16. Kamboja – Rajpura policy of territorial annexation of other
mahajanapada period. Varanasi was its kingdoms was started during the reign of
capital. The kings of Kasi were ambitious. Kind Bimbisara.
According to the jataka stories they aspired Later Pataliputra became the capital of
for the highest position among all Magadha empire.
contemporary kings (Sabbarajunam 5. Vrujji / Vajji : This was a
aggaraja). The Buddhist text, ‘Mahavagga’ confederation of eight clans, known as
mentions that the king of Kasi had defeated ‘Maha Aththkula’. It included clans like
Kosala and annexed it to his own kingdom. Videha, Lichchhavi, Vajji, Shakya,
Later, Ajatashatru, the king of Magadha Dnyatruk, etc. The ‘Ekapanna Jataka’
conquered and annexed Kasi mahajanapada mentions that Vaishali, the capital of this
to Magadha. mahajanapada was fortified with three
41
surrounding walls. It had three entrance 10. Panchala : The mahajanapada of
gates and bastions. King Ajatashatru was Panchala was divided into, Uttara (north)
the one who annexed the territory of the Panchala and Dakshina (south) Panchala.
Vrujji/Vajji’s land to Magadha. The river Bhagirathi was the natural
6. Malla : The city of Kushinara or boundary that divided the mahajanapada.
Kushinagara (Kasia) in the Gorakhapur Ahichchhatra, the capital of Uttara Panchala
district was the capital of this mahajanapada. was located near the village of Ramanagar,
Gautama Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana district Bareilley, Uttar Pradesh. Kampilya,
at this city. A copper plate inscription (5th present-day Kampil in the Farukhabad
century C.E.) was found at the ‘Parinirvana district of Uttar Pradesh, was the capital of
Stupa’ in this city. It read, “Parinirvana Dakshina Panchala. The mahajanpadas of
chaitye tamrapatta iti”. In the later vedic Kuru and Panchala often fought for
period Malla mahajanapada was a supremacy. Both the divisions of Panchala
monarchy. Later it turned into a republic. mahajanapada were monarchies in the
There were two more cities in the beginning. At a later date, they turned into
mahajanapada, namely, ‘Pava’ and a sangharajya.
‘Bhaoganagara’. According to the Jaina 11. Matsya : The capital of this
texts, eighteen republics from the regions of mahajanapada was Viratnagar, which was
Mallas, Lichchhavis and Kashi-Kosala, had located at Bairat in the Jaipur district of
formed a confederation to fight Ajatashatru. Rajasthan. Matsya was merged into the
By the 3rd century B.C.E. the Malla empire of Magadha at a later date. Bairat
mahajanapada was merged into the Maurya is one of the places where Ashokan edicts
empire. have been found.
7. Chedi : This mahajanapada had 12. Shoorasena : This mahajanapada
occupied Bundelkhand and the region was located on the banks of the river
around it. The city of Shuktimati or Yamuna. Its capital was the city of Mathura.
Sotthivati was its capital. It is supposed to Greek historians have mentioned the name
have been situated near ‘Banda’ in Uttar of the mahajanapada as ‘Shursenoi’ and
Pradesh. Mathura as ‘Methora’. Later, the
8. Vamsha or Vatsa : Kaushambi was mahajanapada of Shoorsena was merged
the capital (Kosam near Allahabad) of this into the Maurya empire.
mahajanapada. According to the tradition 13. Ashmak/Assak : We have seen
of Purana texts Hastinapur was destroyed earlier that Potali was the capital of
by a flood of Ganga and King Nichakshu, Ashmak mahajanapada and probably it was
a descendant of the Pandavas had to shift a feudatory state of Kashi mahajanapada.
his capital to Kaushambi. The protagonist 14. Avanti : This mahajanapada
of the play ‘Swapnavasavadatta’ written by encompassed the region of Malwa, Nimad
Bhasa is King Udayan. He was the king and its neighbouring regions in Madhya
of the Vatsa mahajanapada and the Pradesh. Avanti mahjanapada was divided
contemporary of Gautama Buddha. into Uttara Avanti and Dakshina Avanti.
9. Kuru : The capital of this Ujjayini (Ujjain) was the capital of Uttar
mahajanapada was located at Indrapat near Avanti, while Mahishmati (Mandhata,
Delhi, Its name was Indraprastha or District Khandwa) was the capital of
Indrapattana. According to the Jataka Dakshina Avanti. King Pradyot was a
literature, the kings of Indraprastha belonged contemporary of Gautama Buddha. In the
to ‘Yudhitthil’ gotra. 4th century B.C.E. Avanti mahajanpada
42
became an integral part of the Maurya entitlement of ‘Saamraj’. The epithet ‘Raja’
empire. always indicates a lower cadre.
15. Gandhara : This mahajanpada had A ‘Raja’ was expected to be a ‘Kshatriya’
spread into Kashmir and Afghanistan. and according to the existing norms a
Taxila was its capital. Pukkusati or Brahmin was expected to refrain from
Pushkasarin was the king of Gandhara, accepting the position of a ‘Raja’. However,
who was a contemporary of King Bimbisara. there are a number of exceptions to this norm
He had established diplomatic relations with as seen in the Vedic literature and Buddhist
King Bimbisara. By the 6th century B.C. the jatakas. The position of Raja was generally
Iranian emperor, Daryush I conquered bequeathed on the son of the ruling king
Gandhara mahajanapada. The Behistun after him. However, at times, a king was
inscription in Iran (516 B.C.E.) mentions elected by people. The first wife of the king
Gandhara as one of the satrapies of the was given the epithet of ‘Rajmahishi’. She
Iranian empire. was the one who was formally crowned
16. Kamboja : This mahajanapada is along with the king. A powerful sovereign
mentioned in the ancient literature along performed ‘Ashvamedha’ sacrifice to
with Gandhara. Rajapura (Rajauri) was its establish his supremacy. The coronation of a
capital. Kamboja was well-known for its king, principally gave him absolute authority
excellent horses and its horsemen warriors over his subjects. He was the one to decide
for their skills of warfare. Kamboja people the amount of taxes to be collected from
had resisted Sinkandara’s advent. The them. He was the ultimate lord of all the
Aspasioi (Ashvayana) was part of the land in his kingdom and so he could donate
Kamboja mahajanapada. The mahajanapada any portion of that land according to his
is mentioned in Ashoka’s edicts as ‘araj’, wish. Nevertheless, his power was not totally
meaning ‘those who do not have a king’. unrestricted. The king made his decisions by
In turn, it means that those who were a seeking advice from his officials such as
republic. ‘Purohita’, ‘Senani’, ‘Amatya’, ‘Gramani’,
6.5 Mahajanapadas - Administrative etc. Besides, there was an assembly of people
System, Guilds of all classes. When it assembled, everybody
present there could participate in the decision
Administrative System : In the 5th lesson,
making process. There were instances when
we have seen various terms in the context
people’s assemblies made a king step down
of the types of ancient states. They were
from the throne.
‘Rajya’, ‘Svaarajya’, ‘Bhaujya’, ‘Vairajya’,
‘Maharajya’, ‘Saamrajya’ and Guilds (Shrenis) : Along with
‘Parmeshthya’. It is difficult to define these agriculture and animal husbandry, trade and
terms. However, ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’ systematic management and organisation of
and ‘Katyayana Shrautsutra’ explain the the trade are also essential factors for the
term Rajya and Saamrajya in the conext of prosperity of a state. The guilds of the
sacrificial system. According to it, the king merchants and the artisans played a great
who performs ‘Rajasooya’ sacrifice is role in the growth of the mahajanpadas into
designated as ‘Raja’. The kingdom ruled by wealthy states. These guilds had their own
him is designated as ‘Rajya’. When a ‘Raja’ way of organisation and functioning. Among
performs ‘Vajapeya’ sacrifice, he is entitled the important characteristics of the guilds
to the epithet of ‘Saamraj’ and the ‘Rajya’ were, local organisation of various
under his rule is entitled as ‘Saamrajya’. A occupations, transferring the skills to the
‘Raja’ is always desirous of the superior young members in the family with hands-on
43
training, leadership naturally invested in the their funds for the operations involved in
senior and experienced members of the production and trade, as well as for the
guild and other members following them social cause. It was in the way of giving
voluntarily. donations and giving loans with interest at
Guilds had their own, strict rules. modest rates.
Hence, they had a stringent structure. This 6.6 Philosophy and Various Sects
stringent structure is perceived as one of the During the times of mahajanapadas the
main reasons of the rise of the caste system. political and social scenario in ancient India
The paid outsiders who worked in the guilds was witnessing transition and these changes
were known as ‘Karmakara’ and unpaid were bound to reflect in the material and
workers as ‘Dasa’. philosophical notions about life. In this
The guilds had acquired an important regard, the Vedic system revolved around
place in the political, social and financial the duties of a householder, sacrificial
matters by the Maurya period. According to system and material prosperity. At the end
Kautilya, the king’s control on the of the Vedic period questions about abstract
transactions of guilds was very important. aspects of human existence began to gain
Structurally the shrenis had a great potential attention. It included questions about matters
of channelling the central power. The like the meaning of human life, its
Ashokan edicts show that the roads and the significance in the infinite nature of the
transport system was maintained with great universe, the mystery of death and the
care. It had made transport of goods and journey of the soul after death. It resulted
travelling convenient. Obviously, this state in the creation of various philosophical
of affairs was favourable for the growth of texts, known as ‘Upanishadas’. The debates
trade and development of shrenis. that were churned up during this period
The functioning of the guilds was gave rise to various schools of thoughts.
controlled by the state. Detailed records They included schools propounding the
were kept of the production by the guilds, immortality of soul to the schools that
their financial operations and above all the refuted the very existence of the soul. The
traditions of guilds. Every guild had an latter included ‘Charvaka’ or ‘Lokayat’
independent space in the city, allotted to it. school, which openly opposed the social
There were independent traditions with organisation based on the Vedic authority,
respect to the interrelationship between the beliefs and rituals. This school also
guild members and the karmakaras, various propagated that the ‘Truth’ comprises only
stages of production and fixing the prices those things, which are subject to sensory
of produced goods. Each guild had its own experience. The Charvaka/Lokayat school is
rules based on its traditions. The state one of the ancient Indian schools of thought
administration did not interfere in these (darshan) which denies the existence of
aspects of the functioning of the guilds. It ‘God’. It opposes the authority of Vedas
kept the internal independence of the guilds (vedpramanya) and the notions of the
intact. If a decision has to be reached about existence of god and life after death. It also
the matters of a guild, then the king sought discarded all rituals arising out of this kind
advice from a guild representative. of belief systems. It is the only materialistic
school of philosophy ( ‘Jadavadi Darshan’)
The chief of a guild of artisans was that was developed in ancient India.
known as ‘Jyeshthaka’ or ‘Jyetthaka’. The
chief of a guild of merchants was known It may be said that the ancient Indian
as ‘Shreshthi’ or ‘Setthi’. The guilds used philosophical schools took roots in this
44
period. The 6 century B.C.E. is important
th
Siddhartha, the father of Vardhamana
from this point of view. The rising of a Mahavira, was the chief of the ‘Dnyatruka’
class of wandering mendicants known as clan. His mother, Trishaladevi was from the
‘parivrajakas’ or ‘shramanas’, was Lichchhavi clan. Vardhamana Mahavira
characteristic of this period. They renounced was born in 599 B.C.E., in Kundgram near
the householder’s life and wandered with Vaishali. His wife’s name was Yashoda.
their disciples, in search of the ultimate Vardhamana Mahavira left home at the age
truth. Among the various streams of of 30, in search of the truth. At the age of
thoughts, a large number of people were 42 he attained absolute knowledge (Keval
attracted to the teachings of Vardhamana Dnyana). Thereafter, people started
Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. Their addressing him as ‘Kevali’, ‘Jina’ and
teachings showed the way to overcome the ‘Mahavira’. His followers came to be
disparity in the society resulted from the known as ‘Jaina’. Vardhamana Mahavira
varna and caste system. travelled and preached continuously for 30
Both, the Jaina and the Budhhist years after the attainment of absolute
schools of thought are considered as the knowledge.
‘nastik’ schools. Both refuse to accept the Vardhamana Mahavira addressed
authority of the Vedas and the Vedic rituals. people in Ardhamagadhi, the language of
Both the schools had followers in large common people. He preached about good
numbers from all strata of the society. behaviour and life of devotion (devotion to
6.7 New Religious Trends the five vows). He put absolute emphasis
Jainism : The Jaina religion has a on the three principles of ‘Samyk Darshana’,
tradition going back to very ancient times. ‘Samyk Dnyana’ and ‘Samyak Charitra’.
According to the tradition of Jain religion, These three principles are known as the
Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th and the ‘Triratna’ of the Jaina religion. They are
last ‘tirthankara’ (saviour and the spiritual the primary guiding principles for a person
teacher). Parshvanath was the 23rd aspiring for the attainment of absolute
tirthankara. He gave four vows of non- knowledge. Vardhamana Mahavira preached
violence (Ahimsa), truth (Satya), non- that all beings, animate and inanimate,
stealing (Asteya) and non-possesion possess consciousness, to a varying degree.
(Aprigrah) to his followers. Vardhamana If hurt, each of them experiences pain.
Mahavira added the fifth vow of celibacy The core principle of Vardhamana
(Brahmacharya) to it. These five vows are Mahavira’s philosophy is ‘pluralism’
known as ‘Panchmahavratas’. (Anekantavada) or ‘many sidedness’ of the
truth. According to it the truth has multiple
facets.
Mahavira founded the Jaina Sangha.
Emperor Chandragupata Maurya was a
contemporary of Bhadrabahu, the sixth
principal Acharya of the Jaina Sangha.
According to the Jaina tradition Chandragupta
Maurya had embraced Jaina religion.
Buddhism : Gautama Buddha and
Vardhamana Mahavira were contemporaries.
Gautama Buddha was born in 563 B.C.E., in
Vardhamana Mahavira Lumbini (Rummindei) in Nepal. His father’s
45
name was Shuddhodana. He was a member (1) There is Sorrow (Dukkha)
of the Shakya clan. Gautama Buddha’s everywhere in the world. (2) The root cause
mother’s name was Mayadevi. She was from of sorrow is Greed (Trishna). (3) To
the Koliya clan. Gautama Budhha’s wife conquer this greed is the way to cut the
was Yashodhara. sorrow at its very root (Dukkhanirodha).
Gautama Buddha left home at the age (4) The way to stop sorrow from emerging,
of 29, in search of the truth. This event is is the eightfold path (Ashtangika Marga).
known in the Buddhist tradition as Gautama Buddha explained the eightfold
‘Mahabhinishkramana’. Thereafter, Gautama path by including:
Buddha tried to attain the ultimate knowledge (1) Samyak Drishti (To understand and
through various means, such as seeking accept that nothing happens against the
guidance from various gurus and extreme rules of the nature)
austerities. After realising that nothing of it (2) Samyak Sankalp (Right determination)
was useful, he sat down meditating at Gaya, (3) Samyak Vacha (Right speech)
under a pippal (ficus religiosa) tree, on the
(4) Samyak Karmanta (Right behaviour)
banks of the river Niranjana (Lilajana). Here
(5) Samyak Aajiva (Livelihood by right
he attained enlightenment at the age of 35.
means)
After that he was known as ‘Buddha’,
‘Tathagata’ and also as ‘Shakyamuni’. After (6) Samyak Vyayam (Conscious avoidance
the enlightenment he delivered his first of offensive things)
sermon in the deer-park at Ishipattana, near (7) Samyak Smriti (Watchfulness and
Saranath. This event is known as memory of right things)
‘Dhammachakkapabattan’. For the next 45 (8) Samyak Samadhi (Establishing the
years Gautama Buddha travelled continuously mind firmly in equanimity; a state
to preach dhamma to people. He taught in beyond pleasure and sorrow)
Pali, a language of common people. The eightfold path is also known as
‘Madhyama Pratipada’. Gautama Buddha
founded the ‘Bhikkhu Sangha’. The concept
of ‘Surrendering to Buddha, Dhamma and
Sangha is very important. This concept is
known as ‘Trisaran’. The three vows,
namely, ‘Buddham saranam gachchhami’,
‘Dhammam saranam gachchhami’ and
‘Sangham saranam gachchhami’ are
essential in the Buddhist religion.
The 6th century B.C.E. saw transition in
all the fields of life, in ancient India. The
Gautama Buddha power conflict among the mahajanapadas
In his sermons, Gautama Buddha started in this century. It continued among
addressed the fundamental question of the four mahajanapadas of Kashi, Kosala,
‘sorrow’ in human life. The root cause of Avanti and Magadha. By the 4th century
human sorrow and the way to overcome it B.C.E. the kingdom of Magadha grew
were two main issues addressed by Gautama powerful and the independent existence of
Buddha. the other mahajanapadas came to an end.
We will study the history of the rise of
Gautama Buddha preached four
Magadha in the eighth lesson.
‘Aryasatyas’ (four great truths).
46
You would like to know : An Ashokan pillar inscription was discovered at the site
of Rummindei in Nepal. The inscription announces, “The king ‘Devanampiya Piyadasi’
visited this place after his coronation and he prayed here. He declares that Buddha
Shakyamuni was born here. To commemorate the fact he erected a stone pillar at this
place. He did this with the intention of making this place venerable in people’s mind. He
exempted the village of Lumbini from paying the taxes in order to enhance its prosperity.”
Exercise
Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and

Q.3 Complete the concept map given below.
Jaina Religion
(1) Ashmaka is the name in
language. 24th Tirthankara
(a) Pali (b) Sanskrit
(c) Ardhamagadhi (d) Prakrit
Parshwanath Vardhamana Mahavir
(2) The capital of Kashi mahajanapada
was .
(a) Gorakhpur (b) Chandanagar
(c) Rajagriha (d) Varanasi
(3) Gautama Buddha was born in . Q.4 Explain the statements with reasons.
(a) Kushinagara (b) Sarnath (1) Rise of mahajanapadas came into
(c) Lumbini (d) Pataliputra being.
(4) The river was the natural (2) The process of Second urbanisation
boundary between Uttara Panchala began in ancient India.
and Dakshina Panchala. (3) Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama
(a) Yamuna (b) Bhagirathi Buddha attracted a large number of
(c) Ganga (d) Niranjana followers.
(B) Find the incorrect pair and write Q.5 Explain the following cocepts.
the correct ones. (1) Nastik Darshan
(1) Kosala – Shravasti (2) The eightfold path preached by
(2) Anga – Champa Gautama Buddha
(3) Matsya – Mathura
(4) Gandhara – Taxila Q.6 Describe the administrative system of
the mahajanapadas with the help of
Q.2 (A) Find the odd man out. following points.
(1) Buddha, Tathagata, Shakyamuni, (a) Terms showing types of states
Vardhamana Mahavira (b) King’s installation
(B) Choose the correct reason and (c) Authority of the king
complete the sentence. (d) Decision-making
Gautama Buddha travelled Activity
continuously for 45 years.... (1) Collect and compile the information
(a) in the search of a Guru about Jain Tirthankaras.
(b) to practice austerities (2) Collect information about Jataka
(c) to preach dhamma stories. Select any of the Jataka
(d) to attain enlightenment stories and present it as stage play.

47
7. India and Iran (Persia)
same name, ‘Pars’. Greeks knew the city by

7.1 Indian Subcontinent and Iran
the name, ‘Persepolis’. The Iranian empire
7.2 Conflict between the Iranian
was known as ‘Persian empire’ because it
(Achaemenid) Empire and Greece
originated in the Pars region.
7.3 Iranian (Achaemenid) Empire
and India Emperor Cyrus II had begun to build a
7.4 Political and Cultural Impact of new capital at ‘Pasargade’. However, it did
the Iranian Contact not get completed in his lifetime. His son,
7.5 Taxila Cambyses II succeeded him. He moved back
7.6 Advent of Alexander to Susa and re-established his capital there.
Cambyses II had conquered Egypt.
Daryush I, who succeeded Cambyses II
7.1 Indian Subcontinent and Iran reinforced the fortification walls of Susa. He
Excavated evidence has sufficiently also built a massive palace and a hypostyle
proved that the trade and cultural relations (many columned) hall known as ‘Apadana’.
between the Indian subcontinent and Iran He also built the city of ‘Persepolis’ in the
have continued since the Harappan times. style similar to Susa. He built a palace and
The empire of Elam, contemporary to the apadana in Persepolis also.
Harappan civilisation, existed in the southwest
regions of Iran. It was culturally closer to
Mesopotamia. Its capital was at ‘Susa’.
Hence, it was also known as ‘Susiana’. Many
dynasties ruled Iran at later dates but all of Reconstructed
them maintained their capital at ‘Susa’. The picture of
archaeological evidence found at Susa has ‘Apadana’ at
Susa
confirmed the trade and cultural relations
between Iran and the Harappan civilisation.
Visit the following website to see the map of the Iranian

empire:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/
Persian_Empire%2C_490_BC.pnghttps://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Persian_Empire,_490_BC.png
The Iranian empire was established by

Cyrus II (also known as Cyrus the Great) of
the Achaemenid dynasty. He was from the
tribe of ‘Pars’. This tribe dwelt in the Geographically Iran is the region, which
mountainous region in the northwest of Iran forms a link between the east and west of
and adjacent to Afghanistan. This region was Asia. Naturally Iran held an important
known by the tribe’s name, ‘Pars’. Even the position in the trade and also in the cultural
main city of the region was known by the exchange between East Asia and West Asia.
48
the kingdoms in West Asia and then the city
By the Way : ‘Ariana’ is another states in Greece. Then also they continued to
name of Iran. Greek historians mention have intermittent battles. The rising of the
it as ‘Ariane’. ‘Ariana’ is the Latin
Ionian Greeks against the Achaemenid rule
variation of the Greek name ‘Ariane’.
is supposed to be significant.
The trade that was conducted from Asia Cyrus II conquered Lydia, a Greek state
and the Persian Gulf to Mesopotamia and to the north of Mediterranean Sea, around
Egypt expanded to Greece and Rome. The the mid of the 6th century B.C.E. As a result,
ancient routes used by caravans of merchants the Ionian Greek city states under the Lydian
were provided with safety and security by rule, inevitably became part of the Achaemenid
the Persian emperors. They rebuilt some of empire. The Greeks in Ionia had migrated to
the routes. Cyrus II and Daryush I developed Anatolia, that is, the Asian part of the
the route beginning from Susa and reaching Turkey. It is also known as ‘Asia Minor’.
the Mediterranean Sea. This route is known During the reign of Daryush I all
as the ‘Royal Road’. Some of the branches Ionian city states got together and rebelled
of the Royal Road linked the Indian against the Achaemenid rule. The rebellion
subcontinent and Egypt. Alexander started was subdued completely after a struggle of
from Macedonia on his expedition to India. five years by the Achaemenid army.
He used the same route to reach India. The effects of this unsuccessful rebellion
are important for understanding the
By the way : (1) To see, how the interrelationship between Greece and Persia
name Alexander was changed to in the ensuing period. The Ionian Greeks had
‘Sikander’ in Indian languages, is a received help from the states of ‘Athens’ and
matter of linguistic analysis. Alexander ‘Eretria’ in Greece. Hence, Daryush I attacked
is a common version of the Greek Athens. At this time the battle between
name ‘Alexandros’. The meaning of Daryush I and Athens was fought on the
‘Alexin’ is ‘to protect’. ‘Andros’ means grounds of Marathon near Athens. Therefore,
‘man’. Thus, the name ‘Alexander’ it is known as the ‘Battle of Marathon’.
means ‘the protector’. ‘Iskander’, Daryush I was defeated in this battle.
‘Skander’ are the Persian variations of
Xerexes, the successor of Daryush I,
Alexander. Iskadnser or Skander turned
tried once again to invade Greece. However,
into ‘Sikandar’.
he was also defeated. Thereafter the conflict
(2) The inscriptions of the emperor,
between the Achaemenids and the Greeks
Daryush I at Susa, Pasargade,
continued over a prolonged time. Ultimately,
Persepolis and Behistun have been
Athens and the confederacy of other Greek
enlisted as the ‘World Cultural
Heritage’. city states declared a war for independence
against the Achaemenid rule in Greece.
Neither of the two had a conclusive victory.
7.2 Conflict between the Iranian
In 449 B.C.E. a treaty was signed between
(Achaemenid) Empire and Greece
the Greek confederacy and the Achaemenids.
Greek historians have recorded the
As the effect of this prolonged conflict
frequent battles between the Achaemenid
the Achaemenid rule grew weak. This was
empire and the city states in Greece. Among
bound to reflect in the political and financial
them the records of Herodotus are important.
spheres. An impact of this conflict was to
The Achaemenid emperors first conquered
49
manifest in the way of the invasion of Persia
by Alexander III, the king of Macedonia, By the way : The Greek historian
who was later regarded as the ‘Conqueror of Herodotus was born in 484 B.C.E., in
the World’. Halicarnassus, a Greek city state. He
began to write with the intention of
Arrian was a Greek historian of the
tracing the history and causes of the
1 century C.E. He wrote a book called
st
battles between Greek city states and
‘Anabasis* of Alexander’. He has referred to
Achaemenid empire during 500-449
the correspondence between Daryush III, the B.C.E. The book he wrote was named
last Achaemenid emperor and Alexander. as ‘Historia’ (The Histories). He, at
Daryush had written to Alexander about the the outset of the book says, “Herodotus
release of his mother, wife and children. of Halicarnassus here displays his
Alexander responded by reminding Daryush inquiry, so that human achievements
of the sorrow inflicted on the Greeks by the may not become forgotten in time, and
earlier invasions of the Achaemenid emperors. great and marvellous deeds – some
Alexander wrote that he had arrived in displayed by Greeks, some by
Russia by crossing the ocean, with the barbarians – may not be without their
intention of punishing the aggressive Persians. glory.”
Next, he accused Daryush of provocating the Herodotus was the first historian
Greeks against him and he reminded Daryush who collected information seeking
that he was a defeated king. So Daryush was answers to a particular question, and
further snubbed that he should not behave as then to put it in a chronological order.
an equal to Alexander. While doing this he did not bring in
notions like god, human destiny, etc.
*
‘अअअअअअअअअ’
Anabasis* means अअअअअअ
to spur into action. Later putting historical events in
chronological sequence became an
This correspondence is indicative of essential theme of history writing. This
two things: theme proved to be fundamental in the
(1) The Greeks felt that their self-esteem development of history writing as an
was challenged. independent discipline. Therefore,
Herodotus is said to be the father of
(2) The Greeks now felt confident about
historiography.
their strength to conquer the Persians.
It may be said that these two factors
kept by the Greek historians that Cyrus II
inspired Alexander’s expedition.
had conquered the region of the Kabul basin
7.3 Iranian (Achaemenid) Empire and (Gandhara). It was part of the Achaemenid
India empire. The river Vitasta (Jhelum) had
The Achaemenid emperors established formed its eastern boundary. Alexander
the Persian empire by conquering smaller crushed the Achaemenid empire and the
kingdoms in the northeast region of the region of Punjab which was the part of
Indian subcontinent and expanded their Achaemenid empire.
boundary up to Punjab. It was the same The revenue received by the Achaemenid
period when the Magadha empire was on the empire from its provinces (satrapies) in the
rise in India. Indian subcontinent was more than any other
It becomes apparent from the inscriptions provinces. According to Herodotus, this
of the Achaemenid emperors and the records revenue amounted to 360 talents* of gold
50
dust**. Accepting the possibility of and proceeded further by sailing around the
exaggeration in this description, it clearly coast of the Arabian Sea and then entering
indicates that the revenue collected from the the Red Sea. He ended his journey at ‘Suez’,
Indian states formed a major share of the situated in the delta region of the Nile. It
Achaemenid treasury. took two and half years for him to complete
this journey.
*Talent used to be a unit of weight and
The logbook of the journey of Scylax is
according to the standard, set in various ancient
countries it varies from 20 to 40 kilograms per known as ‘Periplus of Scylax’. The original
talent. periplus is lost but we get to know about its
** Gold dust (placer gold) is collected from contents from the writings of the Greek
the sands on the river banks. historians. This periplus was the first source
of information of the Indian subcontinent to
7.4 Political and Cultural Impact of the western world, especially to the Greeks.
the Iranian Contact Very soon after the completion of the
The Persian supremacy prevailed in the expedition by Scylax, Daryush I conquered
Indian subcontinent for at least two centuries. the region in the lower reach of the Sindhu.
However, it had ended much before the Scylax had reported an already existing
advent of Alexander. Thinking of the impact canal that linked the Nile and the Red Sea.
left by the Persian contact in the period of It was dug by an Egyptian Pharoh. Daryush
two centuries, one thing can be noticed I revived that canal by digging it again. It
prominently. It is about the administrative opened a new water way for the transport
system set by the Persian rulers. Every between Persia and the Indian subcontinent.
conquered region was annexed to their
This newly available route facilitated the
territory as a satrapy and a satrap (governor)
trade between Achaemenid provinces in the
was appointed as its chief administrator. This
north-western region of the Indian subcontinent
method was followed by Alexander and later
and the regions of Sindh-Punjab. The ivory
by the Scythian (Saka) and Kushana rulers
and the teak wood coming from India had
as well.
great demand in the Persian markets. The
The Aramaic script came into use in inscription of Daryush I at Susa records the
the north-eastern regions of the Indian use of Indian ivory and teakwood for building
subcontinent, during the times of Achaemenid the palace.
rule. Kharoshthi, an ancient Indian script
Herodotus has described the Indian
evolved from this script. The Ashokan edicts
soldiers in the Achaemenid army. According
in this region are inscribed in the Aramaic
to it, Xerexes’ army had soldiers from
script. The method of installing royal edicts
Gandhara, Sindh and Punjab, when he
at vantage points seems to be borrowed from
invaded Greece in 480 B.C.E. The soldiers
the examples of Achaemenid inscriptions.
from Gandhara were equipped with bows
Herodotus tells us that Daryush I had made of cane and spears with short shafts.
sent many explorers to gather information They also had horses and chariots drawn by
about the course of the river Sindhu and the horses. The Indian soldiers from Sindh and
Arabian Sea. Among them was ‘Scylax of Punjab used cotton clothes and used bows
Karyanda’, a Greek sailor from Ionia, who and arrows made of cane. They were expert
was well- known. He was the first Ionian archers. When Xerexes retreated from Greece,
Greek who stepped on the Indian land. it was decided to keep a regiment posted
Scylax began his exploration from the Sindhu
51
there. That regiment had Indian soldiers. Susa and Persepolis. For that purpose,
In the times before Cyrus II, the founder emperor Cyrus got Greek architects and
of Achaemenid empire, there was no coinage sculptors from the Greek settlements in Asia
in use in Persia. The barter system prevailed minor under his rule.
to a large extent. Sometimes silver ingots of
particular weight were used for exchanging
commodities. Cyrus II had conquered the city
state of Lydia, where use of coins was
already in practice. Those coins were known
as ‘stater’. Cyrus issued coins similar to
Lydian coins.
Daryush I issued coins with his own
portrait on it.
The Gold coins
issued by him
were known as Columns at Persepolis
‘Darik’ and
silver coins Persepolis was razed completely by
Persian ‘Siglos’
were known as Alexander after conquering Persia. It was the
‘Siglos’. A portrait of Daryush I, holding a end of the Persian Empire. The architects,
bow and arrow can be seen on these coins. sculptors and other artisans lost the royal
One ‘Darik’ was equivalent to 12 ‘Sigloi’* patronage. They had to move out in search
in value. of work. They migrated to India. They
received royal patronage in the court of
emperor Ashoka. Their style is reflected in
** ‘अअअअअअअअअ’
‘Sigloi’ is the plural अअअअअअ
of ‘Siglos’. the stone pillars erected by empror Ashoka.
Thus, the sculptural art in ancient India has
Along with the Achaemenid coins, coins its roots in the Persian; and acordingly in the
from Greek satrapies also remained in Greek sculptural style.
circulation in Persia. Some satraps issued 7.5 Taxila
their own coins imitating Greek coins. These Mahabharata mentions King Takshaka
coins were cast in moulds. The obverse side as the king of ‘Naga’ people. Taxila was the
of a coin usually carried the portrait of a capital of King Takshaka. The archaeological
king and the reverse side had a symbol evidence confirm that Taxila has a hoary
punched on it. past. It was the capital of Gandhara
It is possible that the ancient Indian mahajanapada.
punch marked coins were influenced by this The archaeological remains of this city
technique of punching. are strewn over a large area that comprises
In the times that preceded emperor 18 archaeological sites. They are enlisted as
Cyrus’ reign, the practice of building huge the World Cultural Heritage. It is situated on
public monuments did not exist in Persia. the Grand Trunk Road, 30 kilometres away
Hence, there was no existing Persian from Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan.
architectural style to follow while creating Evidence of prehistoric people using
the magnificent palaces and sculptures in microliths have been found at Taxila and in
52
from various regions of the Indian subcontinent
By the way : The inscription of were attracted to Taxila because of the fame
Daryush I mention the Greeks as ‘Yauna’.
of the acharyas. Thus, Taxila had become a
The roots of this word is in the Greek
great centre of education. Thereby it had
word, ‘Ionia’ The terms such as ‘Yona’
assumed the magnitude of a natural university.
(Prakrit) and ‘Yavana’ (Sanskrit)
However, the king and his administration at
mentioned in Indian literature originally
mean ‘the resident of Ionia’. These terms Taxila did not interfere in the decisions of
occur in Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puran an individual acharya as to the nature of his
texts and other literature. method of teaching, the subjects to be taught
by him or the nature of the syllabi. The
Let us see one more example of
changes happening in the meaning and duration of a course was dependent on
form of the word through the cultural individual student’s intellectual capacity to
contacts and borrowing of words from learn. There was no formal system of
other languages. Ancient Persian language examinations. Rather success in examination
was the official language of the was not perceived as the test of real
Achaemenid empire. It is used in the knowledge. It was the acharya who decided
inscriptions of the Achaemenid emperors. the level of maturity of his students.
These inscriptions mention the people in Among the subjects taught at Taxila
the Indian subcontinent as ‘Hidush’ and included, Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda,
‘Hridush’. In the Ionian Greek language ancillary branches of the Vedas (Vedangas),
the consonant ‘h’ is not pronounced when Ancient Traditions and Ethics, Philosophy,
it occurs at the beginning of a word. Mathematics, Music, Medicine, Puran Texts,
Hence, Scylax the Ionian Greek explorer,
History, Weaponry, Poetry, etc.
perhaps recorded it as ‘Indos’ and its
plural as ‘Indoi’. Herodotus used these Acharya Chanakya is believed to have
words as synonymous to Hidush and taken Chandragupta Maurya to Taxila for
Hridush. The roots of the word ‘India’ education when he was young. Chanakya
is in this Greek usage. himself hailed from Taxila. After becoming
the emperor of Magadha, Chadragupta
established a regional capital at Taxila.
some caves in its vicinity. The neolithic
During the reign of Ashoka Maurya
village at Taxila was settled around 3500
Taxila became an important centre of learning
B.C.E. Its remains have been found at a site
of Buddhist tradition. Taxila did not lose its
called ‘Sarai-Khola’.
importance even when the land suffered from
Taxila was ruled by King Ambhi at the the invasions of Greeks, Shakas and
time of Alexander’s advent. He welcomed Kushanas. However, in the 5th century C.E.
Alexander and presented gifts to him. The the glory of Taxila gradually waned under
Greek historians accompanying Alexander the pressure of Huna invasions.
described Taxila as a “city full of hustle
7.6 Advent of Alexander
bustle of people, prosperous and the one that
was under a well-established administration.” Alexander invaded the Indian
subcontinent and conquered some kingdoms
Some information about Taxila can be
from Afghanistan to Sindh-Punjab. He,
gathered from the Buddhist literature and
however, could not establish his rule there
from the writings of the Greek historians.
for a long time. The information of his
There were several learned individuals
advent primarily comes from the Greek
(Acharyas) staying in Taxila. Many students
53
historians like Arrian, Curtis, Diodorus, greatly influenced by his valour. The Greeks
Plutarch and Justin. were unfamiliar to the use of elephants in
At the time of Alexander’s advent the warfare. To penetrate the file of elephants
Achaemenid rule in Sindh-Punjab and proved to be a great challenge for them. The
Afghanistan had weakened and a number of Greek historians have unanimously praised
small kingdoms had come into existence. The the skill of Porus in warfare and also his
political strife stopped them from uniting to courage.
resist Alexander’s invasion. After the confrontation with Porus,
Alexander became the king of Macedonia Alexander reached Nysa, a Greek settlement.
in 334 B.C.E. He defeated emperor Daryush People of Nysa resisted Alexander in the
III in 331 B.C.E. Thereafter he marched up beginning but later they welcomed him.
to ‘Shistan’ province of Iran and from there Thereafter, Alexander proceeded in the
he turned toward Kabul. After conquering the direction of Chenab and Ravi. He conquered
region around Kabul, he reached the foothills the kingdoms on the way and reached the
of Hindukush mountains. Then he camped at banks of Beas. By that time Alexander’s
a place called Nicaea, situated on Uttarapatha. soldiers had lost spirit and they refused to
Ambhi welcomed Alexander and sought march forward. Alexander was forced to
friendship with him. Another king whose return.
name was Sisikottas (Shashigupta) surrendered Before setting on the return journey
to Alexander. However, not all Indian kings Alexander handed over the regions in Punjab
surrendered to Alexander so easily. Many to Porus and those in Sindh to Ambhi. He
fought with Alexander with great valour. handed over the kingdom of Kashmir to
Alexander conquered almost all kingdoms in Abhisara, the king of Varanavati. On his
Kabul, Sindh and Punjab. way back he defeated Shibis and Mallas, etc.
On the banks of Jhelum Alexander and In rest of the regions he appointed Greek
King Porus confronted each other and there satraps. In 325 B.C.E. Alexander died at
was a fierce battle between them. Porus was Babylon, while he was on his way back to
defeated but Alexander and his army was Greece.
For Additional Information : The trees on both sides of the road, sarais for
highway linking the regions from Bihar to overnight stay, etc. He erected pillar edicts
Afghanistan is known as ‘Grand Trunk at vantange points on this highway.
Road’ in modern days. It was in use as At a later period Shershah Sur and
a trade route even during the times of Emperor Akbar rebuilt this highway. In the
Gautama Buddha. It was known as British period a new metalled road running
‘Uttarapatha’ in those days. Its starting parallel to Grand Trunk Road was built
point was at the port city of ‘Tamralipti’ from Kolkata to Peshawar. This road is
in Bengal; known as Tamluk today. It still in use.
ended at Taxila. Emperor Chandragupta In modern times the highway starts
Maurya established this highway in a well from Bangla Desh and from Hawrah it
planned way. It was about 3200 kilometres proceeds to West Bengal, thereafter it goes
in length. to Delhi and to Amritsar, from there to
Emperor Ashoka provided many Lahore and Peshawar and in the end to
essential amenities for the merchants and Kabul.
travellers on this highway, such as planting
54
Alexander’s invasion of India did not his vast empire from Bihar to Afghanistan.
have far reaching impact on the political It was the beginning of a new era in the
scenario of India. In a very short period after Indian history.
his death Chandragupta Maurya established
Exercise
Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.3 Write in correct chronological order.
complete the sentence. (1) There was a fierce battle between
(1) The Greek historian is said Alexander and Porus.
to be the father of modern (2) Alexander appointed satrapies before
historiography. starting on the return journey.
(a) Herodotus (b) Alexander (3) Alexander died at Babylon in 325
(c) Scylax (d) Daryush B.C.E.
(2) Taxila was ruled by King (4) Alexander conquered Kabul and
at the time of Alexander’s advent. Sindh.
(a) Chandragupta (b) Ambhi Q.4 Explain the statements with reasons.
(c) Porus (d) Shashigupta (1) Alexander invaded Persia.
(3) The Ashoka edicts are written in (2) Alexanders’ invasion of India did not
script. have for reaching impact on the
(a) Sinhala (b) Aramaic political scenario of India.
(c) Kharoshthi (d) Modi Q.5 State your opinion.
(B) Find the incorrect pair and write (1) Herodotus is said to be the father of
the correct ones. modern history writing.
(1) Persopolis - City built by Daryush I (2) Ancient Taxila was the centre of
(2) Halicarnassus - Herodotus was born knowledge and education.
here Q.6 Answer the following questions in detail.
(3) Taxila - Centre of knowledge and (1) Describe the political and cultural
education effects of Achemenid rule on India.
(4) Nysa - Persian settlement (2) Describe Alexander’s invasion of
(C) Write the names - India.
(1) Last emperor of Achaemenid empire- Activity
(2) Name of the coins issued by Daryush Collect additional information about the
I - palace at Persepolis and Apadana at Susa
Q.2 Find the odd man out. with the help of internet.
Daryush I, Xerexes, Cyrus II, Alexander

55
8. India during Mauryan period
8.1 Rise of Magadha Empire You would like to know : The

8.2 Nanda and Mauryan Empire concept of ‘Chakravarti’ occurs in the
8.3 Emperor Ashoka literature on ancient Indian polity. The
8.4 Administrative system, trade, sovereign ruler whose chariot could roll
literature, art and architecture, in all four directions without any
social life obstruction, was known as Chakravarti.
It was expected that his rule should be
In lesson six, we studied the history of ethical and for the welfare of the State.
During his tenure the wheel of ‘Ruta’
the sixteen mahajanapadas that existed in
remains intact. His rule is on an extended
India. Among these mahajanapadas, the
territory. Chandragupta Maurya was the
power of Magadha became strong during the
first Chakravarti Emperor.
struggle of the four mahajanapadas namely,
Kasi, Kosala, Avanti and Magadha and the
dynasty ruled over Magadha.
empire of Magadha came to a rise.
The Haryanka dynasty is mentioned in
During this period, the first Indian empire
the Mahabharata. Bimbisara was the first
emerged. The kingdom of Magadha acquired
well-known king. His father Mahapadma
the form of an Empire. The administrative
built the fort at Girivraja and established the
system of this empire was well established
first capital of Magadha. After ascending the
and its work was carried out through various
throne, Bimbisara started building the
departments. Several factors are essential for
foundation of Magadha Empire. He attacked
the emergence of an empire. For example,
the neighbouring kingdom of Anga and
dominance over an expanded region, an
conquered it. This victory increased the power
administrative system having the revenue
of Magadha. Bimbisara established
gathered in the form of taxes, king is the
matrimonial relations with many royal houses
sovereign ruler of the state and army actively
such as Kosala, Lichchhavi, Videh, Madra to
enforces king’s authority.
support his expansionist policy. At the foot
The king’s position was strengthened of the fort of Girivraja, he established the
through ritual performances. The power and new capital of Rajgriha.
related rights are concentrated in the hands
After killing Bimbisara, his son
of the ruling family.
Ajatashatru became the king. He adopted the
8.1 Rise of Magadha Empire expansionist policy of his father. He expanded
Magadha was an important kingdom the Magadha kingdom up to the foot of
among the mahajanapadas that existed in Vindhya ranges. Ajatashatru built a small
ancient India. Fertile and rich land, perennial fort on the bank of Ganga at Pataligrama.
rivers, excellent facilities of navigation, It became a centre of trade of local
availability of commercial markets etc. were commodities. In the later period, Pataligrama
the reasons for the rise of Magadha as came to be known as Pataliputra. It became
empire. the capital of the Mauryan Empire.
In the 6th century BCE, the Haryanka Later the people deposed Ajatashatru
56
and selected his minister Shishunaga as the ruler of the Nanda dynasty. During his
king. The Shishunaga dynasty ruled between period, the state treasury was enormously
430 B.C.E. to 364 B.C.E. and then rich. His military was also very huge. It
Mahapadmananda usurped the throne and consisted of 2,00,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry,
established the Nanda dynasty. 6000 elephants and 2000 chariots.
During the period of Nandas, another
By the way : Pataliputra was an factor that helped in strengthening the central
important city in ancient India. The city power was the importance given to enhance
of Pataliputra was the capital of ruling the revenue collection. Along with the
dynasties like Shishunaga, Nanda, expansion of the empire came the economic
Maurya, Gupta and Pala. ‘Patali’ is a prosperity of the State. The state treasury
species of rice grown in this region. was always full. The Nandas built canals
Hence, the city might have acquired the and made arrangement of irrigation facilities.
name. In his book Indica, Megasthenes These facilities led to the development of
has mentioned the city of Pataliputra as agriculture and trade. In 321 B.C.E.
Palibothara. Chandragupta Maurya attacked Pataliputra
and brought an end to the Nanda rule.
Political stability as well as other factors Mauryan Empire: Mauryan Empire was
were responsible in the strengthening of the first well organised and strongly controlled
Magadha as an empire. Magadha had control empire in the history of India. Religious texts
over all the prominent regions in the Ganga and other literature, inscriptions, coins,
Valley. By conquering the kingdom of Anga, sculptures etc. are the sources that help us
the regions of the east coast came under their to clearly understand the political, social,
control and Magadha succeeded in increasing economic, and religious conditions of this
the trade with the distant regions. Magadha period.
was blessed with natural resources. Its land The Mauryan empire had spread on a
was fertile, especially for rice cultivation. large region of the Indian sub continent and
There was rise in revenue due to the was controlled by a central power. The
expansion of the kingdom. The abundance of Mauryan rule brought about consolidation of
sources for timber, ivory, iron and copper the political system.
gave a momentum to the local industries.
Chandragupta Maurya defeated the
The political ambitions of the rulers, combined
Nandas and established the Mauryan dynasty.
with wealth and prospering trade were the
In the text of Mahavamsa, Chandragupta is
reasons for the development of Magadha rule
referred as ‘the emperor of Jambudvipa i.e.
and establishment of a huge empire.
emperor of Bharatvarsh’. The Mauryas
8.2 Nanda and Mauryan Empire created a huge empire by conquering the big
Nanda Dynasty: The Nanda dynasty is and small states in northwest, north and
mentioned in the Puranas. The Magdhan southern regions. The war between
empire established by Ajatashatru was further Chandragupta and the Greek king Seleucus
expanded by Mahapadma Nanda. According was very important. As a consequence, the
to some scholars, the Nanda rule had spread boundaries of Mauryan Empire extended to
upto Nanded in the South, whereas some the Hindukush in the northwest. The Mauryan
scholars think that it was extended upto Empire extended from Hindukush to the Bay
Mysore. On this basis it can be said that of Bengal in the east and Gujarat in the
Mahapadma Nanda was the first great west, as well as Himalayas in the north to
emperor of India. Dhanananda was the last the Krishna river in the south.
57
Chandragupta Maurya died around 298 himself coronated in 268 B.C.E. He called
B.C.E. His son Bindusara became the king. himself as ‘Devanampiyo Piyadasi’ (Beloved
During his tenure he sent his son Ashoka to of the Gods) in many of his rock edicts and
subdue the revolt in Taxila. During the period pillar inscriptions.
of Bindusara the empire established by During the early period of his rule,
Chandragupta Maurya remained intact. Ashoka adopted his ancestors’ policy of
Bindusara died in 273 B.C.E. Digvijaya and expansion of kingdom. He
8.3 Emperor Ashoka attacked Kalinga and conquered it. Ashoka’s
Ashoka became the emperor of Mauryan victory at Kalinga proved to be a turning
empire after the death of Bindusara. He got point in history as well as in the life of
58
For Additional Information : The You would like to know : During

rock edicts and Pillar inscriptions of the period of 321 B.C.E. to 181 B.C.E.,
Ashoka: the expansion of Mauryan empire took
The rock edicts and Pillar inscriptions place in Maharashtra. The Mauryas must
of Ashoka are found at many places in have entered Sopara from Gujarat. Sopara
the regions of Afghanistan, Nepal and is a well-known port in north konkan.
India. In 1750 C.E. Padre Tieffenthaler Sopara and Chaul (Champavati) were
rediscovered Meerut pillar inscription of prosperous trade centers and learning
Ashoka. Ashoka’s inscriptions are centers of Buddhism. Bhagvanlal Indraji
inscribed in Brahmi script. In 1837 C.E. excavated the Stupa at Sopara which is
James Princep deciphered the Brahmi known as ‘Baruda Rajacha kot’. In this
script on the inscriptions. The inscriptions excavation the fragments of rock edict of
of Ashoka are very important sources of Ashoka were found. It is the 8th rock
the history of his rule. The boundaries of edict among the 14 edicts of Ashoka.
Maurya Empire can be ensured on the Some of its remains are kept in the
basis of these inscriptions. The description museum of Asiatic Society in Mumbai.
of Ashoka’s efforts for the spread of The 9th rock edict was found in the
Buddhism can be obtained from these Bhuigaon village. Its remains are kept in
inscriptions. Even though Ashoka the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu
embraced Buddhism but he never tried to Sangrahalaya in Mumbai.
forcibly impose it on his subjects. The
written evidence of the spread of
Buddhism and Indian culture in distant
countries through the Buddhist monks
sent by Ashoka occurs in these
inscriptions. It included Emperor Ashoka’s
son Mahendra (Mahinda) and daughter
Sanghamitra (Sanghamitta). Stupa of Nalasopara
drinks, guiding principles regarding code of

Ashoka. There was a great human loss conduct etc. Ashoka’s policy of ‘Dhamma’
in this war. Ashoka became victorious. The meant virtuous conduct based on moral
destruction caused due to the Kalinga war values. He sent monks to various countries
brought about a great change in the mind of for the spread of Buddhism.
Ashoka. His mind got diverted towards the The first Buddhist council was held at
non- violent, peaceful Buddhist religion. The Rajgriha after the mahaparnibban of Gautama
desire of digvijaya was replaced by Buddha. King Kalashoka organised the
Dharmavijay (Dhammavijay). His career second council at Vaishali. Ashoka organized
proved to be important because of the the third Buddhist council at the capital
religious ideals propagated by him and the Pataliputra.
creation of a mechanism to until it in people’s
The kings who succeeded Ashoka were
life.
not efficient. This led to the decline of the
For the implementation of Mauryan empire. Brihadratha was the last
dhammavijay, Ashoka introduced some new king of the Mauryan dynasty. He was killed
policies, for example, appointment of by his General Pushyamitra who then came
‘Dharmamahamatras’, ban on intoxicating to power.
59
Important information : In the rock Antiochus II Theos of Syria (260 B.C.E.

edicts of Ashoka there are references about -246 B.C.E.), Ptolemy II Philadelphus of
the contemporary kings from the western Egypt (285 B.C.E. - 247 B.C.E.), Antigonus
world. The identification of Greek king Gonatus of Macedonia (276 B.C.E. -239
Antiouchus and the four greek kings beyond B.C.E.), Magas of Cyrene and Alexander
the kingdom of Antiouchus namely, of Epirus. This paragraph is an important
Turmaya, Amtekina, Maga and link in the process of connecting the
Alikasundara is done through a paragraph chronological sequence of ancient Indian
from one of the inscriptions. That is history.
8.4 Administrative system, trade, the head to the lowermost office of the
literature, art and architecture, social life Gramini. At the local level the people were
Administrative system given autonomous rights to a great extent in
The nature of administrative system the internal matters. In this way the
during the Mauryan period is clearly administration of Mauryan kingdom was
understood with the help of Kautilya’s decentralised. The most important feature of
Arthashastra, Megasthenes’ Indica and the Mauryan administration was the effort made
inscriptions of Ashoka. Chandragupta Maurya for the overall material and moral development
was a valiant king and an efficient of the people. The Mauryan administration is
administrator. He set up a defined mechanism appreciated due to various factors such as
of state administration, which suited the keeping the civil and military areas separate
economic conditions and the needs of the from each other, creating an independent
Mauryan empire. The Mauryan emperors judicial system, implementing a specific
created a unified empire. At the same time, salary system to the officers, control over the
they devised a decentralised administrative trade in the kingdom etc.
system for efficient functioning of the vast Trade
empire. In the administrative system of the There was an increase in revenue due to
empire, there was a Mantri Parishad (council well organised taxation system. ‘Bali’ was a
of ministers) made up of wise, experienced, tax to be given in the scale of the land under
virtuous and selfless ministers who gave cultivation. ‘Bhag’ was a share from the tax
advice to the king. There was a committee on production. Agricultural land and the tax
of some of these ministers, who were known acquired from the agricultural production was
as ‘Mantrana’ to look after the day to day the basic foundation of the administrative
affairs of the state. Mauryas had created a system. Industries gained momentum during
stable framework of administration by this period. Cloth production was the most
creating various departments of administration important industry. Apart from that metallurgy,
and appointing the experienced and expert carpentry, ivory art, spinning, weaving and
officers over it. These officers were known many such professions began. The prosperous
as Amatya. Arthashastra mentions total 18 agriculture and flourishing industries led to a
Amatyas such as Pradhan, Samaharta flourishing internal and foreign trade. Internal
(revenue), Sannidhata (finance), Senapati, trade was carried through land route and
Yuvraj etc. Kautilya has given information water ways. Many royal ways were built on
about 30 administrative departments. The the trade routes during this period. Many
hierarchical order of the officers in the roads such as Pataliputra to Takshashila,
Mauryan empire started from the Samrat at Pataliputa to Kashi-Ujjaini, Pataliputra to
60
During the Mauryan period, along with
The increasing use of iron and also the Sanskrit literature, many texts were written
different types of iron implements, painted in Prakrit language. Especially the orders of
pottery and its distribution upto southern Ashoka are inscribed on the rocks and pillars
parts of India indicates expansion of trade. in Prakrit language. The famous texts of
Bharuch, Roruk (Rodi), Sopara, Tamralipti Buddhist literature, Tipitaka, were edited
and many such ports on the coastal region during this period. Among the texts of
of India were famous for trade purpose. Tipitakas, Abhidhammapitaka was composed
Exports were carried out on a large scale after the third Buddhist council.
from India to countries like Greece, Rome, This period was very rich from the point
Egypt, Syria, Bactria, Sri Lanka etc. The of view of Jain literature. The texts like
commodities such as cotton and silk cloth, ‘Dashavaikalika’, ‘Upasakadashanga’,
linen, jari clothes, spices, diamonds, ivory, ‘Acharanga Sutra’, ‘Bhagvati Sutra’ etc. were
perfumes etc. were exported from India to composed during this period.
these countries. Glass articles, dyes etc. were Art and architecture
imported. The government levied taxes on the After the establishment of Mauryan rule,
production of goods as well as on its import there was happiness, peace, prosperity and
and export. Vartani (transport tax) and shulk good governance. Mauryan art is the
(octroi) are found to be mentioned in the beginning of ancient Indian architecture and
contemporary sources. In return the the sculptural art.
government took up responsibility of security
It appears that, during the Mauryan
of the goods. For the protection of the trading
period, the artists had acquired the skill of
community the government had appointed
cutting and carving the stone. In both, the
officers like Chorarajjuka and Seemaswami.
skill of a specific expression of art and the
Literature technique of mirror polish of the stone is
Literature reflects the thought process of seen. This is known as ‘Mauryan Polish’.
the people and the political, social, economic During this period stone statues of Yaksha
and religious conditions. During the Mauryan and Yakshi are found. Especially the statues
period, along with the literature in Sanskrit of Yakshi are beautiful
language, the use of Pali and Ardhamagadhi and finely carved. The
literature in Prakrit language is also seen. famous Chauri bearer
For the spread of Jainism and Buddhism, of Didarganj is supposed
literature was created in Prakrit language. to be one of such
The Prakrit languages mainly included Pali, statues. The Yaksha
Ardhamagadhi, Shaurseni, Maharashtri etc. statues in Parkham and
The world famous work of Panini’s the female images at
Ashtadhyayi was composed in this period. Besnagar and Patna of
Bhasa was one of the great dramatists in this period are exhibited
Sanskrit literature. The thirteen dramas written in the Mathura museum.
by him includes ‘Swapnavasavadattam’. The The pillars erected
most important work of this period is by Emperor Ashoka and
Kautilya’s Arthashastra. This text is divided the sculptures on them
into 15 sections including total 180 topics. are excellent examples
The topics from King to Ganikas and politics Chauri bearer of Mauryan sculpture.
to war strategies are found to be discussed of Didarganj
in Arthashastra.
61
There is the lion capital of the pillar at Social Life
Rampurva and Lauria Nandangarh. The The remains found in the excavations
Sankissa pillar has an elephant capital. At reflect the rich lifestyle of the people.
Sarnath the pillar capital has four lions Megasthenes mentions the seven classes of
carved on it. This sculpture of the four lions Indian society based on their profesion;
is the ‘National emblem’ of India. Priest, Cultivators, Shephards and Hunters,
The beginning of rock-cut caves is seen Traders and Labours, Soldiers, Spies and
in the Mauryan architecture. The rock cut Government officials. The life of the people
caves on Barabar and Nagarjuni hills are the was prosperous and happy. The class of
first datable rock cut caves of India. entertainers is mentioned which includes
actors, dancers, singers, musicians etc. Chariot
Do You Know? and horse racing, wrestling as well as dance
During this period the concept of and singing competition were the popular
‘Vishti’ is mentioned in context of craft means of entertainment. Gambling was also
production. ‘Vishti’ was a tax paid by the in practice but the state had control over it.
people in form of physical labour. Through The system of education during vedic
vishti the artisans provided a stipulated period continued during the Mauryan period.
amount of free labour to the state. The cities of Taxila, Kashi Ayodhya etc.
became great centres of higher education and
There was a huge palace of Chandragupta art during the Mauryan period.
at Pataliputra. Megasthenes compares it with Female education began to be neglected
the Palace of Susa, the during this period. But according to Kautilya’s
capital of Iran. The high Arthashastra, it seems that during Mauryan
brick fortification wall period women were given certain rights.
was built for the protection Women had complete rights over the
of the palace and inside Stridhana. The Government took care of the
the palace there were orphan and disabled women. Many women
many buildings. These spies were a part of the intelligence system.
buildings were built of The Mauryan period has multiple
stone. Wood was also dimensions and hence it has obtained a
used in the buildings. One historical significance. After the death of
of the unique contribution Ashoka, the centralised administration
in the field of art are the continued to grow weak and the empire
huge standing pillars Capital of an disintegrated into small kingdoms. In the
erected during the period Ashokan Pillar Post-Mauryan period Shunga, Kanva and
of Ashoka for the spread Satavahana rulers rebuilt their empires. Vedic
of religion. We know them as Ashokan religion, varnashrama system, and vedic
Pillars. These pillars are erected at thirty lifestyle once again gained importance. We
places. They are erected at places related to are going to study about these dynasties in
important events in the life of Gautama the next chapter.
Buddha and on important royal paths. During
Ashoka’s period, stupas were built on a large
scale. It is said that during his rule, Ashoka
built 84,000 stupas.
62
Exercise
Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (a) Spread of Art
complete the sentence. (b) Spread of religion
(1) The first well-known king of the (c) Growth of trade
Haryank dynasty is . (d) For recognition of his work
(a) Chandragupta Maurya Q.3 Explain the following statements with
(b) Bimbisara (c) Ajatashatru reasons.
(d) Mahapadma (1) Ashoka’s victory at Kalinga proved
(2) The Nanda dynasty was established to be a turning point in history as
by . well as the life of Ashoka.
(a) Dhanananda (b) Shishunaga (2) The war between Chandragupta and
(c) Mahapadma Nanda the Greek king Seleucus was very
(d) Emperor Ashoka important.
(3) The great drama in Sankrit literature, (3) The Mauryan administration acquired
Swapnavasavadatta, was written by a definite form.
. Q.4 State your opinion.
(a) Kautilya (b) Bharat (1) Chandragupta Maurya is the first
(c) Kalidasa (d) Bhasa Chakravarti emperor in the history of
(B) Find out the incorrect pair, correct India.
it and rewrite. (2) The rock edicts of Ashoka are
(1) Built the foundation of Magadha important sources of history.
Empire – Bimbisara (3) Various trade guilds developed during
(2) Brought an end to Nanda rule – the Mauryan period.
Chandragupta Maurya Q.5 Observe the map on Page number 58
(3) Chinese traveler who visited India and answer the questions based on it.
during the period of Chandragupta (1) Regions included in Ashoka’s Empire
Maurya – Megasthenes (2) Locations of Ashoka’s rock and
(4) Changed his mind due to the pillars edicts.
destruction in Kalinga war – Emperor
Ashoka Activity
Q.2 Choose the correct reason and complete Collect information about the Stupas
the sentence. during the period of Ashoka.
Emperor Ashoka erected many pillars. 
Reason .
63
9. Post Mauryan India
Heliodorus at Besnagar (Vidisha) indicates

9.1 Shunga Empire
that there were some Greek followers of
9.2 Rise of Satavahana Empire Vaishnavism. Literature in Sanskrit language
9.3 Administrative system, literature, was encouraged during the Shunga period.
art and social life To review the changes in Sanskrit language,
Patanjali wrote the ‘Mahabhashya’ based on
Magadha was the first empire of India. Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’. According to some
A stable and systematic administration was scholars, there were many new additions
set up during the Mauryan period. We studied made in the original text of Mahabharata
this in the previous lesson. After Emperor during this period. The Manusmruti was
Ashoka, due to the internal conflicts, this composed during this period.
empire became weak. After Brihadratha, the Along with literature, the Shunga’s
last Mauryan emperor, Pushyamitra Shunga contribution in the field of art is also
came on the throne. important. The stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut,
9.1 Shunga Empire Garuda pillar at Besnagar are excellent
The Shunga empire was spread from examples of art during this period. The
Magadha in the east to Siyalkot (Punjab) in sculptural art in the Shunga period widened
the west, as well as Himalayas in the North its horizons and depicted the life of common
to Vidarbha in the south. Although Pataliputra people on a large scale.
was the main capital, Pushyamitra established The last king of Shunga dynasty,
a second capital at Vidisha. Pushyamitra Devbhuti, was not an efficient king. His
Shunga was valiant and ambitious. He minister, Vasudeva, killed him and established
strengthened his rule in the provinces of the Kanva dynasty. This incident is described
Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti etc. Later he conquered in the Harshacharita by Banabhatta.
the lost provinces of Magadhan empire upto 9.2 Rise of Satavahana Empire:
Siyalkot. He courageously repelled the attack After the Mauryas, the Shunga dynasty
of the Greek King Demetrius. His victory established itself in the north whereas in the
over Demetrius is mentioned in south the Satavahana dynasty rose to power.
‘Malavikagnimitram’ a play written by The disintegration of Mauryan empire created
Kalidasa. a favourable atmosphere for the rise of new
Try this out : Collect information powers. Satavahanas are mentioned as the
about the plays written by Kalidasa and earliest ruling dynasty in Maharashtra.
make a note based on it. Initially the Satavahana rule came to a rise
in Nashik, Pune, Aurangabad and later
After establishing his rule over North spread in the vast region of Maharashtra,
India and some parts of South India. Andhra and Karnataka. Paithan, in
Pushyamitra twice performed the Ashwamedha Maharashtra, was the capital of the
sacrifice to proclaim himself as a powerful Satavahanas. The Puranas mention the
king. Pushyamitra revived the vedic sacrificial ‘Andhras’ or ‘Andhrabhrutyas’. According to
system which had lost its significance during some scholars, these terms refer to
the Mauryan period. The Garuda pillar of Satavahanas.
64
For the map of Satavahana empire, visit the became weak due to the constant struggle
website given below: between Shakas and Satavahanas.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Satvahana.svg 9.3 Administrative system, literature,
Many Satavahana inscriptions are found art and social life
in North Maharashtra. Simuka, the first Administrative System :
Satavahana king, is mentioned in the The state under the Satavahanas was
Naneghat inscription. Shri Satakarni, Hala, divided into small provinces and on every
Gautamiputra Satakarni, Yajna Satakarni province civil and military officials were
were among the important kings of the appointed to administer individual provinces
Satavahana dynasty. over it. These included civil officials, such
Before Gautamiputra Satakarni, some of as ‘Amatya’, ‘Mahabhoj’ and military
the Satavahaha kings were not capable. officials, such as ‘Mahasenapati’ and
Taking advantage of this situation, the Shaka ‘Maharathi’. Grama (village) was the smallest
Satrapas established their rule in the western unit of administration. Grama was a source
regions of India. Gautamiputra Satakarni, the of revenue and also for the recruitment of
Satavahana king, conquered the Shakas. soldiers during warlike situations. Thus,
Satavahana dynasty regained its strength Grama was an integral part of the central
with this victory. machinery.
Gautamiputra Satakarni conquered Agriculture was the main source of
Central India and the entire regions of means of subsistence. Along with it many
Dakshinapatha. He defeated the southern industries and trade flourished under the
kingdoms of Avanti, Surashtra (Saurashtra) Satavahanas. Various shrenis (Guilds) also
and the Shaka kings in Maharashtra. Similarly emerged during this period. The trade and
he established his dominance over the industries were controlled with the help of
Republic states in Central India and Rajasthan. these shrenis. The shrenis also provided
A hoard of coins is found at Jogaltembi in loans. Indo-Roman trade also flourished
Nashik district. These coins belong to Shaka during the Satavahana period. Trade centres
Kshatrapa King Nahapana on which like Pratishthan (Paithan), Tagar (Ter), Nasik
Gautamiputra restruck his own emblem. This (Nashik), Karhatak (Karhad) developed
clearly indicates that Gautamiputra proved during the Satavahana rule.
his strength by gaining victory over Nahapana. Tagar (Ter) and Pratishthan (Paithan)
After Gautamiputra, Vashishthiputra are mentioned in the ‘Periplus of the
Pulumavi and Yajnashree Satakarni were the Erythraean Sea’. According to it, “Among
important kings. But after their rule, the market towns of Dakshinapatha, there are
Satavahana rule began to decline. They two cities of special importance; Paethana
For Additional Information : The reign and achievements of Satavahana Emperor

Gautamiputra Satakarni are described in the Nashik inscription of his mother Gautami
Balashri. Gautamiputra Satakarni is mentioned as ‘Shakapahlavyavannisudan’ i.e. the
destroyer of Shakas, Pallavas and Greeks, ‘Satavahanakulayashahpratishthapankar’ i.e.
the one who reinstalled the success of the Satavahana family, ‘Trisamudratoyapitavahana’
i.e. the one whose horses drank the water of the three seas. Such type of mentioning
indicates that many kings in the southern region must have accepted feudatory status and
ruled under the suzerainty of Gautamiputra Satakarni. The Satavahana kings used
Matronomics, i.e. using the names of their mothers as prefix, for example, Gautamiputra
Satakarni, Vasishthiputra Pulumavi etc.
65
(Pratishthana or Paithan of today) at a Various artisons such as Kularika*,
distance of about twenty day’s journey to the Tilpishaka**, Kolika*** are mentioned in the
south of Barygaza (Bhadoch); beyond which inscriptions at Nashik and Junnar. Pliny
about ten days to journey towards the east, mentions thirty fortified cities that existed in
there is another great city, Tagar (Ter). Satavahana kingdom. The coins, found during
Carnelion is transported in great quantity the excavations at the archaeological sites of
from Paithan to Bhadoch. There are no these cities are indicators of the well
permanent roads built for these purposes, but developed trade during this period. Sopara,
only untreaded tracts. Cotton cloth, muslins Kalyan, Bhadoch were important trade centres
and sack cloth (rough jute fabric) and other of this period.
merchandise from coastal regions is *
‘अअअअअअअअअ’
*Potter **Oil अअअअअअ
miller ***‘अअअ
Weaver
transported from Tagar to Barygaza.”
You would like to know : Naneghat for the convenience of travellers. There is a
is a mountain pass on the ancient trade stone jar excavated for collection of toll in
route in Maharashtra. This route connects the pass. Sopara and Kalyan were the most
the ancient town ‘Jirnanagar’ (Junnar) and important trade centres in ancient
the konkan province. The route proceeds Maharashtra. Internal as well as foreign
in the direction of Junnar and descends trade was carried out from these towns.
into Kokan at Murbad (District Thane). Especially, the goods imported from Rome
Satavahanas excavated a cave on this were unloaded at Sopara and from there it
route; the inscriptions in this cave mention was carried over to Paithan and Kolhapur
the Satavahana queen Naganika, the via Kalyan, Naneghat, Junnar, and Nevasa.
achievements of the Satavahana kings and Similarly the same route was used to
the donations given by them. These transport the goods to be exported to Rome.
inscriptions are in Brahmi script. There Another important feature is that the
were statues of the Satavahana kings. At inscriptions in the cave include numeric
the foothills of the pass there is a village symbols for “2, 4, 6, 7, and 9’’ that resemble
named Vaishakhede. A number of inns modern numerals.
(Dharmashalas) were probably built here
king of the Satavahana dynasty,

By the Way : This is compiled ‘Gathasaptashati’.
a picture of a ship on the Gunadhya, a minister in his
coin belonging to King court, wrote an incomparable
Pulumavi. This image on text named ‘Brihatkatha’ in a
the coin is an indication of Prakrit language called Paishachi.
flourishing sea trade during Sarvavarma wrote a treatise on
Satavahana period. Sanskrit Grammer, named
‘Katantra’.
Literature : Art and Architecture : The influence of

During the Satavahana period, learning Persian and Greek sculptural styles during
and art received royal patronage. Prakrit the Mauryan period seems to have decreased
language and literature flourished during during the Shunga and Satavahana period. A
Satavahana period. Hala, the seventeenth new native Indian style emerged in this
66
For Additional information : The

world famous Ajanta caves, cave no. 8,
9, 10, 12 and 13 belong to the
Satavahana period. It is interesting that
the paintings in cave no. 9 and 10 are
the earliest in India.
Society : The society of Satavahana

period was organised into four varnas.
Karle Chaitya
Similarly during this period the caste system
also became deeply rooted. The intermixture
of varnas and castes (Varnasankara), closed
period. The four gateways (Toranas) of the nature of different guilds, need of including
Sanchi Stupa No.1 built during this period foreigners in the social structure were some
are excellent examples of this style. Many of the reasons behind it.
incidents from the life of Gautama Buddha
are carved on these gateways. A number of Apart from that, there were four classes
rock-cut caves (Viharas and Chaityas) at in the society. The first class consisted of
Bhaje, Nashik, Karle etc. belong to officials such as ‘Maharathi’, ‘Mahabhoja’
Satavahana period. Especially the Chaitya at and ‘Mahasenapati’. They were appointed on
Karle, its magnificient facade entrance and the various ‘Rashtrakas’ (Subhas).
sculptures are the finest examples of the ‘Mahabhoja’ was appointed on the Konkan
sculptural art of this period. province and Maharathi on the plateau area.
The second class consisted of ‘Amatya’,
‘Mahamatra’ and ‘Bhandagarika’, ‘Naigam’
Gatha Saptashati : The (traders), ‘Sarthavaha’ (chief of caravan
Satavahana king, Hala, compiled merchant), and ‘Shreshthi’ (Head of trade
several poems written in Prakrit. He guilds). ‘Lekhanika’ (scribes), ‘Vaidya’
selected 700 verses, and compiled it (physicians), ‘Halakiya’ (cultivators),
which was named as ‘Gaha Sattasai’ ‘Suvarnakar’ (goldsmith), ‘Gandhika’ (traders
(Gatha Saptashati). This is the first text of perfumes) were included in the third social
composed in Maharashtri Prakrit class. Whereas the fourth class included
language. These poems beautifully ‘Vardhaki’ (carpenter), ‘Malakara’
portray human nature and transactions. (gardeners), ‘Lohavanija’ (blacksmith), and
Various religious observance, ethical ‘Dasaka’ (fisherman).
norms and contemporary festivals are The invasions of foreigners like Greeks,
described in it. Gatha Saptashati reflects Pallavas, Shakas and Kushanas took place
the social life in Maharashtra of during the Satavahana period. But these
Satavahana period. Some words in foreigners were soon absorbed in the social
Gatha Saptashati are used in today’s structure. This means that the contemporary
Marathi language as well. The poems society, was flexible enough to accommodate
in Gatha saptashati clearly indicate the the foreigners. However, these political
relation between Maharashtri Prakrit invasions also brought about some social,
and the modern Marathi language in economic and cultural changes which we will
Maharashtra. study in the next lesson.
67
Exercise
Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.2 Explain the following statements with
complete the sentence. reasons.
(1) The last emperor of the Mauryan (1) During the Satavahana period there
dynasty was . was rise of many trade centres.
(a) Ajatashatru (2) The caste system became rigid during
(b) Chandragupta Maurya the Satavahana period.
(c) Brihadratha Q.3 Give your opinion.
(d) Emperor Ashoka Prakrit language was encouraged during
(2) The Nashik inscription mentions king the Satavahana period.
as ‘Trisamudratoyapitavahana’. Q.4 Write short notes:
(a) Gautamiputra Satakarni (1) Nashik inscription of Gautami
(b) Hala Balashri
(c) Yadnashree Satakarni (2) Naneghat – ancient trade route in
(d) Simuka Maharashtra
(3) Satavahana king, Hala, compiled (3) Gatha Saptashati
. Q.5 Write information about the Satavahana
(a) Brihatkatha dynasty with the help of the given
(b) Gatha Saptashati points.
(c) Katantra (a) Rise and expansion
(d) Meghdoota (b) Administrative system
(B) Find incorrect pair and write the (c) Trade and industries
correct ones. (d) Literature and art
(1) Kalidasa – Malavikagnimitram Activity
(2) Gunadhya – Gatha Saptashati
Collect information about historical
(3) Sarvavarma – Katantra
remains in your surrounding area and
(4) Patanjali – Mahabhashya
prepare an information booklet based on
the gathered information.

68
10. Changing Times
10.2 Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas

10.1 Nomadic tribes of Central Asia
Indo-Greeks : The Greek Satrapas of
10.2 Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas
North-west are known as ‘Indo-Greeks’. In
10.3 Kushana Empire Indian tradition, they are mentioned as
10.4 Gupta Empire Yavana. Their objectives were to establish
10.5 Vardhan Empire their dominance in the region of Mediterranean
10.6 Karkotaka Empire Sea and to strengthen the hold over trade in
west and central Asia. Seleucus Nicator was
10.7 Trade, coinage, art, iconography
Indo-Greek king from the province of Bactria
10.8 Indo-Roman trade (Trade centres in the North-west. In the conflicts between
in Maharashtra) the Indo-Greek kings, the kingdom of Bactria
proved to be powerful. Bactrian king
Demetrius attacked India in 180 B.C.E. He
After the disintegration of Mauryan
won over Takshashila. His capital was at
empire, the ambition of local rulers got
Sakal (Siyalkot). During this period, the
strengthened. The regional kingdoms came to
Indo-Greek king Eucratides established an
a rise. Among them, we studied the Shunga
independent kingdom. In this way, two
and Satavahana kingdoms in the last lesson.
independent Indo-Greek kingdoms were
During the same period there began foreign
established in the northwest region. There
invasions, such as invasions by Greek,
were 40 Indo-Greek kings in total including
Shakas, Kushanas, on India. This period of
the two branches established by Demetrius
the rise of regional kingdoms was also the
and Eucratides. The only source to know the
period of political and social transition.
history of Indo-Greeks is their coins. Things
10.1 Nomadic tribes of Central Asia like emblems, script, portraits on their coins
After the death of Alexander, the of the kings, images of deities are their gifts
Satrapas appointed by him declared their to the numismatic tradition of India.
independent status and they came to be
known as Indo-Greek kings. During the To know the extent of Indo-Greek kingdom see :
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indo-
declining period of Indo-Greek kings, nomadic Greeks_100bc.jpg
tribes in Central Asia attacked Bactria. The
tribes of Central Asia migrated to India in Shakas : Shakas came from Central
this period. These migrations proved to be Asia. They established their kingdom by
important in the political scene in North driving out the Greeks of Bactria. Their
India. In the latter half of 2nd century B.C.E., colony acquired the name ‘Shakasthan’
the Pahalavas (Parthians) and Shakas (Shistan). ‘Maues’ alias ‘Moga’ was the first
(Scythians) attacked northwestern regions. Shaka king in India. He established the
The Yuezi tribes from China pushed the kingdom by conqureing the provinces of
Shakas out from Central Asia. Yuezis were Gandhara and Punjab. Due to the weakness
pastoralists. With the strength of their war of the succeeding Shaka kings, Pahalava
skills, they vanquished the local kings and king Gondophernes defeated them and
there they established their own kingdoms. established his rule in India.
69
For additional information : The rule of Shaka king

Rudradaman proves to be noteworthy due to his conflict
with the Satavahanas. The Junagarh inscription in
Saurashtra is an important Sanskrit inscription. It is
inscribed below the Ashokan edict. The Ashokan edict is
in Prakrit while Rudradaman’s inscription is in Sanskrit.
It seems that the Shaka kings had adopted Sanskrit
language. The Rudradaman inscription records repairs of
Sudarshan lake that was built during the Mauryan era. It
shows that the lake was used over a prolonged period. It
mentions Rudradaman’s victory in the Narmada valley,
expedition against Satavahana kingdom and praises him
for his victory over Yaudheya Republics in Rajasthan.
Junagarh inscription
Although the Shaka rule in Gandhara Kushanas : After coming to Bactria from
and Punjab came to an end, some Shaka central Asia, the Kushanas captured the Indo-
rulers continued to rule in Western India. The Greek kingdoms. As an effect of their contact
Shaka administrative system was structured with the Greek is reflected in some traits of
after the Achaemenid and Seleucid models. Kushana culture. After pushing the Shakas out
The state was divided into various Satrapis to the South, under the leadership of Kujula
(provinces) and ‘Mahakshatrapa’, a military Kadphises, the Yuezi groups came together
official, was appointed for each satrapy. and Kujula Kadphises brought them to
These Satrapies were further divided into northwest India from the Hindukush mountains.
sub-sections and a Satrapa was appointed on He declared himself as the king of Bactria.
each of it. These Satrapas were permitted to With this the Kushana rule was established
engrave their own inscriptions and also issue upto Kabul, Kashmir. We get this information
coins. It seems that they had considerable from Chinese records, Greek, and Roman
autonomy. literature. In Indian literature, Kushanas are
referred as ‘Tukhar’ or ‘Tushar’.
10.3 Kushana Empire
You would like to know : Shakas
After winning over the small kingdoms,
were nomadic pastoralists. There are
Kushanas followed the system of Shakas and
no architectural remains, which can be
established their Satrapis there. A military
ascribed to Shakas. However, their
officer called ‘Satrapa (Kshatrapa) was
characteristic tombs have been
appointed on the satrapies. The King was the
discovered. These tombs contain
chief of all the Satrapas and adopted the
remains of an individual, who could
titles like ‘Rajadhiraj’, ‘Maharaj’ etc. The
be their chief, along with his personal
concept of divinity of the King is seen for
belongings including remains of his
the first time in the inscriptions on the
horse and other objects. Horse was an
Kushana coins. They called themselves as
important part of the culture of Shakas.
‘Devputra’(Son of God).
Their skills in mounted archery enabled
them to make swift attacks. Saddle, By defeating many Shaka kings,
reins, composite bow and arrow made Kanishka obtained the status of an emperor.
their war technique more effective. He built the Kushana empire from Kabul to
Pataliputra and from Kashmir to Malwa. He
70
is said to have attacked China twice. From
Central Asia it was difficult to administer You would like to know : The detailed
over the far extended empire. Hence an Prashasti (eulogy) of Samudragupta is
inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad.
intermediate administrative centre was the
This prashasti is a written source giving
need of the moment. Hence, Kanishka
information of his political career. This
established two capitals, one at Purushpur
inscription is known as ‘Prayaga Prashasti’.
(Peshawar) and the other at Mathura.
It is paradoxical right below Ashokan’s
Kanishka had organised the fourth Buddhist edict declaring the importance of
Council in the vihara at Kundalvan in ‘Dhammavijay’ is inscribed the detailed
Kashmir. account of Samudragupta’s ‘Digvijaya’.
The Kushanas had adopted the Indian
culture. This is obvious from the name of means, ‘the annihilator of all kings’ proves
last Kushana king ‘Vasudeva’. During his this. Samudragupta first conquered neighboring
period the decline of Kushanas began. The kingdoms. After the conquest in the North,
Kushana empire disintegrated into pieces and he carried out expedition in the South to
the various Satrapas became independent. conquer the Southern kingdoms. During that
The Kushana rule existed in the province of period, the rule of Vakatakas was strong in
Punjab and Gandhar till 4th century C.E. southern region. Samudragupta could include
the southern part upto the region of Kanchi
Visit the below website to see the expansion of the under his dominance, except the Vakatakas.
Kushana empire : https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/
The rulers of the regions beyond his conquered
Kushan_Empire#/media/File:Kushanmap.jpg
area became his feudatories. By obtaining
10.4 Gupta Empire tribute from these kings, he made them accept
The history of Gupta empire indicates his sovereignty.
the process of transformation of a small state After this great conquest (Digvijay),
into a mighty empire. Srigupta was the Samudragupta performed Ashwamedha
founder of Gupta dynasty. His title ‘Maharaj’ sacrifice and proclaimed himself as
indicates that he was a feudatory. His son Chakravarti king. Shakas, Kushanas, and
Ghatotkach also uses the same title which kings in Sri Lanka accepted the suzerainty
means during his period also the Gupta kings of the Guptas. The image of Samudragupta
were feudatories. Chandragupta I is given the along with a lyre (Veena) on his coins
credit of expanding the Gupta rule and indicates that he was a patron of art.
transforming it into an empire. The title Chandragupta II defeated Shakas and
added to his name, titled ‘Maharajadhiraj’, ascended the throne. He took up the title
gives an idea of the increasing status of the ‘Vikramaditya’. He established his rule in the
Gupta kings. He married Kumaradevi who western regions of Malwa, Gujarat, and
belonged to the Lichchhavi clan. This Kathewar. Due to this the areas on west
matrimonial alliance proved to be politically coast also came under the dominance of the
beneficial for the Gupta dynasty. His portrait Guptas and they entered into the trade carried
with Kumaradevi is seen on a coin issued by out in the west. Later Chandragupta crossed
him. His rule was spread over in the regions Hindukush and brought the north-western
of Magadha, Saket (Ayodhya) and Prayag. provinces under his control. In this manner
King Samudragupta was the most brilliant, he established a sovereign state encompassing
valiant and benevolent ruler of this dynasty. the entire north India. He gave his daughter,
Samudragupta’s ambition was to rule Prabhavati, in marriage to the Vakataka king
entire India as an unified empire. His title Rudrasena II and created congenial relations
‘Sarvarajochchheta’ on his coins, which with the Vakatakas in the south.
71
During the period of Kumargupta, son of kings proved to be incapable of protecting

Chandragupta II, the Huna invasions in India their kingdom. Finally their kingdom was
began. Kumaragupta withheld the attacks of disintegrated into many small kingdoms.
Hunas. After Kumaragupta, the succeeding
You would like to know : Chandragupta II gave patronage to many scholars, just
like his father and had deep interest in knowledge and art. It is said that there were
‘Navratnas’ (nine gems) in his court. They were : Dhanvantari (physician), Kshapanak
(astrologer), Amarsinha (lexicographer), Sanku (architect), Vatal Bhatt (magician),
Ghatkarpura (architect/author), Kalidasa (great poet), Varahamihira (astronomer) and
Vararuchi (grammarian).
72
State administration and social life: excellent examples of their skills. Beautiful
The Gupta period is considered as the and realistic portrayal of various aspects of
Classical Age of Indian history. the king is characteristic of Gupta coins.
‘Nigam’, ‘Shreni’ and ‘Gana’ like
During the Gupta period, king was the
Organisations were established by traders
centre of administration. The Prince, Amatya
and industrialists.
(ministers) and advisors helped him. Many a
times, the Prince was appointed as Viceroy Till the Gupta period, many foreign
who looked after the provincial administration. communities, came and settled in India.
Every province was subdivided. These They were accepted in the social system.
subdivisions were called ‘Vishaya’. There Smriti texts such as ‘Narada Smriti’,
was an independent administrator appointed ‘Yajnavalakya Smriti’ were written during
on these Vishayas. They were known as this period. These texts provide a glimpse of
‘Vishayapati’. ‘Kumaramatya’ were the the social changes in this period.
provincial officers and ‘Ayuktak’ were the
officials who looked after the affairs of the For additional information : Textile
districts. Gupta administration was industry flourished during Gupta period.
decentralized. Many decisions were taken at A variety of textiles were produced on
the local level. large scale. These varieties include
The Gupta kings changed the economic Kshaum (linen), Chitrapatta (printed silk),
structure of agricultural system. Their Dukul (silk), Pulakbandh (coloured cotton),
preference was on giving the land to local Pushpapatta (floral designs), Amshuka
farmers for tilling. Land donations were also (muslin). These textiles had great demand
made for the cause of religion and learning. in internal and distant market.
These lands were tax free. They were called
The prosperity is reflected in
as ‘Agraharas’. Similarly, in this period the
contemporary sculptural art and literature.
civil and military officers were granted land
Political stability in the Gupta period,
grants instead of salaries. The roots of feudal
prosperity and royal patronage gave impetus
system, an important feature of the mediaeval
to the creation of Sanskrit literature. One of
period lie in this system. It is believed that
the best creations in Indian literature of this
this feudal economy brought about the decline
period is Kalidasa’s ‘Shakuntalam’. Human
of urban centres. Because of revenue tax
figure was the central theme of the sculptures
exemption on the donated land, the revenue
in Gupta period. Human sculptures and
decreased and royal treasures depleted. It
images of deities were created during this
was concentrated in the hands of local
period. Sculptures belonging to this period
landlords. Because of this the king no longer
are found at many places such as Sarnath,
remained in the centre of power.
Devgadh, Ajanta. During this period, Hindu,
According to the Chinese traveller Yuan Buddhist and Jain religious icons were made
Chwang, sugarcane and wheat were cultivated of stone, metals and terracotta. The Greek
in the north-western province of the Gupta influence seen on Gandhara style is no longer
empire, while rice was cultivated in Magadha seen on the sculptures of Gupta period.
and eastern regions.
During this period, the foundation of
Minerals, animals and herbs were the Indian temple architecture was laid down.
main commodities of trade that brought Use of dressed stones became common during
prosperity during Gupta period. Goldsmiths this period. The earliest remains of temples
enjoyed a high social status in this period. of Gupta period are found in places like
The gold coins during Gupta period are Sanchi, Bhumra, and Deogadh. These are a
73
few examples of the Gupta style of Hundreds of students, not only from India
architecture. but also from other countries like China,
Tibet, Korea, Japan, Shri Lanka etc. came
You would like to know : In the Gupta here. Harshavardhan’s empire was the last
period, there was remarkable progress in powerful empire in ancient India.
making alloys and casting of metals. The 10.6 Karkotaka Empire
iron pillar at Among the dynasties that ruled in
Delhi stands as a Kashmir, the Karkotaka dynasty (7-9th century
witness for this. C.E.) is mentioned by Yuan Chwang. He had
Since many been to Kashmir when he had visited India.
centuries the iron
A detailed information regarding this dynasty
pillar stands
is found in Kalhan's Rajatarangini.
without rusting.
Durlabhavardhan was the founder of
From this we
understand that
Karkotaka dynasty. His empire extended
during this period from Narmada to Tibet.
the science of The reign of Lalitaditya (Muktapeed,
metallurgy was 724-760 C.E.), the grandson of
very advanced. Durlabhavardhan, is noteworthy. He is credited
with two victorious expeditions (Digvijaya).
He drove away many foreign tribes on the
Iron Pillar : Mehrauli
northern borders of Kashmir, especially the
region in the Amudarya basin. It included the
10.5 Vardhan Empire Tukhar (Turks) as well. He conquered the
During the declining period of the regions from Avanti in the north upto
Guptas, in Nothern India there was rise of Pragiyotishpur (Assam). He conquered Tibet
dynasties such as Vardhans at Sthaneshwar with the help of Yashovarma, the king of
(Thanesar), Maukharis in Ganga Yamuna Avanti (Kanauj). After conquering the regions
Doab, Maitrakas in Saurashtra etc. upto Kaveri river in the south, he crossed the
Pushyabhuti was the founder of the Vardhan seas and reached the land beyond (Shri
dynasty. After the accession of Lanks). This is mentioned by Kalhan, which
Prabhakarvardhan, the Vardhan dynasty suggests that Lalitaditya had extended his
became powerful. He took up the sovereign empire from Tibet in the north to the river
title of ‘Parambhattarak Maharajadhiraj’. Kaveri in the south. Lalitaditya's empire is
The most prominent ruler of this dynasty was comparable to the Gupta empire. Lalitaditya
Harshavardhan. His empire extended from was a devotee of Vishnu. He built the Martand
Nepal to Narmada and Saurashtra to Bengal. temple. He set up the city of Lalitpur. Latpur,
After Harshavardhan, there was no heir to situated on the banks of river Jhelum, might
the throne under the situation the empire be the ancient Lalitpur. He built Buddhist
disintegrated and many feudatories declared Viharas at Hushkapur (Ushkur).
independent status in North India. 10.7 Trade, coinage, art, iconography
We get a lot of information about this In Indian history, the period of six
period from ‘Harshacharita’ written by centuries from 2nd century B.C.E. to 4th
Banabhatta who was the court poet and also century C.E., was the period of arrival of the
from the travel accounts of Chinese traveller Central Asian tribes and the kingdoms that
Yuan Chwang. The universities of Nalanda they established. These people adopted
and Vallabhi became the great learning various cultural traits as they came to India.
centres during harshavardhan’s reign. The introduction of these traits brought about
74
border regions of India and China. There
For Additional Information : Some
were political relations between Kushanas
Bactrian coins resemble the Greek coins in
and Chinese rulers. The legends on the
terms of their shape and weight. On some
of these coins the image of owl is seen. Kushana coins found in Central Asia are in
Owl is the symbol of Goddess Athena. Prakrit language, written in Kharoshthi script.
Athena was the main deity of Athens. This evidence indicates that people speaking
Indo-Greek coins are found in Bactria. The Prakrit language were also staying outside
Greek legends are written on the obverse the Indian subcontinent.
side and the legends are written in Prakrit. The Gandhara region had become a
Kharoshthi script on the reverse side. melting pot of Indian, Greek, Roman, Persian
and Shaka cultures. This province acquired
a transformation in the cultural life of India importance from cultural
as well. point of view. A new style
In contemporary India, agriculture and of iconography developed in
animal husbandry were the main sources of the cities of Pushkalavati,
livelihood. Along with it various industries Taxila, Purushpur etc. It is
and trade developed during this period. known as ‘Gandhara style’.
India’s contact with the foreigners proved to The theme of the sculpture
be beneficial for this. During this period also was Indian but the style was
merchant and artisans guilds (shrenis) were Greek. The Mahayana sect
in existence. During this period, India’s sea of Buddhism gave an
trade began to increase on a large scale. impetus for the development
Indian goods were sent upto the Red Sea and of this style of art. Along
from there via Egypt to Rome. From India, with the images of Gautama
animals such as tiger, lion and monkey; birds Gandhara Art
Buddha and Bodhisatva
such as parrot and peacock; wool, silk, statues of the donors are carved in stone. But
muslin, cotton cloth, ivory, pearls, spices, this style remained limited to parts of North-
sandalwood, medicinal herbs, diamonds, west India. In the icons of Gandhara style,
precious stones, and other luxury items were there was more emphasis on physical beauty.
exported and from other countries goods such During the same period, Mathura and Varanasi
as lead, copper, glass, silver, gold, wines etc. style of art developed. The images of Gautama
were imported. Due to this trade the flow of Buddha were completely Indian in nature.
gold coins was constantly coming in India Mathura was an important centre of Indian art
and hence India became prosperous. of sculpture. Portrait sculpture is the feature of
The portraits of kings and images of Mathura style of art. The statues of Kushana
deities were inscribed on the gold coins of kings, Vima Takshama and Kanishka are
the Bactrian Greeks. There was a great examples of this portrait sculpture. Similarly
impact of the Greek and Roman coins on the images of Saraswati, Vishnu, Surya, Shiva
coins of Shaka and Kushana rulers. The use and Karttikeya were created for the first time
of Kharoshthi script is seen on the Shaka during this period. The sculptural art during
coins. Kushana period was an indication of innovation
The coins of this period indicate the in the history of Indian sculpture. During this
mixed impact of Greeks, Indian and Persian period there was an effort of imprinting the
cultures. The Kushana kings depicted Indian reflection of the then society.
deities on coins. They brought in circulation 10.8 Indo-Roman trade (Trade centres
the gold and copper coins with the image of in Maharashtra)
Shiva. Kushana coins are also found in the The Periplus of Erythrean Sea written in
75
Greek language in the mid 1 century C.E.,
st
these coins found in South India gives an
mentions about the Red Sea and the sea idea of the extensive scale of this trade. The
routes connecting coastal line, ports, provinces, flourishing Indo-Roman trade gave rise to
goods exchanged in trade. Red Sea was several markets and cities. There was rise of
important for trade relations between India important ports in western India as well. The
and Rome. Among the trading commodities merchandise transported to Maharashtra were
textile, black pepper, precious stones, ivory stored at Ter, Nevasa, Bhokardan, Kondapur,
and animals such as monkey, parrot and and Sannati. The ports of Sopara and Kalyan
peacock for the entertainment of the Roman were important centres of Indo-Roman trade.
elites came to be exported from India. Gold Excavations at the archaeological sites have
coins were paid in exchange of these goods. brought forth the evidence of trade in the
Coral and liquor were also imported. The form of Roman pottery (amphorae) and red
remains of Amphorae are found in the ware. The replicas of Roman coins are also
excavations. Residues at the base of the found in the excavations. In South India,
amphora, revealed remains of wines. along with increase in trade the Buddhist
Amphoras were also used for storing olive centres were established at places such as
oil and garom (pickled fish). The price of Dharnikot, Amaravati and Nagarjunikonda.
the goods exported to Roman market was In the next lesson we are going to study
paid in gold coins. The large amounts of about the ruling powers in South India.
Exercise
Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and was concentrated in the hands of
complete the sentence. local landlords.
(1) The history of Indo-Greeks is known (2) Every tide of Huna invasion made
through their . the Gupta rule weaker.
(a) literature (b) inscription Q.3 State your opinion.
(c) coins (d) pottery Samudragupta performed Asvamedha
(2) Gupta dynasty was founded by sacrifice after Digvijaya.
.
(a) Sri Gupta (b) Ghatotkach Q.4 Write Short notes.
(c) Samudragupta (d) Ramgupta (1) Gupta Sculpture
(2) Indo-Roman Trade
(3) After accession by defeating the
Shakas, took up the tile of Q.5 Answer the following question with the
‘Vikramaditya’. help of given points.
(a) Chandragupta II How did the standardisation in various
(b) Ramgupta (c) Chandragupta I sections during the Gupta period take
(d) Kumaragupta place?
a. division of Gupta administration
(B) Find the incorrect pair and write b. changes in economic struture economy
the correct ones. of agriculture
(1) Kshaum – Linen cloth c. Development of Gupta coinage
(2) Pushpapatta – Cotton cloth
(3) Dukul – Silk cloth Activity
(4) Amshuka - Muslin cloth Collect more information about
Q.2 Explain the following statements with ‘Harshacharita’ written by Banabhatta,
reasons. with the help of internet.
(1) During the Gupta period the power 
76
11. Kingdoms in South India
11.1 Important kingdoms in South India established their rule from Pudukkottai to
11.2 Administrative system, trade, social Kanyakumari. Towards their west, the Cheras
life had created their kingdom in Kerala. They
11.3 Literature, art, architecture are mentioned as ‘Kedalaputra’ (Keralaputra/
Sons of Kerala) in contemporary literature.
In this lesson we will be introduced to These kingdoms were in constant conflict
the kingdoms in South India, their with each other to establish political suprem
administrative system, trade etc. acy.
11.1 Important Kingdoms in South In many stories of Sangham literature,
India we find mention of the first Chola king
Chola, Pandya and Chera dynasties : ‘Karikala’. He brought together eleven small
Chola, Pandya and Chera were the ancient kingdoms and built a strong army and by
ruling powers in South India. The kingdoms defeating the Chera and Pandya kings, he
in South are mentioned in Megasthenes’ established the Tamil dominance.
‘Indica’, Panini’s grammar and inscriptions Some kingdoms arose to the north of
of Ashoka. Ancient Tamil literature, known Krishna-Tungabhadra rivers. Among them
as ‘Sangham’ literature, is believed to be one Satavahanas were most powerful.
of the main sources of history of South Vakataka dynasty : The power of
Indian rulers. Satavahanas started growing weaker from
the 3rd century C.E. Vakatakas took advantage
For Additional information : of this situation and established independent
South India has a great contribution in rule. Vindhyashakti was the founder of
the history of India and its culture. Due Vakataka kingdom. After Vindhyashakti ,
to the cultural exchange between North King Pravarasena I ascended the throne. He
India and South India, the Indian culture expanded the Vakataka Empire to Malwa in
became diverse and still remained
the North and from Gujarat to South upto
united. The people living in South India
Kolhapur, Kurnool (Andhra Pradesh).
spoke Dravidian languages. Tamil,
Kolhapur was knwon as ‘Kuntala’ at that
Kannada, Malyalam and Telugu are the
time. Pravarasena I performed four
four main languages in the Dravidian
Ashwamedha sacrifices and took up the title
group of languages. ‘Brauhi’ language
‘Samrat’.
spoken in Baluchistan is a part of the
Dravidian group of languages. After Pravarasena I, the Vakataka
kingdom got divided and two main branches
Chola Dynasty : The Chola Kingdom were created. Among them, Nandivardhan
was established in first century C.E. Chola (Nagardhan-Ramtek, Nagpur district) was the
dynasty originated in Thanjavur and capital of one branch. The capital of the
Tiruchirappalli (Tamilnadu). This province second branch was at Vatsagulm, i.e. modern
was known as ‘Cholamandala’ (Coromandel Washim (Washim district).
is an anglicised form of ‘Cholamandala’). To Prabhavatigupta, daughter of Gupta
the south of Cholas, the Pandyas had emperor Chandragupta II, was married to
77
Vakataka king Rudrasen II. This is already he established his capital at Vatapi (Badami).
mentioned earlier. Varahadev, minister of His grandson Pulakeshi I was the first
Harishena, was a follower of Buddhism. important king of the Chalukyas. He built the
Cave no.16 of Ajanta was excavated at his fort of Badami. He performed the
instance. The excavation of other caves at Ashwamedha sacrifice and took up the title
Ajanta and the murals were done during the of ‘Maharaja’. He also took titles like
reign of Harishena. ‘Prithvivallabha’ and ‘Satyashraya’. After
Vakataka king Pravarasena II composed Pulakeshi I, his son Kirtivarman I came to
‘Setubandha’ in Maharashtri Prakrit. Among power. During his reign, he conquered the
many of Kalidasa’s classical works, Kadambas of Vanvasi (Karwar) and Mauryas
‘Meghadoota’ deserves special mention. of Aparanta (North Konkan) and expanded
References to historical geography of his rule. Kirtivarman was a patron of art.
Vakataka period occuring in this poetic work The beautiful caves at Badami were created
are important. by him.
Chalukyas : During the rule of Pulakeshi II was the greatest king of the
Harshavardhan in North India, the Chalukya Chalukyan dynasty. He performed the
dynasty ruled in the south for approximately Digvijaya and strengthened the power of
200 years. Jaising was the founder of this Chalukyas. His achievements are described in
dynasty. In the beginning of 6th century C.E. the eulogy (prashasti) composed by poet
78
Ravikirti. He defeated the Kadamba Pallavas and Chalukyas took place during
kings, Maurya, Nala, Kalchuri, Rashtrakuta, his period. His son Narsimhavarman defeated
Lat, Malav and Gurjara dynasties and the Chalukyan Emperor Pulakeshi II. During
established the Chalukyan rule over Vidarbha Narsimhavarman’s region, many temples
and other parts of Maharashtra and Karnataka. were built at Mahabalipuram. It includes the
The expedition of Harshavardhan to conquer monolithic temples (Rath Mandiras) as well.
the southern states was resisted by Pulakeshi Yuan Chwang, the well-known Chinese
II. He defeated Harshavardhan thereby traveller, was in his court for a certain period
acquiring great fame. After his victory he of time. The literary works by
took up the the title ‘Parameshwara’. With Narsimharvarman are important as major
the conquest in south, his empire extended source of Pallava history. The Pallava rule
from Narmada to Kaveri and from east coast ended in 9th century C.E. The Chola king,
to the west coast. His fame had reached Aditya, defeated the Pallavas and
beyond India as well. During this period destroyed it.
Badshah Khosrow Parvez ruled in Iran. It is
said that he had sent his ambassador to the
court of Emperor Pulakeshi. The Pallavas of
Kanchi defeated Pulkeshi II. Vikramaditya,
the son of Pulakeshi II, in turn defeated the
Pallavas. The struggle between Chalukyas
and Pallavas continued over prolonged period
of time. The last king of Chalukyas,
Kirtivarman, was defeated by the Rashtrakuta
king Dantidurg.
Pallavas : Around 6th century C.E. to 9th
century C.E., the Pallavas were known as the
most powerful rulers in South India. Historians
vary in their views regarding the origin of
the Pallavas. Some copperplates of the Yudhisthira Rath Temple at Mahabalipuram
Pallavas are found. There is a mention of Rashtrakutas : Dantidurga was the first
Sinhavarman and Shivaskandavarman Pallava powerful king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
who ruled over the regions of eastern coast. The rule of Rashtrakutas was spread from
Kanchi was the capital of the Pallavas. We Vindhyan ranges to Kanyakumari in the
get a detailed information of the Pallava south. After Dantidurga, his uncle Krishna I
dynasty beginning from the reign of became the king. He uprooted Chalukyas
Simhavishnu. He conquered the province of rule. The famous Kailas temple at Ellora is
Cholas and extended his rule from Krishna ascribed to Krishna I. The succeeding
to Kaveri. After Simhavishnu, his son Rashtrakuta rulers became influential in
Mahendravarman ascended the throne. He North India as well. Amoghvarsh was a
was a great scholar. He wrote the Sanskrit capable king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
play ‘Mattavilasa’. He wrote books on Amoghvarsh composed the texts entitled
subjects like music, dance, sculpture, painting ‘Ratnamalika’ and ‘Kavirajmarg’. He
etc. These art forms received patronage under established a new city at Manyakheta
him. During his reign, several temples were (Malkhed) near Solapur. The Rashtrakuta
built at Tiruchirapalli, Chingalput and in east dynasty declined because of the attacks by
and west Arkat district. The war between Parmars and Chalukyas of Kalyani.
79
of Kolhapur and Kadambas
captured some of the regions
in North Konkan. Mummuni,
brother of Chhittaraj, built the
huge temple of ‘Amreshwar
Mahadev’ at Ambarnath.
This is considered as the
beginning of the Bhoomija
style of temple architecture
in Maharashtra.
3. Shilaharas of
Kolhapur - The modern
districts of Satara, Sangli,
Ratnagiri, and Belgaum were
included in this kingdom.
Kailas Temple at Ellora Jatiga established the Kolhapur branch of
Shilaharas. Bhoj II was the important king
Shilaharas : There were three branches
of this dynasty. The cities of Kolhapur,
of this dynasty – Shilaharas of south Konkan,
Valivade and Panhala were the capitals of
north Konkan and Kolhapur. They called
this kingdom. The Shilaharas of Kolhapur
themselves as ‘Tagarapuradhishwar’ (Tagar-
are credited with the creation of the
Ter, Osmanabad district). Jimutvahan is
magnificent ‘Koppeshwar Mahadev’ temple
considered as the founder of all the three
at Khidrapur.
branches. They ruled for almost three hundred
years as the feudatories of Rashtrakutas and Gonds : The Gond dynasty was
later the Chalukyas. established at Chanda (Chandrapur) during
the Yadava period. Kol Bheel was the
1. Shilaharas of South Konkan -
founder of this dynasty. He brought the
‘Sanafulla’ established the south Kokan
people of Gond tribe together and encouraged
branch of Shilaharas. His son, Dhammiyar
them to rebel against the Naga dynasty. He
set up the village of Vallipattana and built
established the capital at Sirpur. In the later
a fort there. Later King Adityavarma
period Khandkya Ballal Singh built a fort at
expanded his kingdom from Thane to Goa.
Ballarpur and shifted the capital from Sirpur
Rattaraj was the last ruler of this dynasty.
to Ballarpur. The temple at Achaleshwar was
The history of this dynasty is known with
constructed during his period. Nilkanth Shah
the help of one of the copper plates found
was defeated by
at Kharepatan.
Raghuji Bhosale of
2. Shilaharas of North Konkan - Nagpur and the Gond
Kapardi established the north Kokan branch territories were merged
of Shilaharas. Rulers of this branch were in his kingdom. Sixty
initially the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas. two Gond kings ruled
Their capital was at Sthanak (Thane). for many centuries in
Aparajita was another important king of this Devgad, Nagpur and
branch. He ruled for around thirty five years. Chandrapur in
Chittaraj followed Aparajita as king. His Maharashtra.
brothers fought for their claim to the throne.
Queen Durgavati
The struggle of
Taking advantage of this, the Shilaharas
Queen Durgavati of
80
the Gond dynasty, against the Mughals is ‘Lilacharitra’ written by Mhamimbhatta
considered important. After the death of of the Mahanubhava sect, ‘Viveksindhu’ by
her husband, Duragavati fought against in Mukundaraj, ‘Bhavarthdipika’ by
Mughal emperor Akbar. She was not ready Dnyaneshwar belong to this period. Similarly
to surrender to him. Instead she preferred the composition of saint poets like Namadeva,
death. Janabai, Chokhoba of the Varakari sect
composed poems, which are known as
Yadavas : Yadava dynasty is one of the
‘Abhangas’. Many temples were built in this
important dynasties of mediaeval Maharashtra.
period. They are generally referred to as
Bhillam V (1185-93 C.E.) is the important
‘Hemadpanti’ temples. The Gondeshwar
king of the Yadava dynasty. He expanded
temple at Sinnar and the temple complex at
the kingdom by defeating the Kalachuris. He Anjaneri are the finest example among the
established his capital at Devgiri and got temples built during this period. An important
himself coronated. In the later period Singhan feature of the Hemadpanti temples is that no
was an important ruler of this dynasty. He mortar is used. Instead the stones are
defeated the Hoysalas, Shilaharas and interlocked with the help of mortise and
expanded the rule of Yadavas. tenon. During this period, the crucial forts of
In 1294 C.E. Alauddin Khalji attacked Ankai and Tankai were constructed.
south India. Ramadeva, the Yadava king was
defeated by Khalji. From here onwards the
Yadava rule began to decline. In 1307 C.E.
Alauddin sent his commander Malik Kafur
to carry out a campaign over Devgiri. He
defeated the Yadavas. Yadavas accepted a
feudatory status to Delhi. In 1310 C.E.
Yadava king Shankardev was killed by
Malik Kafur. In 1318 C.E. the rule of Gondeshwar Temple at Sinnar
Yadavas was brought to an end by the Delhi 11.2 Administrative system, trade,
Sultanate. social life
The Yadava period has a special In the administrative systems of South
importance in the history of Maharashtra. Indian dynasties there were officials such as
During this period there was notable ‘Mahadandanayaka’, ‘Rashtrika’,
development in the cultural sphere of ‘Deshadhikruta’, ‘Amatya’, ‘Ayukta’, etc.
Maharashtra. The Mahanubhav and Warkari The council of officers in the Chola kingdom
sects had a beginning in the Yadava period. was called ‘Udankuttam’. The kingdom was
During this period, Patan in Khandesh, divided into many provinces. These provinces
Solotagi in Karnataka and Paithan in were known as ‘Mandalam’. A member of
Maharashtra become important learning the royal family was the chief of the
Mandalam. There were many officers under
centres. During the same period, Sanskrit
him such as ‘Vishayapati’, ‘Deshadhipati’,
texts were written on subjects like
‘Deshadhikrut’, ‘Rashtrika’, etc. The
Dharmashastra, ‘Purva Mimansa’
administration of the Southern kingdoms was
(philosophical text), Nyaya and Vedanta. The
very efficient. Every order issued related to
critical work on Yajnyavalkya by Aparark, state affairs recorded down and no action
‘Chaturvargachintamani’ are among the was taken unless authenticated by the
important Sanskrit texts. ‘Sangitaratnakara’, concerned officer. Village autonomy was an
text based on Indian music, by Sharangdev important feature of the state administration
is considered relevant even today. in South India. The ‘Gramasabha’ (village
81
council) looked after the entire administration industries in South India flourished during
of the village. The head of the Gramasabha this period. Cities like Paithan, Tagar (Ter),
was known by different names such as Nashik etc. flourished because of it.
‘Gramabhojaka’, ‘Gramakuta’ etc. head of The goods produced in rural areas were
the Gramasabha was elected by the villagers brought for sale in the cities. The market
or sometimes appointed by the king. A place used to be located in the centre of the
council similar to Gramsabha functioned at city. The merchant guilds (Shreni) in South
district and provincial level. Land revenue India played an important role in trade and
was the main source of income for the state. the social system.
Apart from it the excise tax, professional tax,
11.3 Literature, art, architecture
pilgrimage tax were the sources of income.
The tradition of writing poetry and
In the kingdom of Cholas, Pandyas,
grammar was prevalent in south India from
Cheras, Vakatakas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas,
ancient times. The ‘Sangham literature’ is
Pallavas, Shilaharas and Yadavas many
supposed to be most ancient in the Tamil
professions requiring specialised skills were
tradition. This literature is one of the main
practiced. Ivory was obtained from the
sources of political history of South India. It
Malayagiri jungle. The Cholamandalam
is believed that three ‘Sanghams’ (Council)
provinces were well-known for excellent
were held.
quality textiles. Plain and coloured cotton
cloth as well as silk clothes was produced in This period was important from the point
this province. In the Chera kingdom was of view of Sanskrit literature. Kalidasa
known the fine cloth produced there. It was composed the ‘Meghdoot’ at Ramtek in
one of the important commodities in the Vidarbha. During the Vakataka rule,
Indo-Roman trade. It is mentioned in the compositions in Prakrit language were created.
travel accounts of Marco Polo. The trade and Pravarsena II, the Vakataka king, wrote the
well-known composition named ‘Setubandha’.
For Additional information : Coins ‘Harivijaya’ was composed by Sarvasena,
of South India- During the Mauryan the founder of Vatsagulm branch of
period the Maurya coins were in circulation Vakatakas.
in South India. After the decline of Two styles of architecture are seen in
Mauryas the Pandya kings issued their South India, one is the ‘Dravida’ style and
own punch marked coins. The images like other is the ‘Vesara’ style of architecture.
sun, horse, stupa, tree, fish were carved The Dravida style of architecture emerged
on it. On the Chera coins, there used to and developed in the regions from Krishna
be bow and arrow on one side and image river to Kanyakumari. The important feature
of an elephant on the other. On the Chola of Dravida architecture identified by
coins the symbol of tiger as the royal
construction of Shikhara. In this type the
emblem of Cholas is depicted. The Chola
storeys reduce in size as the Shikhara rises.
coins were made of gold, silver and the
Kailasnath and Vaikuntha Perumal temples
legends on it was inscribed in Devnagari
at Kanchi, Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore
script. The coins belonging to Chalukya
king Rajaraja are issued in three metals- are some of the excellent examples of
gold, silver and copper, with the image of Dravida style of architecture.
Rajaraja and a tiger. Due to the trade The Chalukyas built temples at places
with Rome, many Roman coins are found like Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal etc.
in this area. It is seen that the seals of During the Rashtrakuta period the world
Indian rulers are reprinted on these coins famous ‘Kailasa’ temple was created.
and again brought into circulation.
The metal statues of the Chola period
82
are the best among Indian metal sculptures. Among
them the most famous is the bronze statue of Nataraj
Shiva.
During the Vakataka period the sculptural art
and paintings reached its zenith. The Ajanta cave no.
1, 2, 16, 17, and 19 were carved out during this
period. It seems that the artists had good knowledge
about the details of physiology and nature.
Till now we studied the cultural and political
history of India. Ancient India had established cultural
relations with far away countries.
In the next two lessons we will study about the
cultural relations between India and other countries.
Bronze statue of Nataraj Shiva
Exercise
Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (2) Examples of Dravidian style –
complete the sentence. Rajarajeshwar temple, Elephanta
(1) The name of the well-known king of caves, Halebid temples, Badami
Vakatak dynasty was . temples
(a) Sarvasena (b) Pravarasena Q.3 Explain the following statements with
(c) Jaising (d) Chandragupta reasons.
(2) After the conquest in South, (1) A strong rule of the Chalukyas was
Pulakeshin II took up the title of created in south India
. (2) Yadava period has a special
(a) Parameshwara (b) Vishayapati importance in the history of
(c) Deshadhipati (d) Satyajay Maharashtra.
(3) Kalidasa composed at Q.4 Write short notes.
Ramtek in Vidarbha. (1) Administrative system in South India
(a) Shakuntal (b) Meghdoot (2) Coins in South Indian dynasties
(c) Malavikagnimitra (d) Harivijay
Q.5 Answer the following question in brief
(4) The world famous Kailasa temple with the help of points given below.
was built during the period. Describe the rule of Shilahara dynasty.
(a) Chalukya (b) Pallava (a) Founder
(c) Cher (d) Rashtrakuta (b) Shilahara of south Kokan
(B) Fine the incorrect pair and write (c) Shilaharas of north Kokan
the correct ones. (d) Shilaharas of Kolhapur
(1) Setubandh – Panini Activity
(2) Harivijay – Sarvasena
Visit the Kailasa temple at Ellora and
(3) Indica – Megasthenes
prepare a detailed note.
(4) Sangit Ratnakar – Sharangdev
Q.2 Find the odd man out in the group. 
(1) Ancient kings in South India – Chola,
Pandya, Maurya, Cher
83
12. India, Nations in the northwest of the Indian

Subcontinent and China
12.1 Trade and Cultural Relations in

never tried to impose their culture, religions
the Ancient times
and political rule on the local people.
12.2 India and Gandhara (Afghanistan
Wherever they went, they had cultural contact
and Pakistan)
and exchange with the native people and it
12.3 India and China
resulted into the enrichment of the native
cultures.
12.1 Trade and Cultural Relations in The spread of Indian culture in the
the Ancient times nations lying beyond the Hindukush mountains
So far, we studied about the transitions was mainly a result of the spread of Buddhist
in the various fields such as historical, social, religion.
financial, cultural etc., over a prolonged The Indian trade with distant lands is
period of about 4000 years. In this lesson we mentioned in the texts like ‘Kathasaritsagara’,
are going to study about the impact of the Jataka Stories, ‘Deepvamsa’, ‘Mahavamsa’,
Indian culture on the other countries. etc. These texts narrate many stories of the
It is very significant that the Indians sea travels and adventures of the Indian
travelling or migrating to other countries merchants. The Sangham literature mentions
84
the boats of the yavanas who brought gold group of merchants, who paid a visit to the
and carried back black pepper in exchange. court of the Roman Emperor Augustus.
There are a number of inscriptions reported The coin hoards found in Tamilnadu had
from the western parts of Maharashtra, that Roman gold coins in it. Many of those coins
mention the donations given by yavanas. show cuts taken for the purpose of assaying
‘Ophir’, a port city is mentioned in the (for the checking the grade of gold) the gold.
‘Old Testament’ (Bible), which is supposed It means those coins were not in circulation
to be referring to ‘Sopara’ near Mumbai. The as coinage but they were valued for its gold.
Indian teakwood and the Himalayan cedar It is said that Nero, the Roman emperor had
timber was in demand in Babylon. Beside paid one million gold coins for a single
the timber, commodities like sandalwood, chalice of emerald of Indian make. Pliny the
ivory, tortoise shells, monkeys, peacocks, elder had expressed concern about that the
pearls, precious and semi-precious stones, as Roman gold being drained into India. He
well as black pepper, cinnamon and incense compared India to an enormous sink draining
were also exported from India. A sailor’s all gold of the world. Strabo tells us that
handbook of his sea travels is known as animals such as snakes, hunting dogs, tigers,
‘Periplus of Erythrean Sea’ ( Latin name : elephants, birds like parrots and peacocks,
Periplus Maris Erythraei). The ancient port things like hides and horns of rhinoceros,
cities like Bharuch, Sopara, Kalyan, etc. are expensive textiles, pearls, ivory and spices,
mentioned in this periplus. Also the important etc. from India were in great demand among
trade centres like Ujjain are described in it. the Roman elites.
Beside the periplus there are other texts like Apart from the Roman gold coins, many
‘Geographia’ written by the Greek historian other things like lead, zinc, corals, wines,
Strabo, ‘Naturalis Historia’ by Pliny the olive oil were the Roman imports coming to
elder, ‘Geographia’ written by the Greek India. The archaeological survey conducted
mathematician-geographer Claudius Ptolemy, in the sea near ‘Bet Dwaraka’ in Gujarat, in
‘Indica’* by the Greek historian Arrian, etc., the year 2000-2001 has yielded amphorae of
which are the sources of information about various sizes, anchors, potsherds and a lead
the Indo-Roman trade. ball, etc. The amphorae were used to transport
olive oil and wines, which were imported
*Arrian was the historian of the 2nd century from Rome. There are many archaeological
C.E. He never visited India. Most of the
information in his work is derived from ‘Indica’ sites, which have yielded evidence of the
written by Megasthenes. Indo-Roman trade. It confirms that the cities
in Maharashtra like Paithan, Ter, Kolhapur*,
‘Periplus of Erythrean Sea’ mentions Bhokardan (Bhogvardhan) in the Jalana
that Hippalus, the Greek navigator had district were important trading centres.
accurately traced all the ports on the
Erythrean Sea. *Ptolemy has mentioned Kolhapur as ‘Hippokura’.
In the 1st century C.E. the Indo-Roman
trade had begun to grow. The silk route and 12.2 India and Gandhara (Afghanistan
the ports on the south and west coasts of and Pakistan)
India played vital role in this trade. The It is apparent that geographically
records of the Greek historians mention of a Afghanistan (Gandhara) was favourably
85
By the way: The crows were known also clearly indicates that the ancient
to ancient sailors as the birds who begin Indian merchants used to sail to distant
to fly in the direction of land, the moment lands.
it is in their view. The sailors used to ‘Baveru’ is identified with Babylon.
follow the crows in order to reach the Babylon was a kingdom that existed in
coast safely. Crows trained for these Mesopotamia during 1800-600 B.C.E. The
purpose were known as ‘Dishakak’. A Achaemenid emperor Cyrus II conquered
Harappan terracotta tablet shows a boat Babylon in 539 B.C.E.
and dishakaks flying above it. This story confirms that ancient Indian
The story of ‘Baveru Jataka’ offers a merchants used to carry birds like crow
testimony to the use of dishakak by ancient and peacock for selling.
Indian sailors to reach the coast. This story
situated on the trade route that linked India Kushana Emperor Kanishka and Post-
and Central Asia. It had close cultural Kushana Period : Kanishka’s empire had
connections with India from the ancient spread from Pataliputra in the east to Kashmir
period of janapadas till the introduction of in the north and further to Central Asia.
Islam. Whether it were the invaders from the Purushspur (Peshawar) and Mathura were the
Central Asia, or the Buddhist monks sent out two capitals of his empire. Ancient Kapisha
by Emperor Ashoka , or the Chinese monks (Begram) was an additional capital of the
travelling to India, all had to pass through Kushanas, which was located on the silk
Afghanistan. route at a vantage point. The trade route
Emperor Ashoka’s Period : We have from Afghanistan to China was under the
seen that the 13th edict of Emperor Ashoka rule of Kushanas. This route starting from
mentions the names of Greek kings, who Taxila extended further, crossing through
were his contemporaries. It also mentions Khyber pass to Bamiyan in Afghanistan and
that people in their kingdoms were following from there to China through the plateau of
the path of morality as outlined to his Pamir.
message of Dhammavijaya. Among these In the Kushana period, Buddhism reached
kingdoms was included the kingdom of China by this trade route. Some of the coins
Kamboja in Afghanistan. of emperor Kanishka carry the image of
The Ashokan edict at Kandahar is in Gautama
Greek language and the script used for it is Buddha. It also
Aramaic. This inscription shows that has a legend
Afghanistan was the integral part of Ashoka’s which reads,
empire. ‘Boddo’. This
Ashoka had sent ‘Thera Mahyantika’ is the oldest
Gold coin of Kanishka representation
(Majjhantika) to Kashmir and Afghanistan
and ‘Thera Maharakkhita’ to the Greek of Gautama
(Yona) kingdoms, for spreading the teachings Buddha in an image form on a coin.
of Gautama Buddha.
86
The Chinese monks like Fa-Hien, Yuan The building of the vihara complex at
Chwang, who travelled through India have Takht-i-Bahi had begun in the 1st century
described the Buddhist viharas and stupas in C.E. The work was continued till 7th century
India. There are numerous remains of viharas C.E. Among the remains discovered there are
and stupas in Afghanistan. Among them a three stupas and other buildings.
place called ‘Shahji-ki-Dheri’ near Peshawar Apart from these remains in Afghanistan,
in Pakistan was excavated. The importance the famous ‘Bamiyan statues of Buddha’ are
of the stupa discovered at this place is declared as the World Cultural Heritage.
underlined by the fact that it was built during Bamiyan is 250 kilometres away from Kabul,
Kanishka’s period. It is also known as to the west of it. There are about 750 caves
‘Kanishaka’s Stupa’. According to prevailing hewn out in one of the cliffs of the mountain
tradition, the sacred remains in the box ranges known as ‘Kuh-e-Baba’. There were
(karandaka) found there are of Gautama very beautiful Buddhist murals painted inside
Buddha. The box has an inscription. It also these caves. The same cliff has two huge
mentions the name ‘Agnishala’, the main niches dug in it. In these niches were built
supervisor of the building work of ‘Kanishka two standing Buddha statues in stucco. One
Vihara’, in the precints of ‘Mahasena of it was 53 metres tall the other was 38
Sangharama’*. This box is in the Peshawar metres. The core of these statues was carved
museum at present. out in the original sandstone of the cliff. The
core was plastered with several layers of
*Sangharama means the residential complex built mud mixed with straw. The folds of Gautama
for the bhikkhus. Buddha’s robes were modelled in this clay
plaster. His forearms were supported with the
The ancient ‘Nagarhar’, modern ‘Hadda’
help of wooden armatures and fixed with
near Jalalabad in Afghanistan was another
wooden pegs. According to Yuan Chwang
important centre of Buddhism. There are
the statues were surrounded by colourful
several remains of stupas and viharas
murals and even the statues were painted and
scattered over the place. The sculptures found
decorated with gold coating and precious
around the stupas are excellent specimens of
stones.
Gandhara style. ‘Takht-i-Bahi’ is another
important place, which is enlisted as ‘World These statues were destroyed by Taliban,
Cultural Heritage’. It is in the Pakhtunkhwa a fundamentalist organisation in 2001 C.E.
province of Gandhara region. It is a part of The government of Afghanistan, with the
Pakistan now. help of UNESCO and various associations
from countries like Japan, France, Switzerland,
etc. is working to restore this World Cultural
Heritage. Some of the murals inside the
Bamiyan caves were rediscovered, when the
work of restoration began. Also, remains of
a 19 metres long ‘Mahaparinibban’ image of
Gautama Buddha were found.
According to Yuan Chwang’s description
there was a library of rare Buddhist
manuscripts at Bamiyan. Archaelogists have
A Sculpture from a stupa at Hadda indeed found birch bark and palm leaf
manuscripts in a Bamiyan vihara.
87
further to Central Asia, linking one oasis
to the other in the desert. It was easier for
the merchants and travellers to find
facilities of accommodation and food in
the oasis cities. They also found ready
market for their merchandise. Another line
crossed through the steppes to the north of
this main line. Journey on this line was
relatively shorter. However, it was rarely
used by merchants as it was infested by
troublesome pastoral tribes and it hardly
have any accommodation and food facilities
Bamiyan Buddha images en route.
The Silk route that continued from the
Some images of Hindu gods and Xinjiang province of China bifurcated into
goddesses have also been found in two lines and both reached Taxila. One of
Afghanistan. Among them is an image of it reached the Gandhara region from the city
Ganesha found near the city of Kabul. This of Kashgar in Xinjiang and the other reached
image is dated to 4th century C.E. and it is Kashmir via Leh from Yarkand in the same
the earliest image among the extant Ganesha province. The Chinese monks used the same
images. It may be noted that even in India route to reach India. An internal line to the
an image of Ganesha, as ancient as this one north of the Xinjiang line started from the
is not found. There is one temple called province of Gansu (Kansu) and reached
‘Khair Khana’ near Kabul. The excavations Kashgar. The famous ‘Great Wall of China’
at this site have yielded an image of God is in this province.
Surya mounted on a chariot.
A detailed review of all the Buddhist By the way : Some Chinese texts
and Hindu remains in Afghanistan is not mention Kashmir by the name of ‘Ki-
possible in this book. However, the above Pin’. Some texts have mentioned the
examples are enough to confirm the close ancient city of Kapisha (Begram) in
cultural association between the Gandhara Afghanistan by the same name.
Chinese literature mentions India
region and India before the advent of Islam.
variously as ‘Shen-tu’, ‘Tien-chu’,
12.3 India and China ‘Tien-tu’, ‘Xien-tu’, ‘Yuan-tu’, ‘Xuan-
The route that links Asia and Europe tu’, etc. Among all these names the
was referred for the first time as the ‘Silk name Yin-tu has prevailed in China
Route’ by Ferdinand von Richthofen, German till today.
geographer. The silk route runs more than In China the kings of ‘Han’
6000 kilometres. One may have an impression dynasty were ruling, when Kanishka
that the silk route is an unbroken highway. ruled in India.
However, in reality this route is an intricate Sir Aurel Stein, the British
web of major and minor lines bifurcating and archaeologist was the first to conduct
crossing each other. an archaeological survey on the silk
One of the major lines of this route route traversing through India, China
and Central Asia.
linked China and India and then extended
88
It was in the 1 century C.E. that
st
Buddha and Bodhisattvas. This art style that
Buddhism began to spread from India to originated in the Xinjiang province is known
China. The ‘Han’ dynasty that arose in China as ‘Serendian Art Style’ (Seres meaning
in this period had expanded its empire up to China + India). Serendian Art Style was
Central Asia. They dominated the silk route. influenced by Gandhara art. It presents a
Keeping in with the tradition ‘Ming-ti’ the combination of Greek, Persian and Chinese
second king of the Han dynasty had sent his art forms. During the exploratory survey
representatives to India. They returned to conducted by Sir Aurel Stein many terracotta
China accompanied by two Buddhist monks, sculptures of Serendian style were brought to
‘Kashyapa Matang’ and ‘Dharmaraksha’ in light.
67 C.E. They carried many Buddhist texts In the 4th- 6th century C.E. many Buddhist
with them. The texts were loaded on white temples and viharas were built in China.
horses. After reaching China the monks However, stupas built in this period were
translated the texts in Chinese language. The very few. Instead of a stupa every temple
Chinese emperor built a temple in their had a pagoda of Chinese style. These pagoda
honour, which is known as ‘White Horse being wooden, hardly any of them exists
Temple’. This is the first Buddhist temple today. These pagodas used to have multiple
built in China. floors. The upper floors of the pagodas
In the 3rd century C.E. the rule of the successively reduced in size. The uppermost
Han dynasty ended and the period of floor held a metal staff (yashti), which was
disintegration and unrest began with it, fixed with metal rings that became
pushing common people to a state of successively smaller in size. Arrangement of
desperation. This period lasted till 6th century staff and the rings seems to be the only
C.E. People got attracted to Buddhism in reminder of the Umberella in the Indian
this period in large numbers. Many Chinese stupa architecture. Later, pagodas were built
pilgrims began to visit Buddhist centres in by using bricks and stones.
Central Asia and India. In the 4th century The influence of Buddhist art tradition
C.E., Kumarjeeva the famous and highly from India still exists in the form of rock-cut
learned monk translated many Buddhist texts caves. Three of them have received the status
in Chinese language. In the 6th century the of World Cultural Heritage. Among them the
popularity of Buddhism reached its peak in caves of ‘Dunhuang’ are located on the
China. By this time both sects of Buddhism, ancient silk route. These caves are known as
Theravada (Hinayana) and Mahayana, and ‘Mogao Caves’. Creation of these caves
their sub-sects were well established in China. continued till 13th-14th century C.E.
In 7th century C.E. Islam and Christianity The merchants coming from the
were gradually introduced. Kubalai Khan, the interior regions of China used to gather at
grandson of Genghis Khan had great interest Dunhuang. It was an important meeting point
in Buddhism. for the Chinese merchants and those coming
The spread of Buddhism in China in the from other countries. Nearly 500 caves of
1 century C.E. also introduced a new trend
st
Dunhuang are enriched with numerous
in the Chinese art. Many of the Mahayana sculptures and murals. Thousands of
Buddhist monks who arrived in China, hailed manuscripts were discovered from these
from Central Asia. Their presence in China caves.
inspired the making of images of Gautama
89
In the next lesson we will briefly its history and the extant traces of Indian
review the spread of Indian culture in Sri culture in those countries.
Lanka and the countries in Southeast Asia,
Exercise
Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and Q.2 Complete the concept map.
(1) The coin hoards found in Jataka Stories
had Roman gold coins in it.
(a) Tamilnadu (b) Maharashtra
(c) Karnataka (d) Kerala Texts describing the
(2) The famous king Hammurabi had Indian trade with
ruled the kingdom of . distant places
(a) Syria (b) Babylon
(c) China (d) Greece
(3) The route that links Asia and
is referred as the ‘Silk Route’.
(a) Europe (b) Africa Q.3 Explain the following statements with
(c) America (d) Russia reason.
(4) ‘White Horse Temple’ is the first (1) Buddhism reached China during
Buddhist temple built in . Kushana period .
(a) India (b) Japan (2) The merchants rarely used the shorter
(c) China (d) Egypt line of the Silk Route.
(B) Find the incorrect pair and write Q.4 Give your opinion.
the correct ones. There were close cultural association
(1) Strabo – Geographia between the Gandhara region and India
(2) Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia before the advent of Islam.
(3) Hippalus – Hippokura
Q.5 Write short notes.
(4) Arrian – Indica
(1) Shahji-ki-Dheri
(C) Write the names. (2) The Bamiyan Buddhas
(1) A place in the Gandhara region
Q.6 Answer the following question with the
enlisted as a world Cultural heritage.
help of given points.
(2) Buddhist monks in the 4th century
Write about the ties between ancient India
B.C.E. who translated many Buddhist
and China.
texts in Chinese language
(a) Trade relations
(b) The spread of Buddhism in China
(c) Serendian art style
Activity
Collect more information about the ‘Silk
Route’ with the help of internet.

90
13. India, Shri Lanka and Southeast Asia
13.1 India and Sri Lanka sermon from Thera

Mahinda, the King and
13.2 India and Southeast Asia
all the subjects
accompanying him
13.1 India and Sri Lanka became the followers
The history of Sri Lanka and India has of Buddhism.Anula,
remained close-knit from ancient times. the wife of king’s
‘Deepvamsa’, ‘Mahavamsa’, ‘Chullavamsa’ younger brother wished
are the three texts that tell us about the to become a Bhikkhuni.
Indian and Sri Lankan dynasties, their mutual On hearing of her
relations and the historical events, in the wish, Thera Mahinda
times before and after Gautama Buddha. suggested that his sister
These texts are known as ‘Vamsagranthas’. Theri Sanghamitta
According to the Vamsagranthas, the (Sanghamitra) may be
first kingdom of Sri Lanka was established invited from India, for
in the 6th century C.E. and was known as the purpose.
‘Tambapanni (Tamrapanni)’. Another name Statue of Accordingly, Theri
Devanampiya Tissa Sanghamitta arrived in
of the kingdom was ‘Rajrat’. Greek historians at Mihinthale
have mentioned it as ‘Taprobane’. According Sri Lanka. She brought a
to the tradition, King Vijaya, the founder of branch of the ‘Bodhi’
this kingdom was a prince from the Vang- tree along with her. King Devanampiya Tissa
Kalinga kingdom in India. He first went to welcomed her personally. Theri Sanghamitta
Supparaka (Sopara) on the west coast of initiated Anula into the Buddhist Sangha.
India from Vang-Kalinga and from there Anula was the first woman to became a
reached Sri Lanka. Buddhist nun. With Anula’s initiation, Theri
Sanghmitta established the first Bhikkhuni
For further information of the ancient Shasan (Bhikkhuni Sangha) of Sri Lanka.
kingdoms and important ports in Sri Lanka,
visit the following web site.
The festival known as ‘Unduvapa Poya’*
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anuradhapura_ is celebrated every year in Sri Lanka, on the
Kingdom#/media File:Important_ locations_of_ full moon in the month of December, in the
Anuradhapura_Kingdom.png memory of Theri Sanghamitta’s arrival.
Thera Mahinda (Mahendra), son of * ‘Unduvapa Poya’ means full moon in the month of December.
Emperor Ashoka arrived at Mihinthale, near
Anuradhpur, the capital of Sri Lanka. He The important cultural places in Sri
initiated (pabbajja/pravrajjya) King Lanka
Devanampiya Tissa of Sri Lanka to Buddhism. Anuradhpur - Mihinthale : Thera
This event has been described in great details Mahinda and Theri Sanghamitta stayed at
in the vamsagranthas. After listening to the Mihinthale near Anuradhpaur. It facilitated
91
the establishment and spread of Buddhism in as a memorial to his queen. These temples
Sri Lanka. are the most ancient Hindu temples in Sri
Important stupas at Anuradhpur- Lanka.
Mihinthale : ‘Kantakchetiya’ is one of the The supremacy of the Cholas in Sri
earliest stupas at Mihinthale. An inscription Lanka was ended by Vijayabahu.
near the stupa mentions that the revenue Parakramabahu, a descendant of Vijayabahu,
collected from a nearby tank and the who ruled in 12th century C.E. is supposed
surrounding land was reserved as a gift for to be historically an important king. The
the maintainance of this stupa. Buddhist sanghas in Sri Lanka had become
The stupa erected on the remains disrupted by the time of Parakramabahu. He,
(Shareerik Dhatu/asthi) of Thera Mahinda at under the guidance of Mahathera Kassap,
Mihinthale, is known as ‘Ambasthal Thupa’. focused on reorganising them.
Parakramabahu had routed the
kingdom of Ruhuna in Sri Lanka. This
kingdom had a tooth of Gautam
Buddha (dantdhatu) in their custody. It
was reclaimed by King Nissanka
Malla. He built a temple on it in
Polannaruwa.
There is a stupa at the centre of the
temple. At the foot of the stupa is a
semicircular step, which is characteristic
of the stupa architecture of Sri Lanka. It
Thuparama
is called, ‘Moonstone’ (Chandrashila). It
King Devanampiya Tissa erected a stupa is carved with the figures of swans,
on the relics of Gautama Buddha in elephants, horses and creepers.
Anuradhpur. It is known as ‘Thuparama’.
Thuparama is the earilest stupa among those
that are extant in Sri Lanka.
Buddhaghosha was an Indian philosopher.
He stayed ‘Mahavihara’ in Anuradhpur.
‘Vishuddhimagga’ a text written by him is
well-known. ‘Vishuddhimagga’ is the text,
which is honoured as an equivalent of
Tipitaka texts. ‘Moonstone’ (Chandrashila)
Pulatthinagar (Polannaruwa) : The city Galapotha (Book in stone) is a unique
of Polannaruwa is mentioned in Chullvamasa inscription recording the reign and
by the name, ‘Pulatthinagar’. In the 10th achievements of Nissanka Malla. It is
century C.E. the Chola emperor Rajraja I inscribed on a stone slab that is 8.17 metre
attacked Sri Lanka and razed Anuradhpur long and 1.39 metre wide. On one side of
completely. Then he established his capital the galapotha an image of Gajalakshmi is
at Polannaruwa. He renamed Polannaruwa as carved between two borders of a row of
‘Jananathmangalam’ and built a Shiva temple swans.
there. Later he built one more Shiva temple
The temple of dantdhatu at present is in
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the city of ‘Kandy’. It is known as ‘Sri
Dalad Maligava’. This temple is enlisted as
the World Cultural Heritage.
Galapotha
Mural of Sigiriya
By the way : The relics of (corporeal
remains) Gautama Buddha were handed By the way : The inscriptions
over to various sanghas in India and found in Sri Lanka, dated to the 3rd
other counries after his mahaparinibbana. century B.C.E. to the 1st century C.E.
These relics are known as ‘dhatu’. are inscribed in the Ashokan Brahmi
According to ‘Deegha Nikaya’ a script. Researchers opine that the modern
‘dantdhatu’ was given in the custody of Sinhala script gradually developed from
the king of Kalinga. Later this dantdhatu the Ashokan Brahmi.
reached Sri Lanka.
‘Lalitvistar’, the Buddhist text
A deep belief was rooted in Sri enlists 64 Indian scripts. The Brahmi
Lanka that a royal house holding the script is one of it. The scripts used in
custody of the dantdhatu had the divine Sri Lanka and many other countries in
right to rule. As a result the ruling kings Southeast Asia were developed from it.
of Sri Lanka strived to see that it
remains in the precincts of their palace.
Consequently the seat of the dantdhatu 13.2 India and Southeast Asia
kept changing from time to time. There are very few references in the
Indian literature to the Indian settlements and
Dambulla and Sigiriya : The caves at kingdoms in Southeast Asia. However, the
Dambulla in Sri Lanka are declared as court records of Chinese emperors provide
World Cultural Heritage. There are images considerable information in this regard. The
of Gautama Buddha and the Bodhisattvas ancient Indian literature refers to the land of
inside the caves. The roofs of five caves at Southeast Asia as ‘Suvarabhumi’ (the Land
Dambulla are decorated with paintings. of Gold).
There is an enormous rock in the The trading relations between India and
mountains near the city of Dambulla. A fort Southeast Asia began in the 1st century
and a palace was built on this rock. At its B.C.E. and continued through the 1st century
entrance a huge image of a lion was carved C.E. The strait of Malacca was convenient
in the rock. The place was named ‘Sigiriya’ for the Indian merchants to enter the South
after this lion. Sigiriya murals are compared China Sea. They unloaded their merchandise
with the murals at Ajanta. on the western coast of Malya Peninsula,
93
from there transported it to the east coast by new lands they visited. Traces of Indian
land route and again loaded it on the boats. culture can be seen there even today.
This was easier than proceeding along the Myanmar : ‘Myanmar’ is a neighbouring
coast all the way. This trade by the sea and country of India, adjacent to its northeast
land route grew to a great extent under the border. It was earlier known as ‘Brahmdesh’.
rule of Chola kings at the end of the 10th In the 2nd century B.C.E. there were city
century C.E. states known as ‘Pyu’ in the north and
The term ‘Southeast Asia’ was coined in central regions of Myanmar. Some new Pyu
the times of the second world war. The cities came into existence at a later period.
Buddhist texts mention a ‘Suvarnabhumi’. Among them the cities of ‘Halin’ and
The scholars divide Southeast Asia into two ‘Shrikshetra’ were important.
parts based on its geographic features : Shrikshetra (near the city which was
1. The Mainland - This region is also known as ‘Prome’ during the British period
known as Indo-China. It comprises the and presently known as ‘Pyay’) was the
countries of Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, largest among the ‘Pyu’ cities. According to
Laos, Vietnam and also the western region the prevailing tradition the two brothers, who
of Malaysia. 2. The Maritime region - It were the founders of Shrikshetra hailed from
comprises the Malaya peninsula, the eastern the Shakya clan of Gautam Buddha. The
region of Malaysia as well as Indonesia. kingdom of Pagan (Bagan) arose in Myanmar
Although all these regions are included under in the 1st century C.E. and by the 11th century
a single umbrella name as Southeast Asia, it it grew into a great empire. All the Pyu city
is necessary to keep in mind the local states including Shrikshetra were merged into
diversity of cultural and historical constitution the empire of Pagan.
of each region. King Anawrahta the founder of ‘Pagan
empire’ is known as the greatest ruler in the
Southeast Asia – for additional information history of Myanmar. He is credited with the
visit the following web sites : unification of the north and the south
(1) http://www.world-maps.co.uk/continent-map- Myanmar. This unification is supposed to
ofsouth-east-asia.htm have given Myanmar its national identity.
(2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_Empire# Anawrahta put a check to the increasing
/media/File:Map-ofSoutheast-asia_900_CE.png) power of the Khmer empire of Cambodia.
During his reign the ‘Thervada Buddhism’,
The contact of Indians with various which had grown weaker, was revived.
regions in Southeast Asia was on the increase The remains of the fortifications and
because of trade during the 2nd century B.C.E. moats around the three Pyu cities of Halin,
to 2nd century C.E. The merchants who had Beikthano and Shrikshetra can be seen even
to travel for months together were naturally today. The archaeological excavations at the
accompanied by a large retinue of priests, sites of these cities have brought into light
monks, also travellers who were out to test many remains of buildings of those days,
their luck, ambitious members of royal stupas, cemeteries and the structures built for
families etc. These were the people who water management. The three sites have been
proved instrumental in the spread of Indian declared as the World Cultural Heritage.
culture in Southeast Asia. Some of them The ‘Shwedagon’ pagoda built between
even established independent kingdoms in the 6 - 10th century C.E. at Yongan (Rangoon)
th
94
is looked at as the finest example of the Thailand : The ancient Thai people
stupa architecture in Myanmar. It is said that referred to their country as ‘Mueng Thai’.
two merchant brothers had visited India and However, it was known in the world as
they had the fortune of meeting Gautama ‘Siam’. In the 20th century its name was
Buddha in person. At that time they had changed to ‘Thailand’. Thailand was ruled
received 8 hair of the Buddha from himself. from the 6th to the 11th century by ‘Mon’
After returning to their motherland they people. At that time it was known as
handed over the hair to the king. The king ‘Dvaravati’. Indian culture was introduced
erected a stupa on the hair and it came to and spread in Thailand in the ‘Dvaravati’
be known as ‘Shwedagon’ pagoda. This period. The Indian traditions of sculpture,
pagoda is covered with sheets of gold. literature, ethics, judicial science, etc. had a
great role in shaping up the Mon culture.
Compared to other kingdoms in Southeast
Asia the kingdom of Dvaravati was smaller
and weaker. However, it contributed greatly
to the development of writing, arts,
administration, religion and science, etc. in
the other kingdoms. The remains of sculptures
and architecture of the Dvaravati period have
been found in the vicinity of the cities like
Lop Buri (Lao Puri) and Ayuttha (Ayodhya).
Shwedagon Pagoda
The ‘Anand Temple’ is another important

monument built during the reign of Kyanzittha,
the emperor of Pagan in the 11th century C.E.
It is the finest example of the combined
architectural style of India and Pagan.
Dvaravati style of temple architecture
The Dvaravati Sculptures show a great

influence of Indian sculptural style. Primarily
it includes Buddha images, but a few
Shivalingas and images of Vishnu are also
found. The sculptural art of Cambodia is
supposed to have originated from the
Anand mandir Dvaravati art style.
95
In the 14 century C.E. a new kingdom
th
skilled artisans. Arieal photography has
of Ayuttha was established in Thailand. In confirmed this description. The excavations
the 18th century it was completly razed by conducted by the French archaeologist Louis
the rulers of Myanmar. It was burnt by the Malleret have brought to light remains of
conquerors. All of its sculptures, libraries, temples built in brick masonry, workshops of
temples were completely burnt. making jewellery, residential houses, etc.
The kings of Ayuttha bore names with Roman coins of 2nd century C.E. were also
the prefix ‘Ram’. The popularity of Ramayana found.
may be the reason behind it. Thai Ramayana
has been developed into an independent * Mekong river originates on the plateau of Tibet
and flows through the Yunnan province of China,
tradition. It is known as ‘Ramakien’ (Ram Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and in the
Akhyana). The stories of Ramakien have end Vietnam, where it merges into South China Sea.
been preserved in all Thai art traditions
including sculpture, folk music, dance and 2. Champa : ‘Champa’ was an ancient
theatre. kingdom in the coastal region of Vietnam.
Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia : In the Several Sanskrit inscriptions in Brahmi script
colonial period Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, have been found there. Champa was named
these three countries together were known as after the ‘Cham’ tribe. The names of the
‘Indo-China’. cities in Champa* were ‘Indrapur’,
During the 8th - 12th century C.E. the ‘Amaravati’, ‘Vijay’, ‘Kauthara’ and
Mon and Khmer people ruled over Cambodia. ‘Panduranga’. The city of Vijay was the
Khmer empire originated in Cambodia. capital of Champa kingdom. The inscriptions
of Champa mention the names of it kings
and queens and the temples of Hindu deities
For the reference of map visit the following
web site: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
built by them, especially Shiva temples.
File:Bandovietnam-final-fill-scale.svg Wooden images of Gautama Buddha have
also been found. This evidence indicates the
1. ‘Funan’ : This was a kingdom in existence of more city states like Funan in
Vietnam which existed in the Delta region of Vietnam, which were trade centres from
the river Mekong*. Funan is known mainly where various types of merchandise were
through the Chinese records. The ‘Han’ imported and exported.
dynasty ruled in China in the 3rd century C.E.
When the rule of Han dynasty was ended, To see the names and the map of Champa visit the
following web site: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
China disintegrated into three parts. Because
wikipedia/commons/4/45/VietnamChampa1.gif
of it the southern kingodom of China was
not left with any alternative path to reach During the span of 4th - 14th century C.E.
the silk route. Hence, the king of the southern Shaiva temples were built in the kingdom of
kingdom sent some people to explore the sea Champa. These temples are built in a valley
route. They found a kingdom in the delta known as ‘My Son Valley’. The temple of
region of the Mekong. They named it ‘Funan’. ‘Bhadreshvara’ is supposed to be important
According to their description, Funan was a in this group. Once there were more than 70
city with fortification, a place, well-established temples at My Son. In the walled courtyards
revenue system, laws, system of record of these temples many stone tablets with
keeping in written form, and a class of inscriptions are erected. These inscriptions
96
are in Sanskrit and Cham languages. In the Buddhism is the main religion in Laos. The
same precincts are found burials of the cultural and literary expressions of people are
members of the royal families. It seems that influenced by the stories of Gautama Buddha’s
My son was the ceremonial complex, reserved life and Ramayana. Especially, this influence
for the royal families. The site of My Son is conspicuous in the sculptural and
is declared as the World Cultural Heritage. presentations of performing arts, which are
The characteristic aspect of the frequently based on the themes from these
architectural style of My Son temples is that sources. ‘San Sinxay’ is an epic composed
it is imagined in the form of ‘Meru Parvata’. in the 16th century in Laos. It is popular, not
only in Laos but also in Thailand. Its main
plot is quite akin to the story of Ramayana.
4. Cambodia : Cambodia was known
as ‘Kambujadesha’ in ancient times. Its
history is known from the inscriptions
installed in the precincts of its temples. These
inscriptions are in Sanskrit and Khmer
languages. The first kingdom, established in
Cambodia was known by the name of
‘Chenla’. The people who established Chenla,
were known as ‘Khmer’. The influence of
Indian culture in Cambodia dates back to the
Chenla period. The kingdom of Chenla was
established by Jayavarman II. He was
coronated in 802 C.E. His capital’s name
was ‘Hariharalaya’.
In the span of next 500 years the kings
Sculptural model of My Son Temple
of Chenla expanded their empire from
Vietnam to Myanmar and to China in the
The war that was continued for 20 years north. It came to be known as the Khmer
in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia is known empire. After King ‘Jayavarman VII’ the
as ‘Vietnam War’. The vicinity of My Son Khmer empire began to decline. In the 15th
temples got damaged to a great extent century C.E. the Khmer empire was ultimately
because of this war. rooted out completely.
3. Laos : Loas is a landlocked country. The reign of Suryavarman II in the 11th
The population of Laos is mainly composed century and that of Jayavarman VII was
of the ‘Lao’ people who came to Laos from proved beneficial for temple architecture.
southern China. The name of the kingdom of The world famous temple of ‘Angkorwat’
Laos was ‘Lao Sang’. This kingdom was in was built in Yashodharpura, the capital city
existence during 14th-18th century. Lao Sang built by Suryavarman II. The temple area is
was attacked by Thailand in the 19th century. about 500 acres, that is about 2 Sq.Kilometers.
Lao Sang could not survive the attack. In The main entrance is at the west and the
the latter half of the 19th century the French temple is surrounded by a moat, which is
established their administrative centre in 200 metres in depth. Among the sculptural
Vientiane, the capital of Laos. panels on the southeast walls of the temple
Like other countries in Southeast Asia, the panel of ‘Samudramanthan’ is notable.
97
Angkorwat Temple
After the death of Suryavarman II, Heritage by UNESCO.

Angkorwat was attacked by the king of Malaysia and Indonesia : Before the
Champa. He caused considerable damage to arrival of the Europeans, there have been
the temple. Later, it was turned into a three kingdoms in Malaysia. The ‘Vayu
Buddhist temple. Purana’ mentions Malay peninsula as
Jayavarman VII built a new capital, ‘Malaydvipa’. The Chinese Bhikkhu I-Tsing/
‘Angkorthom’ near Yashodharpura, the first Yi-Jing (7th century C.E.) had visited the
capital of the Khmer empire. He was a ‘Malayu’ kingdom. Ptolemy has mentioned
Budhhist. The planning of Angkorthom city, Malayu as ‘Maleu Kolon’ and ‘Golden
its water management and architecture are Chersonese’ (golden peninsula). An inscription
the indicators of the advanced Khmer style. in the Brihadishvara temple in Tanjore
The temple of ‘Bayon’ was built at the centre mentions it as ‘Malaiyur’. Malayu was one
of Angakorthom. Bayon temple represented of the kingdoms conquered by the Chola king
‘Mount Meru’. The planning of the temple Rajendra. The Chinese court records also
and the city represents the mythological story mention ‘Malayu’.
‘Samudramanthana’. The temple at the centre 1. Srivijaya : This kingdom proved to
is supposed to be the churner. There are be more powerful among all kingdoms who
statues of gods and daityas, the rivals of competed with each other. This kingdom
gods, standing at both sides of the southern originated in Sumatra. Malayu and other
gate, churning the ocean with Mount Meru neighbouring kingdoms who were weaker
as the churner. The moats around the city than Srivijaya were gradually merged into it.
are linked to two lakes called ‘East Barray’ In the 11th century C.E. Srivijya became
and ‘West Barray ’. These two lakes are the weaker while facing the Chola invasion. In
source of water for the moats, and also for the 14th century C.E. ‘Parameswaran’ alias
Angkorthom as well as for Angkorwat and ‘Eskandar Shah’, the last king of Malayu
other temples in the vicinity. City gates of established the first sultanate of Malaya.
Angkorthom are known for their Shikharas, 2. Majapahita : In the 13th century C.E.,
which are in the form of a smiling human in Eastern Java, arose a kingdom known as
face of enormous size. The faces are built ‘Majapahita’. This was the last kingdom,
by assembling stones that are cut as different with Indian cultural traits. The name of the
parts of the face. founder king of Majapahita was, ‘Vijaya’.
Angkorwat, Angkorthom and its vicinity King Vijaya was successful in sacking Kublai
have been declared as the World Cultural Khan from Java. He established his
98
A group of Hindu temples on the Dieng
For additional information : plateau in Central Java was built in the
I-Tsing/Yi-Jing had stayed in Sumatra Shailendra period.
before coming to India and also on his
4. Matram : There was a kingdom
return journey to China. He studied
called Mataram contemporary to Shailendra.
Sanskrit grammer during his stay in
Its founder king’s name was Sanjaya. During
Sumatra. He has mentioned the
the period of Matram kingdom, ‘Mahabharata’
kingdom of Sumatra by the name of
‘Shili Foshi’ (Srivijaya). The king of and ‘Harivamsha’ were translated in Javanese
Srivijaya had sent him to Malayu. He language. Poems in ancient Javanese language
stayed in Malayu for two months. are composed in Sanskrit metres like
Before returning to China, he again ‘Shardulvikridita’. Poems composed in metres
stayed in Malayu for two months. He are known as ‘Kakvin’.
mentions that in the intervening period The shadow puppetry show known as
of twenty years between his first ‘Wayang’ is a famous performing art of
arrival and return journey the name of Indonesia. This show is presented by using
Malayu had changed to Srivijaya. cut-outs from leather or wood. Stories of
According to his description there were Mahabharata and Ramayana are presented
more than a thousand Buddhist on the stage by the artists in this show.
Bhikkhus in Srivijaya studying Sanskrit. There are also some forms of ‘Wayang’
played by human characters.
For additional information : A

number of inscriptions have been
discovered in Sumatra. They are written
in the ancient Malayu language and the
script used for it is Pallava Brahmi (a
form of Tamil Brahmi script).
supremacy in some of the islands like Java,

Bali and also some other islands and extended
the kingdom of Java into an empire. Its
Wayang Puppets
existence came to an end with the rise of
Islamic states in the 15th and 16th centuries.
The Shaivaite temples, and Jaina temples
3. Shailendra : According to some were akso built in Indonesia. The group of
Indian historians the Shailendra kings hailed temples in Prambanan is important. This
from India. However, this opinion is not group has been accorded the status of World
accepted by all historians. The Shailendras Cultural Heritage. The main temple in this
reached the peak of their political power in group is known as ‘Candi* Prambanan’ or
the 8th - 9th centuries. The shailendra kings ‘Candi Lara/Rara Jonggrang’. It was built by
were followers of Buddhism. They built many King Daksha. This is a temple dedicated to
Buddhist temples and stupas. Among them Siva and it has a beautiful image of Goddess
the stupa of ‘Borobudur’ is unique for its Durga in it. Local people call her Lara/Rara
architecture, sculptural art and its expression Jonggrang.
of Buddhist philosophy. It has been enlisted
as World Cultural Heritage. * Candi means temple.
99
Thus, so far, we have studied the history The history from the beginning of the
of cultural impact of India in several other Christian era in the ancient period to the
countries. Spread of Buddhism and Indian medieval age is the history of cultural
trade facilitated the spread of Indian culture. exchange between India and other countries.
For additional information : The base of every platform is decorated

According to Buddhist philosophy the with sculptures all around. There are
universe exists at three planes : (1) niches with images of Gauthama Buddha
Kamdhatu ( Bondage in the form of in it. On the third plane, there are three
desire) (2) Roopdhatu (Bondage in the circular platforms, which have stupas
form of physical appearance and with latticed structure along the edges of
appelations) (3) Aroopdhatu (State of the platforms. There are images of
being beyond any bondage). The Gautama Buddha inside the latticed
architectural design of Borobudur Stupa stupas. The last platform has a stupa in
is based on the concept of these three its centre. This stupa is built in solid
planes. The first two planes have masonry. The grand stupa of Borobudur
platforms that successively reduce in size. was built around 800 C.E.
Borobudur Stupa
100
Exercise
Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (C) Write the names.
complete the sentence. (1) Son of Emperor Ashoka -
(1) Buddhaghosh was an Indian (2) Ancient kingdom in Laos -
in Sri Lanka. (3) Kingdom of ‘Cham’ people -
(a) Thinker (b) Philosopher (4) Last king of Malayu -
(c) King (d) Priest Q.2 Write short notes on -
(2) The founder of Pagan empire was (1) Chenla kingdom
. (2) Visnhu temple at Angkorwat
(a) Kyanzittha (b) Anwrahta (3) Majapahit kingdom
(c) Ayuttha (d) Jayavarman (4) Champa kingdom
(3) The ancient name of Cambodia was Q.3 Answer the following questions in detail.
. (1) Explain the spread of Indian culture
(a) Kambuja Desh (b) Laos in Thailand.
(c) Angkorwat (d) Sumatra (2) Write about the cultural
(B) Find the incorrect pair and write interrelationship between India and
the correct ones. Myanmar.
(1) Finest example of stupa architecture Activity
in Myanmar - Shwedagon pagoda Find out the names of World Cultural
(2) Saivaite temples in Champa kingdom Heritage in this lesson. Collect their
- My Son pictures with the help of internet. Prepare
(3) The world famous temple in a chart by using the following points :
Cambodia - Angkorwat Name of the heritage, place and country.
(4) The centre of Angkorthom - Dieng
Temples 
101
14. Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom
14.1 Political conditions in India

Pallavas etc.; thus Chola empire expanded its
14.2 Arab and Turkish invasions
boundaries. After the decline of
14.3 Alauddin Khalji and Yadavas of Harshavardhan’s empire many big and small
Devgiri
kingdoms came into being in North India.
14.4 Trade and Commerce There was constant struggle for power among
14.5 Urbanisation these kingdoms. There was no power, who
14.6 Art, architecture, literature, social could have control over the rulers of these
life kingdoms. The Turkish invaders took
14.7 Vijaynagar Empire advantage of this political instability of India
14.8 Bahamani kingdom in 13th century. During this period many petty
rulers existed such as Chauhans of Rajasthan,
Pratiharas and Gadhwals (Rathod) of Kanauj,
The transition of ancient period to
Chandellas of Bundelkhand, Parmars of
mediaeval period is reflected in various
Malwa, Kalachuris of Gorakhpur, Kalachuris
sectors. This transition took place in all fields
of Tripuri (Madhya Pradesh), Chalukyas
including political, social, economic, religious
(Solanki) of Gujarat, Palas of Bengal etc.
and cultural.
They did resist the invasions of the Turks
individually but they did not unite for it.
Do you Know?
14.2 Arab and Turkish invasions
An era ending at a particular date
and the era beginning from the next is Muhammad bin Qasim of Ummayad
not what happens in reality. Some dynasty attacked Sindh in the year 712 C.E.
traditions of the earlier era continue to He conquered the entire region from Sindh
exist while new traditions are being to Multan. After Muhammad bin Qasim, the
formed. Accordingly the historic period Arabs rule in India grew instable.
was roughly divided into various periods, In India, the Islamic rule was established
such as : Early, Mediaeval and Modern. by the Turks. They attacked India several
It is difficult to draw a line between times. None of the rulers in India could
two eras as the contexts of the beginning successfully resist them. The Turks looted
and the end of two eras may differ enormous wealth from India. Many kingdoms
from place to place and time to time. were destroyed and Islamic rule was
established.
In the 11th century, Sultan Sabuktigin of
14.1 Political conditions in India Ghazni in Afghanistan attacked King Jaipal
Some of the royal dynasties of ancient of Punjab. His kingdom was spread from
period continued to rule during the mediaeval Hindukush mountains to the river Chenab.
period while new dynasties arose. The Chola After the death of Sabuktgin, his son Mahmud
kingdom in South India had expanded into became the Sultan of Ghazni. He invaded
an empire during the mediaeval period. King India for seventeen times (1001 to 1018 CE)
Vijayalaya defeated the rulers like Pandyas, with the aim of looting and spreading Islam.
102
Khyber Pass
For Additional Information : One period Mahmud Ghazni, Babur, Nadir

needs to cross Hindukush to enter Shah, and Ahmed Shah Abdali also came
Pakistan from Afghanistan. This route to India via this pass. In the 20th century
goes across Khyber Pass. This pass has the British built a railway line with its
proved to be very important in Indian last destination at a place called ‘Jamrud’
history. During ancient period, the trade near Peshawar in Pakistan. Jamrud is the
between India and Central Asia was doorway of Khyber pass. This railway
carried via this pass. After the Persian track runs about 52 kilometers. There
Emperor Darius, Alexander came, to are 34 tunnels and 92 small and big
India, via this pass. During mediaeval bridges on it.
After Mahmud of Ghazni, the series of Sindh to Bengal. The Indian rulers could be
invasions of Muhammad Ghuri on India defeated easily by the Turkish invaders
began. He was very ambitious. Along with because of internal dissent, lack of centralised
looting India, his main intention was to power, lack of unity, lack of a standing army
establish his rule in India. The Rajput king in addition to the cruel and aggressive war
Prithviraj Chauhan opposed him. Two wars strategies of the invaders.
were fought between the two rulers. They are Muhammed Ghuri appointed one of his
known as ‘Battles of Tarain’. Prithviraj slaves, Qutubuddin Aibak to administer the
Chauhan was defeated in the Second battle province of Delhi and surrounding regions.
of Tarain. After this defeat there was no After the death of Muhammad Ghuri,
such powerful king who could hold the Qutubuddin Aibak became the first Sultan of
Rajputs together. Muhammad Ghuri succeeded Delhi. He is the founder of the ‘Slave
in establishing the Turkish Empire from Dynasty’.
103
14.3 Alauddin Khalji and Yadavas of necessary to keep the newly increased army
Devgiri and its officers busy by planning new
After Qutubuddin Aibak, Iltutmish came campaigns. All these factors were responsible
on the throne of Delhi. After his death, his for his campaign in the South.
daughter Razia became the Sultan of Delhi. After the Khalji dynasty, the Tughluq
Since childhood Razia was trained in state dynasty ruled Delhi. In this dynasty, the
affairs by Iltutmish. She was a capable ruler reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq proved to
and concerned with the welfare of her people. be important. The shifting of the capital to
She also lead some military campaigns. She Devgiri and changes in the coinage system
was the first and the only woman to ascend proved to be the major reasons for his failure.
the throne of Delhi. After Razia, Balban was He was the first Sultan to issue copper coins.
an important Sultan who ruled Delhi. As a policy matter, perhaps Muhmmad-bin-
After the end of the slave dynasty, the Tughluq was right in his decisions. However,
Khalji dynasty came to power. Alauddin when it came to the implementation of those
Khalji attacked Yadavas of Devgiri and policies he overlooked the ground realities
collected enormous wealth. such as transport and communication, adverse
Devgiri was a prosperous city in the effect on the trade and resultant unrest among
South. King Ramadevarai Yadava was ruling the subjects, this decision became unsuccessful
over Devgiri. Alauddin attacked Devgiri in and he again shifted the capital back to
1296 C.E. In face of the sudden attack Delhi. The prestige of the Sultan and the
Ramadevarai took shelter in the fort of kingdom declined due to his erroneous
Devgiri (Daulatabad). Alauddin seized the decision.
fort. He plundered the city. There was an Taimur was the Mongol* ruler in Central
acute shortage of food in the fort. Finally Asia. He invaded India during the period of
Ramadevarai had to sign a treaty with him. Naseeruddin Mahmood and brought an end
Alauddin conquered nearby provinces of to the Tughluq dynasty. During Muhmmad-
Devgiri as well, and collected a large booty bin-Tughluq’s absence in Delhi, the Mughals
as part of the treaty. captured Punjab and they reached up to
During 1312 C.E., Alauddin once again Delhi.
turned his attention towards south as During this period an important incidence
Ramdevrai, the ruler of Devgiri had stopped * The Mughal rulers in India claimed to be the
paying the tribute to Alauddin for some time. descendants of the Mongols in Central Asia.
Alauddin sent his Commander, Malik Kafur,
to South. There were political and economic took place in the South. Muhammad Tughluq
reasons behind this campaign. The most did succeed in building his Empire in South.
important reason was to subdue the Yadavas But during the same period, two other
and to collect tribute from them. Alauddin kingdoms arose in the south, the Vijaynagar
had increased his army in size. He was the and the Bahamani kingdom. The establishment
first Sultan to set up a permanent standing of Vijaynagar posed a strong challenge to the
army on a large scale. He devised some new Sultanate.
economic reforms for controlling the market After the Tughluques, the Sayyed dynasty
prices. These new measures created a heavy ruled over Delhi. After Sayyed, the Lodi
strain over the state treasury. It was also dynasty was established. Ibrahim Lodi proved
104
to be the last Sultan. He had earned many
enemies because of his nature. His Afghan The goods were further transported to
Sardars also went against him. Daulat Khan, various ports via land or river ways. From
the Subhedar of Punjab, approached Babur, the there it was sent by sea route to countries
ruler of Kandahar and Kabul, for help against like Iran, Arabia, China etc. The goods
Ibrahim Lodi. In 1526 C.E., Babur defeated mainly included cotton cloth, muslin, dyed
Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat and cloth, scented oils, indigo, sugar, cotton, dry
the Sultanate period came to an end. It was ginger etc. Horses were imported to India
the beginning of the Mughal period. from Iraq, Turkey and Iran. Semi precious
14.4 Trade and Commerce stones, mercury, lead, alum, saffron, metals
Agriculture was the main occupation of like gold and silver were imported from
majority of people during the Sultanate
period. Agricultural production and its revenue You would like to know : Amir
were the main sources of revenue. Along Khusrow was a well-known poet and
scholar who composed poetry in the
with it, textile industry also flourished on
Persian language. He spent his life in
large scale. Delhi, Agra, Lahore, Multan,
the court of Sultan Balban in Delhi.
Banaras, Patna, Khambayat, Burhanpur, While describing the muslin of Dhaka,
Devgiri were the main centres of textile he says, “the Muslin is so fine that
industry during this period. The cotton cloth even if hundred yards are tied around
was exported on a large scale from Bengal the head, one could still see the hair.”
to Gujarat. The textile exports included He says further, “Hundred yards of
muslin, linen cloth, satin and jari cloth. muslin can pass through the hole of a
needle, but the same needle cannot
During this period, the textile dyeing
make a hole in the cloth.” This shows
industry gained importance. Golconda,
the fines of craftsmanship of those days.
Ahmedabad, Dhaka, etc. were the centres of
this industry. During this period various
other industries also flourished such as metal Mecca and Aden.
industry, sugar industry, leather works etc. During the Sultanate period there were
The manufacturing of paper began during major changes in coinage system. Instead of
this period. Paper was made out of rags and images of deities on the coins, the names of
tree barks. Paper manufacturing was carried the Khalifa and the Sultan were inscribed on
out in the regions of Kashmir, Siyalkot, the coins. Details regarding the year of issue,
Delhi, Gaya, Bihar, Bengal and Gujarat. place of minting etc. were inscribed on it in
During the Sultanate rule, there was an the Arabic script. ‘Tola’ came to be considered
increase in the internal trade of India. The
local markets operated through weekly
markets (Bazaar) and market places (Mandi /
Mandai). There was rise of new trade centres
(Peth) due to continuously expanding
transactions of trading. The Indian as well
as foreign traders picked up their goods from
the trading centres at Delhi, Multan, Jaunpur,
Banaras, Agra, Patna etc. Coins of Muhmmad-bin-Tughluq
105
communication increased considerably. The
By the Way : Some of the Sultans cities developed because of it.
carried out some experiments in the
14.6 Art, architecture, literature, social
economic sector. Alauddin Khalji
life
attempted to bring the markets under
royal control. The prices of grains, The Sultanate period left its impact on
vegetables, fruits, day to day the religious and cultural life as well as it
commodities as well as slaves, horses did in the political life. Some new facets
were standardised by the central were added to the field of Indian art. For
administration. The traders were obliged example, Razia Sultan encouraged the
to sell their goods at a standard price. musicians and singers by honouring them
During famines the government provided with awards. Balban himself was a musician.
essential commodities at regulated He created new Ragas by continuing the
prices in the market. The farmers and Iranian music with Indian music. Amir
traders were asked to set aside the Khusrow, Amir Khas and many other poets
grains for house consumption and to and musicians were honoured members of the
sell the rest to the government at a low royal court of Balban.
price. In this process, the farmers were The Sufi saints have greatly contributed
the ones who suffered the most. to the development of Indian music. The
followers of Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti used
as a standard unit for the weight of the coin. to present ‘Qawwali’ every evening in the
14.5 Urbanisation court of Delhi. It became a popular form
The rise and fall of the cities depend on of vocal music. Hussain Shah Sharukhi
its political and cultural graph of events. The developed the Khayal style of vocal music.
process of urbanisation is associated mainly The Islamic rulers built huge mosques,
with political and economic development. dargahs, and tombs. It presents a beautiful
The rulers play an important role in the blend of Iranian and Indian architecture.
settling and development of a city. According Qutubuddin Aibak was the first ruler to have
to the Arab historian, Ibn Khaldun, trade started building monuments in this style,
gains momentum as a result of conducive which is known as Indo-Islamic architecture.
policies of the ruler. Some cities gain He built ‘Quwwat-i-Islam’ mosque at Delhi.
importance as administrative centres while Qutub Minar at Mehrauli is a well-known
others gain importance as industrial centres. example of Islamic architecture. The
During the Sultanate period, the process construction of Qutub Minar bagan during
of urbanisation received momentum. At the the reign of Qutubuddin Aibak and completed
end of the 13th century Delhi developed as during the period of Iltutmish. Later, many
the capital of the Sultans. Alauddin Khalji buildings were built in the precincts of Kutub
of the Khalji dynasty built the city of ‘Siri’. Minar. Among them are the ‘Alai Darwaza’
The Sultan of Tughluq dynasty set up three and Jamalkhan mosque built by Alauddin
cities namely, Tughluqabad, Jahanpanha, and Khalji. Firoz Shah Tughlaq built Fatehabad
Firozabad. The Sultans of Sayyed and Lodi and Hisaf-i-Firuz. He built many forts,
dynasty made the city of Agra as their bridges, dharamshalas and canals. The
capital. During this period many small and buildings built by the Sultans of Tughlaq
big kingdoms existed and the nature of their dynasty were huge but simple.
capitals was similar to small and big cities. The Sultans of Delhi encouraged literary
Trade and sources of transport and activities as well. During the Arab period
and the reign of Sultans, many important
106
(primary school) and Madarasas were
established.
14.7
Vijaynagar Empire
At the end of
13 th
century,
Alauddin Khalji’s
invasions, the
coffers of local
rulers in South
India were emptied
to a great extent.
This was the time Krishnadevaraya
when Harihara and
Bukka established new kingdom of
‘Vijaynagar’ in 1336 C.E. During the rule of
king Krishnadevaraya the kingdom expanded
into an empire spreading from South Konkan
in the west to Vishakhapatnam in the East
Qutub Minar and Krishna river in the north to Kanyakumari
in the south. Krishnadevaraya wrote a text
Sanskrit texts were translated in Persian entitled, ‘Amuktamalyada’ which is about the
language. Al-Beruni, who came to India State and Policy.
during the period of Mahmud Ghazni, studied The Italian traveller Nicolo Conti and
Sanskrit language and translated many
Persian traveller Abdul Razzaq had visited
sanskrit texts in Arabic language. Many
Vijayanagar. Their travel reports give fair
writers and poets found patronage in the
account of the history of Vijayanagar.
court of the Sultans. Many scholars from
countries like Syria, Arabia, Iran, etc. used 14.8 Bahamani kingdom
to travel to India during this period. Tuli In 1347 C.E. some of the Sardars in
translated the text of ‘Koshashastra’. During south revolted against Sultan Muhammad
the Sultanate period many historians rose to Tughluq under the leadership of Hasan
fame. Among them some names were Hasan Gangu. They captured the fort of Daulatabad.
Nizami, Ziauddin Barani, Afif Yahya etc. Hasan Gangu took up the title, ‘Alauddin
During this period the Persian, Arabic and Bahamatshah’ and established the Bahamani
Turkish language gave rise to a new language kingdom.
called Urdu in South India.
Hasan Gangu established his capital at
During the Sultanate period, the Muslim Gulbarga in Karnataka. He focused on the
society in India comprised people of various expansion of his kingdom. During the period
origin like Turks, Ulemas, Mughals, Arabs, of Bahamani rule, the Prime Minister (Vazir)
and the Indian Muslims. Most of the Sultans Mahmud Gawan strengthened the kingdom.
were Turks or Pathans. An independent class
He paid the soldiers with fixed salary instead
of Amirs and Umravs (nobility) came into
of Jahagirs (land grants). The land revenue
existence. During this period, many Maktabas
was fixed based on land measurement.
107
Gawan was interested in mathematics Bijapur, Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar and

and medicine. He had a large personal Qutubshahi of Golconda.
collection of books, and established Madarasa In 1565 C.E., in the battle of Talikota,
at Bidar, because of which he stands apart these five ruling houses came together under
from his contempories. the Bahamani leadership and defeated the
After the death of Mahmud Gawan, the emperor of Vijayanagar and the Vijayanagar
Bahamani court was divided into different Empire came to an end.
factions. The conflict among them affected The Sultanate period had far reaching
the kingdom adversly. The conflict with the effects on political and social life of India.
Vijaynagar kingdom had also taken a toll on A new culture developed as the effect of
the political strength of the Bahamani synthesis between Islamic and local Indian
kingdom. The provincial Governors began to traditions. After the end of the Sultanates, the
operate more independently. This led to the Mughal Empire was established in the north.
disintegration of the Bahamani kingdom into We are going to study about it in the next
five small ruling houses - Imadshahi of lesson.
Varhad, Baridshahi of Bidar, Adilshahi of
Exercise
Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (c) Amir Khusrow
complete the sentence. (d) Husen Shah Sharukhi
(1) The royal poet in the court of (2) The first ruler who built the buildings
Balban was . in Indo-Islamic style of architecture
(a) Al-Beruni (b) Tuli was .
108
(a) Ferozshah Tughluq Q.4 Explain the statements with reasons.
(b) Qutubuddin Aibak (1) The Arab rule did not expand in
(c) Alauddin Khalji India
(d) Akbar (2) The Rajput rulers had to accept
(B) Find the incorrect pair and write defeat in front of the Turkish
the correct ones. invaders.
(1) Rajasthan – Chauhans Q.5 State your opinion.
(2) Kanauj – Patiharas The textile industry flourished during the
(3) Bundelkhand – Chandelas Sultanate rule.
(4) Tripuri – Paramars Q.6 Write short notes -
Q.2 Write in correct chronological order (1) Khyber Pass
(1) Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated in (2) Coins during Sultanate period
the second battle of Terain. Q.7 Anwer the following question with the
(2) Muhammad Tughluq shifted the help of given points.
capital from Delhi to Devgiri.
Write down the information about the
(3) Sabuktigin, the Sultan of Ghajni,
invasion of Alauddin Khalji on Yadavas
attacked king Jaipal of Punjab.
of Devgiri with the help of points given
(4) Qutubuddin Aibak became the first
below.
Sultan of Delhi.
(a) Reasons of invasion
Q.3 Complete the following concept map. (b) Invasion and events
(c) Effects of invasion
Buildings in Islamic Activity
style during the
Sultante period Collect information about the Hindi
movie Razia Sultan and critically
evaluate it from Historical point of view.

109
15. India during Mughal period
capable of facing the onslaught of new

15.1 Mughal rule in India
challenges. The Indians were not familiar
15.2 Reforms in revenue system with modern weaponry. Taking advantage of
15.3 Art, architecture, literature all this, the Mughals established their rule in
15.4 Trade, industries, social life India.
15.5 Mughal Empire and Deccan
For Additional Information:

The period of Delhi Sultanate was the ‘Mughal’ or ‘Mogal’ are the corrupted
first phase of Islamic rule in India. We have forms of the Persian word ‘Mongol’. The
studied this phase in lesson 14. Ibrahim Lodi Mughals had come from Central Asia.
was the last Sultan of Delhi. He died while They were the descendants of Mongol
fighting with Babur. After that the Delhi ruler Genghis Khan and Turkish ruler
Sultanate came to an end and the Mughal Taimurlang. The Mughals held great
rule was established. After the decline of the pride in their ancestry. The stories of
Sultanate, the Mughal rule dominated the Taimur’s attack on India inspired Babur
political scene during 1526 C.E. to 1707 C.E. to carry out expedition in India. Babur
During this period most of north and central was born in Uzbekistan. He was the king
India and some parts of the Deccan were of Farghana province in Central Asia.
under their control. The Mughal period was He defeated the Lodi Afghans of North
prosperous as far as the development in the India and established the Mughal rule in
fields of art and literature, administrative India. The Mughals ruled over India for
system, foreign relations, trade etc. are more than three centuries.
concerned.
15.1 Mughal rule in India The grand army of Ibrahim Lodi could
not survive in front of Babur in the battle of
In the beginning of the 16th century, the
Panipat. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi on the
political condition in India was somewhat
strength of configuration skills, strong
disturbed. The Sultanate rule had begun to
artillery, system of secret intelligence and
decline after Muhammad Tughluq. The Delhi
strong leadership. Babur established his rule
Sultanate broke down completely and many
in Delhi. The Rajput kings came together
new independent kingdoms emerged in the
under the leadership of Mewar King Rana
North, Central and South India. The Bahamani
Sangha to counter him. Babur defeated the
kingdom got divided into five branches. The
Rajputs in the Battle of Khanwa. After
prosperous Vijaynagar empire was destroyed
Babur, his elder son Humayun ascended the
by the five Islamic ruling houses in the
throne. But Humayun was deprived from the
South. During the same period Portuguese
kingdom due to the defeat at the hands of
began to settle on the western coast of India.
Shershah Sur of Bihar.
The traditional military system of the Indian
rulers in the mediaeval period was not Shershah Sur made some reforms in the
110
administrative set up. He brought together the the Mughal rule has to be strengthened in
Afghan sardars scattered in North India and India then he had to adopt non-offensive
established the Afghan rule. The descendants policies, which would be popular.
of Shershah were not efficient. Hence after After Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan and
the death of Shershah, Humayun regained his Aurangzeb ruled efficiently. Aurangzeb
lost kingdom. attempted to expand his empire in the Deccan
After Humayun, his son Akbar ascended with prolonged campaigns. Aurangzeb reign
the throne. He proved to be the greatest is notable for his wars in frontier provinces,
Mughal Emperor because of his qualities his political policies in North and south India,
such as high intelligence, tolerance, firmness staunch religious policies, and the Mughal-
and courage. The kingdom established by Maratha conflict. This period is marked by
Babur was transformed into a great empire the expansion of Maratha kingdom,
by Akbar. He established his rule from Kabul interference by the Europeans in the political
to Bengal and Kashmir to Varhad-Khandesh. affairs of India and the decline of Mughal
During this period, Rana Pratap, the ruler of power. Finally, the aftermath of the struggle
Mewar, put up a strong resistance against of Independence in 1857 C.E., saw the end
Akbar. Akbar could never win a war with of the Mughal rule under Bahadur Shah.
Rana Pratap. Hence for the expansion of the 15.2 Reforms in revenue system
empire, he adopted the strategy of persuasion Akbar made further reforms in the
with the Rajputs. Akbar had realized that if revenue system implemented by Shershah
111
Sur. This bought a certain discipline in the
Mughal revenue system. He graded the
cultivable land based on systematic land
survey. The land was classified into four
types on the basis of annual yield, i.e. fertile
(supik), infertile (napik), irrigated (bagayat)
and dry crop (jirayat) land. Individual land
holdings of farmers were registered. An
average of the annual yield in the last ten
years was calculated and one third of this
average yield was fixed as the base for the
tax to be paid. The tax, thus fixed, was
applicable for the span of ten years. This
offered considerable respite to farmers for a Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri
span of ten years. Documents known as
‘Kabulayat’ and ‘Patta’ were prepared from of ‘Baburnama’. The art of painting received
the farmers after the fixing of the tax rate. encouragement during the period of Akbar.
The tax was collected in cash or in kind. He appointed skilled painters in his court.
The farmers were sanctioned loans for tilling During the period of Jahangir, paintings were
the land, which could be repaid in installments. done based on the court and hunting scenes.
Concessions were also granted to the farmers The paintings of this period were done in a
during times of calamities like famine, floods, more realistic style, which is vibrant and
and epidemics. These were the Welfare attractive. These paintings, portray birds and
policies of Emperor Akbar. Todarmal in animals, cloud formations, human figures,
emperor Akbar’s court is known for his and natural scenery.
insights regarding the welfare of common
people. His insights were instrumental for
Akbar’s land reforms.
15.3 Art, architecture, literature
The reign of the three emperors, Akbar,
Jahangir and Shahjahan was a period of
peace, order and prosperity. A new era began
in the field of art and architecture. The
etched designs on the marble walls of
Mosques, tombs and palaces are an evidence
of the highly advanced styles of art and
architecture. The carved designs on the tombs
of Salim Chisti at Fatehpur Sikri and Taj
Mahal are its paramount examples. During
the period of Akbar and Jahangir the art of
ivory carving received royal patronage. The
Mughal paintings originated from the Persian
styles of painting. There are miniature
paintings of Persian style in the manuscript Mughal Painting
112
For Additional information : In here and arranged huge festival of lights

1758, the army of Afghan King in his honour, for which one lac rupees
Ahmadshah Abdali, was pushed back were spent. This occasion was arranged
beyond the boundaries of Attock by on the onset of the year known as
Maratha army. After driving away Abdali, ‘Bahudhanyasamvatsar’. This opened
the Marathas camped at Shalimar garden great future for Raghunath Rao.’’
in Lahore. Riyasatakar G.S.Sardesai in On 21 April 1758, the Maratha
Marathi Riyasat Vol.4 states that, Sardar Hari Raghunath Bhide wrote a
“Dadasaheb (Raghunathrao Peshwa) has letter to the Peshwa in Pune regarding the
captured Lahore. The old palace of the Punjab campaign. He states, “the army
Emperor is located outside the city in of the Deccan had previously not marched
Shalimar garden. Adina Beg made up to Delhi, but now it has marched up
arrangements for the stay of Dadasaheb to Chenab.”
During the Mughal period, the art of The influence of Persian style of
music seem to have received royal patronage. architecture was more prominent till Akbar’s
During the period of Akbar, the Persian, period. In the later period it evolved by
Kashmiri, Turkish musicians were given royal absorbing Indian elements, which came to be
patronage. Tansen was a great singer in the known as ‘Indo-Islamic’ style of architecture.
court of Akbar. During this period the The architectural style during Sultanate period
Hindustani music prospered. During the had great implements on strength and
period of Jahangir and Shahajahan, music simplicity. But during the Mughal period, the
was encouraged as well. However under focus shifted to aesthetics. During the period
Aurangzeb’s rule art declined, since he had of Babur the Kabulbag mosque at Panipat
banned all art forms. and Jama Masjid at Sambhal in Uttar
Pradesh were built in Persian style. The
By the way : During the period of memorial built during the period of Shershah
Sur at Sahastram (Bihar) is an excellent
Aurangzeb, the royal patronage to the
example of Indo-Islamic style of architecture.
art of painting was withdrawn. The
The Purana Qila was built by Shershah at
artists were forced to seek patronage
Delhi. The city of Fatehpur Sikri was set up
elsewhere under various rulers in
during Akbar’s period. Later the buildings
Rajasthan, Bundelkhand, Gujarat and
like Jama Masjid, Buland Darwaza were
the provinces of Himalayan ranges. New
built in Fatehpur-Sikri. Akbar built the
local styles of paintings emerged there,
important forts like Agra fort, Lahore fort,
which are known as ‘Rajasthani’ and
Allahabad fort, and Attock fort. The use of
‘Pahari’ paintings. The ‘Ragamala’,
Red stone and marble, huge domes, arches
‘Baramas’ paintings depict the different were the salient features of the architecture
seasons in nature. The painters of Pahari of this period.
style depicted various themes apart from
The Mughal Emperors were nature
daily life, such as religious, historic etc.
lovers. They created huge gardens. Among
Later, various styles such as ‘Basauli’,
them the Shalimar garden at Lahore, Shalimar
‘Gadhwali’, and ‘Kangra’ emerged out
garden and Nishat garden in Kashmir are
of the Pahari style of painting.
popular even today.
113
Persian which include ‘Rajatarangini’,
‘Lilavati’, ‘Ramayana’, ‘Mahabharata’,
‘Harivamsh’ and ‘Panchatantra’. Abul Fazal
wrote the famous ‘Akbarnama’ and ‘Ain-i-
Akbari’. Dara Shukoh, the son of Shahjahan,
was a sanskrit scholar. He translated text of
several Upanishada texts in Persian language
from Sanskrit. During the Mughal period,
number of biographical, historical texts were
written. Among them Khafi Khan’s ‘Tarikh-
i-Khafikhan’ is well-known.
During the Mughal period, a number of
Shalimar Baug, Lahore
literary works of high quality were created
in local north Indian dialects. To mention a
The period of Shahajahan was the most few, ‘Ramacharitamanas’ written by Goswami
glorious period of Mughal architecture. Tulsidas, the compositions of Surdas and
‘Diwan-i-Aam’ and ‘Diwan-i-Khaas’ in Red Meerabai, Padmavat composed by Malik
fort, ‘Jama masjid’, ‘Moti Masjid’, were built Muhammad Jaysi, dohas of Saint Kabir.
during his period. The ‘Taj Mahal’ of Agra 15.4 Trade, industries, social life
built by him is incomparable and immortal. During the Mughal period, the
Later, the Mughal architecture began to transportation of goods within the empire had
decline. become speedy. New highways were built for
internal trade. Highways were built from
Agra to Kabul, Kandahar, Khambayat,
Burhanpur and Bengal. The foreign trade via
sea route was mainly carried out from the
ports on western coast such as Khambayat,
Bharuch, Surat, Dabhol and Calicut.
The Indian merchants traded with
merchants from Arabia, Iran, China, Armenia
and some countries of European continent.
Silk, carpets, indigo, leather items, sugar,
ginger, asafoetida, precious stones and many
such items were exported to foreign countries
Taj Mahal from India. The goods imported to India
included gold, silver, horses, China silk etc.
During the Mughal period excellent During the Mughal period, the Indian
literature was created in Persian language. textile industry flourished. Indian cotton cloth
Babur himself knew Persian and Turkish had great demand in the regions of Arabia,
languages. His autobiography known as East coast of Africa, Egypt, Myanmar,
‘Baburnama’ is well-known. Another Malacca etc. The dyes for textiles were made
important text is ‘Tarikh-i-Rashidi’ by Mirza at Agra. Colours were mainly prepared from
Hyder written during the period of Humayun. indigo, turmeric, lac, Kusumba (dried flowers
Akbar got many Sanskrit texts translated in of safflower) etc. Weapons and farming
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philosophy, agriculture, politics, and
astronomy. During the Mughal period, a
For Additional information :
The foreign trade flourished to a great number of Madarasas were established at
extent during the Mughal period. Sambhal (Uttar Pradesh), Ahmedabad
Exports from India were larger than (Gujarat) etc. In South India cities like
the imports. Many commodities Ahmednagar, Gulbarga, Burhanpur, Bijapur,
including silk cloth, precious stones, Golconda, and Hyderabad had also become
spices etc. were exported from India famous as learning centres. There was a
while the imported goods mainly Madarasa established at Ahmednagar by
included luxury items. The foreign Saint Tahir. The libraries in Madarasas use
traders had to pay for the Indian to have a special staff appointed for its
goods in the form of silver. Hence maintenance.
India received silver every year in
15.5 Mughal Empire and Deccan
large quantities. Edward Terry, an
European states, “Just as rivers meet During the rule of Babur and Humayun
the sea and stay there similarly the boundaries of the Mughal empire had no
tide of silver from all over the world extended beyond North India. The main
comes to India and does not return.” ruling powers to the South of river Narmada
were Sultan of Khandesh, Nizamshahi of
Ahmednagar, Adilshahi of Bijapur and
equipments were the main products of casting Qutubshahi of Golconda. Akbar led a
industry. The copper and brass vessels were campaign against Nizamshahi.
in demand on large scale. The province of In 1595 C.E. Akbar seized the fort of
Bihar was famous for paper production. Ahmednagar. During that time, Chand Sultana
Paper was produced from silk. Siyalkot was (Chandbibi), the daughter of Nizamshah,
famous for white paper. Salt and sugar successfully resisted the attack with courage
production were important industries of this and intelligent strategies. After her death the
period. Mughals conquered Ahmednagar, the capital
During the Mughal period, most of the of Nizamshahi. Akbar personally came down
population stayed in villages. Every village to South and divided the conquered province
was self-sufficient. The law and order was into three Subhas namely- Ahmednagar,
managed and the daily needs were met at Varhad and Khandesh. While Akbar was
the village level. During this period, there engaged in the southern campaign, Prince
were no major changes in the social Salim rebelled against him and Akbar had
organisation which was based on caste to wind up his campaign hastily. During the
system. period of Shahjahan, the Nizamshahi kingdom
During the Mughal period, the purdah declined. However, the Adilshahi and
system was rooted in the elite class of both Qutubshahi kingdoms manage to survive.
Muslim and Hindu community. The education Later, Aurangzeb was successful in
system of Sultanate period had continued till uprooting them completely. The Maratha
the rule of Akbar. However Akbar made power in the Deccan put up a strong
important reforms in this system. Along with resistance to Aurangzeb’s advent. We will
education of Islamic religion, he also included study the history of this part in the next
new subjects in the syllabi such as Indian lesson.
115
Exercise
Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and

complete the sentence. Q.2 Explain the statements with reasons.
(1) Mughal Emperor Babur was born at (1) The Rajput rulers united against
in . Babur.
(a) Baluchistan (b) Kazakhstan (2) Shershah Sur was well-known for
(c) Uzbekistan (d) Afghanistan his ideal administration.
(2) Mughal Emperor Humayun was (3) Emperor Akbar strengthened the
defeated by . foundation of his rule in India.
(a) Ibrahim Lodi (4) Mughal art declined during the
(b) Shershah Sur (c) Babur period of Aurangzeb.
(d) Akbar Q.3 Write short notes
(3) Akbarnama was written by . (1) Mughal Art
(a) Mohammad Qasim (2) Mughal literature
(b) Abul Fazl (c) Mirza Hyder Q.4 Answer the following questions in
(d) Badauni detail.
(B) Find the incorrect pair and write (1) During the Mughal period what were
the correct ones. the changes made in the revenue
(1) Khafi Khan - Akbarnama system?
(2) Malik Muhammad Jayasi - (2) Elaborate the features of Mughal
Padmavat architecture.
(3) Sant Kabir - Doha Activity
(4) Mirza Hyder - Tarikh-i-Rashidi
Collect information about the expansion
(C) Write the names. of Mughal rule by Emperor Akbar and
(1) He defeated Ibrahim Lodi the contemporary cities.
(2) She successfully resisted the attack
of Akbar and saved the Nizamshahi
kingdom 
116
16. Swarajya to Empire (Maratha period)
as Sant Nirmalaba (निर्मळाबाई), Sant Muktabai,

16.1 Contribution of Sants Sant Janabai, Sant Kanhopatra and Sant
16.2 Foundation and Expansion of Bahinabai Siurkar also belong to this period.
Swarajya
The sants, created a sense of belonging
16.3 Maratha war of independence among people toward their native region,
16.4 Administrative system established language, literature, and culture. They gave
by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj message of equality to people. Their teachings
16.5 Release of Shahu Maharaj were based on the principles of humanity.
16.6 Peshwa period They preached harmonious community life,
16.7 Art, architecture, literature unity and love. Their efforts created social
16.8 Trade, industries and social life awakening. Their teaching helped people to
survive situations like foreign invasions,
draughts or other natural calamities. Their
Alauddin Khalji defeated the Yadavas of
devotional songs became a source of a great
Devgiri and the rule of Delhi Sultans began
moral support for people. Their work created
in south India. After Khalji, the Tughluq and
a sense of self-esteem among the people of
Bahamani kingdoms ruled over Maharashtra.
Maharashtra.
Later Bahamani kingdom was disintegrated
16.2 Foundation and Expansion of
into five parts. Among them, Nizamshahi and
Swarajya
Adilshahi ruled parts of Maharashtra. The
Mughals turn their attention to south India. In the first half of the 17th century,
As a result, Nizamshahi came to an end. Nizamshahi and Adilshahi had established
This was the general political scenario during their rule in Maharashtra. Many eminent
17th century, when Chhatrapati Shivaji Maratha sardars flourished under their rule.
Maharaj established Swarajya marking the They held Jahagirs in the remote regions of
rise of Maratha power. the Sahyadris. The difficult terrain of Sahyadri
allowed them to operate independently.
16.1 Contribution of Sants
Shahajiraje Bhosale was a prominent sardar
Superstition and rituals ruled at large in in the Nizamshahi kingdom. After the end of
the medieval Indian society. People had Nizamshahi rule,
become fatalistic and inert. They had become he accepted the
inert. The condition of the common people rank of a
was miserable. These were the times when Mansabdar* in
the sants in Maharashtra made efforts to the Adilshahi
bring the masses back to life. court. Shahajiraje
In Maharashtra, the tradition of sants, was valiant,
which began with Chakradhar Swami, Sant courageous, wise
Namdev, Sant Dnyaneshwar, Sant Eknath, and well-versed
Sant Tukaram and Samarth Ramdas. It was in the science of
continued by sants coming from various statehood. He
strata of the society. For example Sant had successfully
Chokhamela, Sant Goroba, Sant Sawata, handled many Shahajiraje
Sant Narhari, Sant Sena, Sant Shaikh Adilshahi
Muhammad etc. Similarly women sants such expeditions in Maharashtra, Karnataka and
117
Tamil Nadu. The provinces of Pune, Supe,
Shirwal, Indapur and Chakan were given to
Shahajiraje as Jahagir. He personally aspired
to establish Swarajya. He is regarded as the
visionary of Swarajya.
*A military officer who maintains his own division
of soldiers.
He sent his son Shivajiraje and his wife,
Veermata Jijabai from
Bengaluru to Pune
along with his loyal
and capable
associates. Veermata
Jijabai encouraged
Shivaji Maharaj to
fulfil the dream of
Shahajiraje of
establishing Swarajya. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj
She was a visionary
and an efficient Maharashtra, valour of the local Mawalas,
Veermata Jijabai the administrative and military experience
administrator. She
constantly guided her son in the mission of gained by the Maratha sardars while working
establishing Swarajya and provided him with with Nizamshahi and Adilshahi and above
excellent education necessary for the king of all these the able leadership of Shivaji
Swarajya. Maharaj could make it possible.
The concept of Swarajya was visualised After joining the Adilshahi court, Shahaji
by Shahajiraje and it was turned into reality Maharaj entrusted the administration of his
by Shivaji Maharaj. Shivaji Maharaj laid the Jahagirs at Pune, Shirwal and Supe region
foundation of Swarajya from the Mawal (pargana) to Shivaji Maharaj. Yet the forts
region. Several factors like topography of located in those Jahagirs and nearby areas
were in the custody of Adilshahi court. The
one ‘who owns the forts owns the land’ was
For Additional Information : The the ruling of the day. Hence Shivaji Maharaj
Mawal region is a mountaineous terrain and began with capturing the forts in the vicinity
is not easily accessible. The vallyes at the of his jahagirs. He took over the fort of
foot of Sahyadri ranges in Maharashtra are Torana and laid the foundation of Swarajya.
known as ‘Mawal’ and the local people of Shivaji Maharaj established the first capital
Mawal are known as ‘Mawalas’. The of Swarajya at the fort of Rajgad. Chandrarao
Mawalas in the army of Shivajiraje played a More proved to be a hindrance in Shivaji
great role in establishing Swarajya. Shivaji Maharaj’s efforts to create Swarajya. Shivaji
Maharaj had created a feeling of trust and Maharaj successfully took over Javali. After
affection in their minds. Shivaji Maharaj set this victory the activities of Shivaji Maharaj
himself on the task of establishing Swarajya in Konkan were escalated. Realising the
with the support of these Mawalas. Many of danger of the increasing activities of Shivaji
his close associates like Kanhoji Jedhe, Maharaj, the Bijapur court sent their powerful
Tanaji Malusare, Netoji Palkar, Baji General Afzalkhan to curb the increasing
Pasalkar, Baji Prabhu Deshpande, Murarbaji power of Shivaji Maharaj.
Deshpande etc. were from the Mawal region. Shivaji Maharaj had anticipated the
118
For Additional Information : In the year could later build war ships on their own. Till
1657 C.E., after conquering Kalyan and 1675 C.E., Shivaji Maharaj had four hundred
Bhiwandi, the boundaries of Swarajya extended small and big ships in his fleet. During the
upto the coastline. The British and the French second sack of Surat, Shivaji Maharaj brought
were involved in Salt trade. Shivaji Maharaj those ships to the coast of Surat and loaded
wanted to establish control over the sea waters. the huge booty on them acquired from Surat.
However, he did not have any knowhow of It is apparent that Shivaji Maharaj wanted to
building war ships. The Portuguese were afraid establish complete control over the land as
of the Siddis. Shivaji Maharaj assured the well as on the sea. Shivaji Maharaj was the
Portuguese to fight the Siddis. In turn, Shivaji first to have the foresight to create his own
Maharaj sent some selected fishermen with the navy. Hence, he is known as the ‘Father of
Portuguese ship builders named Rui Leitao the Indian Navy’ Maynak Bhandari,
Viegas and his son Fernao Viegas and got Daulatkhan, Kanhoji Angre were experts of
twenty war ships built with their help. These Marine war strategies.
fishermen were the people, who once trained,
intentions of Afzalkhan, who had taken up the Shaistakhan had no alternative but to hastily
challenge of killing Shivaji Maharaj. He met leave Lal Mahal. Shivaji Maharaj gained
Afzalkhan at Pratapgad. As expected more confidence and he attacked Surat, the
Afzalkhan attempted treachery but Shivaji prosperous economic capital of Aurangzeb
Maharaj was well prepared and killed and collected a large booty. Enraged by this,
Afzalkhan in self defence. Afzalkhan’s huge Aurangzeb sent his powerful sardars Mirza
army was set on the run and huge booty and Raje Jaising and Diler Khan to attack
weapons were collected left behind by them. Swarajya. They captured many forts in the
This made Swarajya’s treasury richer. Swarajya. Shivaji Maharaj had the wisdom
After Afzalkhan’s defeat, the Bijapur to comprehend the situation and decided to
court sent Siddi Jauhar to attack Swarajya. retreat tactically by signing the ‘Treaty of
He seized the fort of Panhala and closed all Purandar’. According to the treaty, Shivaji
posibilities of escape for Shivaji Maharaj. In Maharaj had to present himself before
this difficult situation Shiva Kashid, a loyal Aurangzeb at Agra, along with his son
servant of Swarajya, disguised himself as Sambhaji Maharaj. Aurangzeb acted
Shivaji Maharaj and made it easy for Shivaji treacherously and put Shivaji under house
Maharaj to escape. When Siddi came to arrest. Shivaji Maharaj very cleverly misled
know the truth he killed Shiva Kashid. Thus the guards and escaped from Agra.
Shiva Kashid sacrificed his life for the cause Soon after returning to Swarajya Shivaji
of Swarajya. Bajiprabhu took up the task of Maharaj conqured the forts which were held
blocking Siddhi Masud’s path in Ghodkhind by Aurangzeb.
and stop him in his chase of Shivaji Maharaj. To announce the sovereign and
Bajiprabhu was succussful in doing this. He independent status of Swarajya it was
fell dead only after receiving the news of necessary to make it official. Realising this
Shivaji Maharaj reaching Vishalgad safely. Shivaji Maharaj decided to get himself
At the time of ascending the throne, coronated. With his coronation as a sovereign
Aurangzeb was aware of the ambitious plans king the provinces under his rule assumed the
of Shivaji Maharaj. He sent his maternal status of an independent kingdom. After
uncle Shaistakhan on an expedition against coronation he began the Karnataka expedition.
Shivaji Maharaj. Shaistakhan camped in Lal However, he did not live long after the
Mahal in Pune. Shivaji Maharaj who knew victory in the south. He passed away on 3rd
Shaistakhan’s intentions manage to enter the April 1680. His untimely death caused an
Lal Mahal and cut off Shaistakhan’s fingers. irreparable loss to Swarajya.
119
16.3 Maratha war of independence thirty years.
After the death of Chhatrapati Shivaji While leaving for Jinji, Rajaram Maharaj
Maharaj, Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj was entrusted Ramchandrapant Amatya,
coronated as the king of Swarajya. During Shankaraji Narayan Sachiv, Santaji Ghorpade
his reign, a constant conflict continued with and Dhanaji
the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb’s Jadhav with the
rebellious son Akbar had established friendly responsibility of
relations with Sambhaji Maharaj. Enraged by defending Raigad.
this Aurangzeb The guerrilla
came down to tactics of Santaji
Deccan along and Dhanaji
with a huge proved the large
army and able scale artillery and
sardars, who huge cannons of
were veterans of the Mughals to be
warfare. For the of little use. Chhatrapati Rajaram
next 25 years he Despite of holding Maharaj
camped in very few assets
Maharashtra and the Marathas continued to create havoc for
fought against the Mughals. Rajaram Maharaj safeguarded
Chhatrapati Sambhaji the Marathas. Swarajya in these trying times. This was a
Maharaj But he could not great task in itself and a great success of
succeed in destroying the Swarajya. Aurangzeb Rajaram Maharaj.
killed Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj in a After the death of Rajaram Maharaj
very cruel manner (11th March 1689). (March, 1700 C.E.), his wife Maharani
Aurangzeb hoped that the Maratha power Tarabai continued to fight against Aurangzeb.
will be weakened with Sambhaji Maharaj’s Maharani Tarabai led the Swarajya movement
death but it did not happen. Instead the under extremely unfavourable conditions. She
Marathas unitedly fought against the Mughals single-handedly took charge of the
and expanded their rule. administration and
After Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, fought for Swarajya
Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj took over the for twenty five years
reins at Raigad. Aurangzeb sent Zulfikar with the help of her
Khan to seize the fort of Raigad. Chhatrapati sardars. At times,
Rajaram Maharaj, Maharani Tarabai, the Marathas had to
Maharani Yesubai (Queen of Chhatrapati fight the Mughals on
Sambhaji Maharaj) and her son Prince Shahu lands beyond the
were staying on Rajgad. All the Maratha boundaries of
royalties, thus staying at one place was Swarajya, but she
dangerous. It would have been strategic to did not stop them.
fight the Mughals from two places at a time. This was an
Maharani Tarabai
Hence, Maharani Yesubai asked Chhatrapati indication that the
Rajaram Maharaj to leave for Jinji. Maharani scenario of the war was changing. The
Yesubai herself stayed back at Raigad and Maratha War of Independence was a tussle
continue to fight. In 1689 C.E., the Mughals between the Mughal ambition of expanding
succeeded in taking charge of Raigad. their Empire and the desire of independence
Maharani Yesubai and Prince Shahu were cherished by the Marathas. Finally the death
arrested and sent to Delhi. Maharani Yesubai of Aurangzeb put an end to this fighting. In
remained in captivity of the Mughals for next the beginning, the Mughal rulers adopted an
120
aggresive policy while the Maratha the administration. There was a special
policy remained that of defence. But by the officer called ‘Darakdar’ appointed to look
second half of the 18th century, this condition after every department of the ministry. Other
changed. With the weakening of Mughal officers were ‘Diwan’ (secretary), ‘Majumdar’
power, the Marathas could extend their rule (auditor and accountant), ‘Phadnis’ (Deputy
almost all over India. Auditor), ‘Sabnis’ (office in-charge),
16.4 Administrative system established ‘Karkhanis’ (Commissary), ‘Chitnis’
by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (Correspondence clerk), ‘Jamdar’ (Treasurer),
‘Potdar’ (assay master) etc.
The regions in Maharashtra including
The Kingdom was divided into two parts
Nashik, Pune, Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur,
for the sake of administration. One of it was
Sindhudurga, Ratnagiri, Raigad; Belgaum,
the province which was geographically bound
Karwar, Dharwad in Karnataka; some regions
together and the other comprised scattered
of Andhra, Jinji and Vellore in Tamil Nadu regions in the south. The first province was
comprised Swarajya. Shivaji Maharaj set up divided into three sections. The northern
an ideal administrative system for the smooth section was assigned to the Peshwa which
running of Swarajya’s affairs. included the regions from Salher to Pune and
The formation of the Ashtapradhan North Konkan. The central part consisted of
Mandal (council of eight ministers) and its south Konkan, Sawantwadi and Karwar. This
growth took place alongwith the expansion was assigned to the Sachiv. In the third part
of the kingdom. After coronation, Chhatrapati the regions of high plateau i.e. Satara-Wai to
Shivaji Maharaj created special posts of Belgaum and Koppal was assigned to the
Ashtapradhans. It included ‘Peshwa’, ‘Mantri’. A separate ‘Subha’ of Karnataka
‘Amatya’, ‘Sachiv’, ‘Mantri’, ‘Senapati, was created and Hambirrao Mohite and
Raghunath Narayan Amatya were appointed
‘Sumant’, ‘Nyayadhish’ and ‘Panditrao’.
on it. ‘Sarsubhedars’ were appointed on all
Shivaji Maharaj had a strong intelligence these regions in association with the ‘Pradhans’
network of his own. Bahirji Naik was the (Ministers). This was known as ‘Rajmandal’.
Chief of this network. Before starting on any The appointment of ‘Killedar’ (keeper of the
expedition, Shivaji Maharaj obtained detailed fort) and ‘Karkun’ (clerks) was made by the
information from his spies and then planned King himself. The Pradhans had to submit
his expedition. annual accounts to Shivaji Maharaj.
When the ministers went on expedition, Sarsubhedars taking care of provincial
their representatives (Mutalik) looked after administration were known as ‘Deshadhikari’.
For additional information : village and determined various criteria of

Determining the grade (prat) of the land calculating revenue such as ‘Dhara’,
formed the basics of the Revenue System. ‘Chavarana’, ‘Pratbandi’ etc., based on the
The land revenue system introduced by annual yield. Chavarana means deciding the
Malik Amber of Nizamshahi was in practice. boundaries of land by measurng it.
But Shivaji Maharaj introduced a new Assessment of land in the hilly regions was
system. He fixed the measuring unit of not done areawise but yieldwise. While
‘Kathi’ (measuring stick) for the measurement collecting the revenue, the quality of the
of the land. The length of this kathi was 5 yield was also taken into consideration
cubits (length of a forearm) and 5 closed along with the grade of the land. Revenue
fists. Based on this following units were was fixed only after the calculation of the
decided: the area of 20 kathis was 1 ‘Bigha’ average yield of previous 3 years. Land
and 120 Bighas made one ‘Chavar’. Annaji such as Barren land, jungle, grazing land
Datto (Sachiv) travelled from village to etc. were not counted for land revenue.
121
There was a difference between the Nanasaheb was
administration under the Islamic rulers and appointed as the
the administrative system set by Chhatrapati Peshwa. Meanwhile,
Shivaji Maharaj. Sarsubhas in the Swarajya the Marathas were
were meant to be the zonal divisions for defeated in the third
overall administration, while under Islamic battle of Panipat.
rulers a division merely served the purpose The Maratha rule
of revenue collection. became weak.
The Subhedars were assisted by Madhavrao Peshwa
‘Deshmukhs’ and ‘Deshpandes’. The main tried to re-establish
task of a Deshmukh was to collect the land the Maratha power.
revenue, to develop waste land into cultivable The defeat in
land and settle new villages. All government Bajirao Peshwa I
Panipat was not
officials received salary in the form of cash just a political
instead of land grant (watan). defeat but it also lowered the morale of the
‘Village’ was the basic unit of the Marathas greatly.
administrative system. New villages were Madhavrao Peshwa tried to elevate the
settled. The people were provided with cattle, spirits of Marathas as well as re-establish the
seed money, money for daily utilities. The Maratha power in
farmer was given a period of two years, to the north. The
repay the advance after a good harvest. This Marathas were
system was known as ‘Batai system’. successful in
16.5 Release of Shahu Maharaj overcoming the
great defeat at
The Mughals continued their efforts to Panipat and create
defeat the Marathas, even after the death of a politically strong
Aurangzeb. For position for
that purpose they themselves in the
adopted the politics of the
strategy of dividing north. This factor
Madhavrao Peshwa
the Marathas. was very important. Malharrao Holkar,
They released Ahilyabai Holkar, Raghuji Bhosale, Mahadji
Shahu Maharaj Shinde, Nana Phadanvis played a great role
from captivity in in the re-establishment of Maratha influence.
1707 C.E. After
his release there Malharrao was
was a conflict the founder of the
Chhatrapati Shahu Holkar State at
between Maharani Maharaj
Tarabai and Shahu Indore. He served
Maharaj. Shahu Maharaj won the ensuing the Maratha power
battle. Balaji Vishwanath played an important for a long time. He
role on behalf of Shahu Maharaj and later had a great share in
he was appointed as Peshwa. establishing the
Maratha prestige in
16.6 Peshwa period the north. After the
After Balaji Vishwanath, his son, Bajirao death of Khanderao,
I was appointed as the Peshwa. He expanded son of Malharrao.
Malharrao Holkar
the Maratha empire upto Malwa, Rajasthan Ahilyabai Holkar
and Bundelkhand. He defeated the Nizam. assumed the reins of Indore administration.
After Bajirao I, Balaji Bajirao alias Maheshwar was the seat of administration
122
For additional information : The India. He invited Ahmedshah Abdali, the

Pathans from Afghanistan had settled at the ruler of Afghanistan, to India. At the behest
foothills of the Himalayas near Ayodhya of Najib Khan, Abdali invaded India. He
province. These Pathans were known as returned to Afghanistan with a huge booty.
‘Rohillas’. This province later came to be However, the Marathas pursued Abdali’s
known as ‘Rohilkhand’. Najib Khan was the soldiers upto Attock and raised there the
leader of the Rohillas. He was not happy Maratha standard successfully. Attock is
with the supremacy of the Marathas in North presently in Pakistan.
under her. She built the regions in Eastern India upto Bengal
temples, ghats, under the Maratha dominance. After the
dharamshalas, and miserable defeat of
drinking water facilities the Marathas at
at various pilgrim Panipat, Mahadji
centres. She was a Shinde was
capable, astute, and instrumental in re-
excellent administrator. establishing the
Raghuji Bhosale Maratha supremacy
was the most capable and prestige in North
ruler among the Bhosales India. He trained his
of Nagpur. He brought Ahilyabai Holkar Raghuji Bhosale
123
Army and Peshwa, Pilaji Jadhavrao are available.
modernised his Murals are found on the facade of the
artillery under the Wadas, as well as on the walls of reception
guidance of French areas (Diwankhana) and bedrooms. In the
military expert, temples, the mandapa wall, owri (varanda),
Benoit de Boigne. shikhara, gabhara (sanctum sanctorum) and
Mahadji managed chhat (ceiling) were also decorated with
the difficult affairs paintings. The 18th century murals have
with strong survived till today at places like the Naik-
determination and Nimbalkar wada at Vathar, Nana Phadanavis
remained incharge wada at Menavali, Rangamahal at Chandwad,
of Delhi affairs Mayureshwar mandir at Morgaon, Shiva
Mahadji Shinde
during 1771 C.E. temple of Pandeshwar, and Matha at
to 1794 C.E. Nana Phadanvis and Mahadji Benawadi. Mythological stories form the
Shinde set the affairs of the state right after main theme of these murals. They include
the death of Peshwa Madhavrao. scenes from Ramayana and Mahabharata
The two Peshwas who succeeded Peshwa and Puranas. The paintings of Dashavatara
Madhavrao, namely Narayanrao and Sawai and Krishnaleela are found almost everywhere.
Madhavrao, did not live long. Their untimely The subjects of contemporary social life were
death set the decline of Maratha power. At also popular in the paintings. Royal court,
this time, the Mughal power had also become royal meetings, processions were also included
weak. Taking advantage of this situation, the in them.
British started interfering in the internal strife During the Maratha period, keertan and
among the Maratha sardars. Peshwa Bajirao
II was defeated by the British and the British
established their supremacy over India. The
British brought entire India under their
dominance.
16.7 Art, architecture, literature
Art : The development of Maratha
miniature Paintings is seen through illustrations
on the manuscripts such as pothis, pattachitra
and patrikas. The same style is maintained
in the glass paintings as well. Illustrated
manuscripts of Sanskrit texts such as ‘Bhagvat
Gita’, ‘Devi Saptashati’, ‘Bhagvat Purana’ as
well as Marathi texts such as ‘Dnyaneshwari’
(Bhavarthadipika), ‘Shivaleelamrut’,
‘Pandavapratap’ etc. are available. The
paintings of Dashavatara are included in
them. The wooden stands of the pothis have Miniature painting - Maratha period
paintings of various deities such as Ganapati, singing of Bhajans were popular. Powadas
Riddhi-siddhi, Ramapanchayatana, (Ballads) were composed during this period
Gopalkrishna, Vishnulakshmi in dark red, to encourage the spirit of heroism among the
green and yellow colours. The miniature people. The ballads known as ‘powadas’ and
paintings, include human portraits and themes ‘katavas’, composed by the Shahirs were the
like ragamalas, talamala, processions etc. types of historical poetry. The powadas
Remarkable portraits of Bajirao I, Nanasaheb
124
composed by Adnyandas on the slaying
of Afzalkhan and Tulsidas on the battle of For additional information :
Sinhagad are well-known. Dressed stones, raw and baked bricks
The literary tradition of ‘Lavani’ were used in the construction of wadas.
The ground floor walls of the wada were
developed in the later Peshwa period. Shahirs
built in stone while the upper storeys
like Anantafandi, Prabhakar, Ramjoshi,
were of bricks. There were generally
Saganbhau and Honaji Bala are known for
three to five storeys supported on wooden
their beautiful compositions.
pillars and beams. The rooms were built
Various dance forms from the Maratha around the rectangular courtyard (chowk).
period have existed till today such as Usually there use to be two courtyards
including lavani, koli dance, Gaja Nrutya in the wada. However, sometimes there
etc. The tradition of vocal music also received could be three to seven courtyards as
patronage in Maratha States. well. Wadas such as Vishrambaug wada
Architecture : Shivaji Maharaj gave in Pune and Nana Phadanavis wada in
priority to build forts. The tradition of Menavali and Raghobadada’s wada are
building forts was prevalent in the Deccan among the fine examples of wada
since three centuries. This tradition proved to architecture. The wooden pillars and
be of advantage to Shivaji Maharaj. The beams in the wada were square in shape.
required expertise of maintaining forts was Motifs such as parrot, peacock, and
easily available to him. The Kasaba temple monkeys were popular.
in Pune and Vitthal temple in Vitthalwadi
were reconstructed by Veermata Jijabai. Jejuri etc. These are huge in size. The plan
During the Peshwa period, the Maratha of these temples is in star shaped design, the
kingdom regained its prosperity and all forms foundation of the temple was multi layered,
of art and architecture once again received and were named accordingly. The construction
patronage. Pune, Satara and Nashik developed of shikhara is made in bricks and stucco
into big cities. These cities had well paved method. The ‘Kalaram’, ‘Goraram’ and
roads, wadas on both sides of the road and ‘Sundarnarayan’ temples at Nashik and
arched gates at intervals. ‘Mahadev’ temple at Trimbakeshwar,
The construction of temples began on a ‘Mohiniraj’ temple at Nevasa were similar to
large scale during the later Peshwa period. the temples in Malwa and Rajasthan. The
These temples were of three types. Examples temples were constructed in stone. These
of the temple architecture of this period are temples were embellished extensively with
found at Saswad (‘Vateshwar’, sculptures as compared to other contemporary
‘Sangameshwar’), Mahuli (‘Vishweshwar’), temples. In the third type of temples, the
Sindhudurga
125
wrote the history of India in 12 volumes
named ‘Gulshane-i-Ibrahimi’.
In the 18th century well-known literary
works were composed such as,
‘Yatharthdeepika’ by Vaman Pandit,
‘Naladamayanti Swayamvara’ by Raghunath
Pandit, Pandavapratapa, Harivijay,
Ramavijay by Shridhar Pandit and the
translation of Mahabharata by Moropant.
Bakhar literature is important among the
historical literature in Marathi. It contains
eulogies of the heroes and stories of historic
events, battles, lives of great men. Sabhasad
Bakhar, Bhausahebanchi Bakhar, Panipatchi
Jejuri
Bakhar are some of its exmaples. Krushna
temples at Pune, Satara, Wai, etc. were built Dayarnav and Shridhar were the main poets
in independent style. It included arches, during the Peshwa period. Poet Mahipati
wooden hall (sabhamandapa) and sanctum composed ‘Bhaktivijay’ in this period.
sanctorum (gabhara). The Shikhara slopes 16.7 Trade, industries and social life
inwards at the top. In the small niches of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was aware
the Shikhara, beautiful sculptures are made of the importance of a flourishing trade for
of stucco. It includes images of dashavataras the economic well being of the state. He
and other deities as well as male and female encouraged the traders and merchants by
figures. The stone deepmala is a remarkable creating Peths (market places). ‘Shete’ and
feature of these temples. The stone deepmalas ‘Mahajan’ were the officers who supervised
at Jejuri were built by Shahajiraje. Since the transaction of these Peths. Chaul, Rajapur,
most of the villages and temples were located Dabhol, Kelshi, Ratnagiri were some of the
on river banks, stone steps (ghats) were also important ports and trade centres of this
built on the river. Such extensive ghats are period. Commodities like black pepper and
seen at Nashik, Puntambe, Wai, Menavali, lac* etc. were exported from Dabhol. Silk,
Mahuli etc. The Chhatris (Samadhis) built at
various places are noteworthy. For additional information :
Literature : Marathi literature developed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was keen
greatly during this period. Sant Tukaram of on protecting the local industries. Here
this period was a poet of the warkari sect. we can cite the example of salt industry.
Samarth Ramdas wrote ‘Dasbodh’ and He protected the salt industry in Konkan.
‘Manache Shlok’ in Marathi. Chhatrapati At that time, traders imported salt from
Shivaji Maharaj got the the Portuguese territory and sold in
‘Rajyavyavaharakosha’ prepared which was Swarajya. That affected the local trade
a compilation of Sanskrit lexicon for Persian in Konkan areas. So Maharaj charged
terms. Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj was a heavy duty on the salt imported into
great writer and Sanskrit scholar. The Sanskrit Swarajya from the Portuguese territory.
text ‘Budhabhushan’ was written by him. The intention was that the salt imported
This text is an overview of ancient texts on from the Portuguese territory would then
polity. Apart from Sanskrit, he also knew cost more and as a result its import
many other languages. He wrote texts in Brij would be discouraged and the sale of the
language namely ‘Nayikabhed’, ‘Nakhshikh’ local salt would increase.
and ‘Satasattak’. Muhammad Qasim Ferishta
126
opium, and indigo were exported from Nashik, Paithan, etc. Traditional festivals
Chaul. Black pepper, cardamom, cotton cloth (utsavas), pious observances (Vrata vaikalye)
were the items of trade in Rajapur. Foreign were celebrated with great enthusiasm in the
traders procured required goods from Rajapur society. Celebrating the festivals was
and transported them on ships to the Red Sea encouraged by the State, as such celebrations
and Iran. help to create joyous and hormonius society.
A self-sufficient village was the basic
unit of the Swarajya. The economic system For Additional Information :
of the village was never affected greatly by Urbanisation during Maratha period -
external political changes. Every village had Many market cities of the Maratha
12 ‘balutedars’ (service providers in the period emerged because of political
village). Their occupations were hereditary in expansion and development of various
nature. Every occupation in this system had industries, trade, professions etc. The
a specific status in the social hierarchy. The process of urbanisation gained
balutedars, for example goldsmiths (sonar), momentum during the Peshwa period.
blacksmiths (lohar), braziers (tambat) etc. There was extensive development of
practiced their hereditary occupations. Weekly Pune, the capital of Peshwas. There
markets were set up in big villages. Such was increase in the number of market
villages were known as ‘Kasba’. People cities (Bazar peths). Pune, Indapur,
visited weekly markets to buy daily provisions Saswad, Junnar, Kalyan, Bhiwandi,
and other goods. Some industries of this Vengurla, Paithan, Kolhapur, Satara,
period include textile industry, metallurgy, Ahmednagar, and small and big ports
sugar industry etc. on the Konkan coast flourished with
the development of trade and industries.
*Lac is a resinous substance used for sealing,
varnish, making ornaments, etc.
The journey from the founding of
The rural Maharashtra of Maratha period Swarajya to the expansion of the Maratha
was organised into different social classes empire, is an important part of Indian history
such as nobility (sardars), landlords of mediaeval times. The Maratha power
(watandars), Balutedars and Ryot (rest of the came to an end and the British brought most
subjects). of India under their dominance. The transition
There were traditional schools took place in various sectors. It marks the
(pathshalas) established in cities like Wai, onset of modern era.
Exercise
Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and (2) The Pathans from Afghanistan had
complete the sentence. settled in , the province at
(1) is known as the Father of the foothills of the Himalayas.
Indian Navy. (a) Varanasi (b) Mathura
(a) Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (c) Ayodhya (d) Delhi
(b) Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj (3) Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj wrote
(c) Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj the Sanskrit text .
(d) Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj (a) Nayikabhed (b) Budhabhushan
(c) Nakhshikh (d) Satasattka
127
(B) Find the incorrect pair and write Q.3 Explain the statement with reasons.
the correct ones. (1) Shahajiraje is known as the visionary
(1) Naik-Nimbalkar wada – Vathar of Swarajya.
(2) Nana Phadanvis wada – Menavali (2) Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj built
(3) Kalaram temple – Jejuri the naval force.
(4) Mohiniraj temple – Nevase (3) Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj charged
(C) Write the name. heavy duty on the salt imported
(1) He was the Chief of the intelligence from the Portuguese territory.
network of Shivaji Maharaj - Q.4 Write short notes.
(2) He assisted in the provincial affairs - (1) Maratha Art
(3) Leader of the Rohillas - (2) Maratha Architecture
Q.2 Complete the following concept map.
Characteristic
architecture 
Sculpture Characteristic Places

of Maratha
Temples
Building
material
128
B{Vhmg B. 11 dr
B{Vhmg B. 11 dr

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The coordination committee formed by G.R.No.Abhyas-2116/(pra.kra43/16)SD-4 dated 25.4.2016

Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and

The digital textbook can be obtained through DIKSHA APP

History Subject Committee

(Dr. Sunil Magar)

- For the Teachers -

Sr.No. Lesson Name Pg. No.

1. First Farmers .................................................. 1

The serrated knife made by

*To haft - fix with the help of rope and resin/gum

First Farmers You womenfolk began

The villagers have

I took a round There used to be a small village here.

2. First Cities of India

2.1 Characteristics of Harappan Harayana. The total area covered by it is

3. Chalcolithic Villages in India

3.1 Chalcolithic Period in India

3.1 Chalcolithic Period in India

(C) Write the names Q.4 State your opinion.

5. Janapadas and Republics

5.1 ‘Jana’ and Janapadas

6. Second Urbanisation in India

6.1 Rise of Mahajanapadas For additional information:

6.2 Ashmak/Assak Mahajanapada According to ‘Mahagovinda Suttanta’, a

Tirthankara was given the kingdom of Characteristic pottery of janapadas and

Mahajanapadas and their capitals : 2. Kosala : Ancient Kosala encompassed

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and

7. India and Iran (Persia)

same name, ‘Pars’. Greeks knew the city by

Visit the following website to see the map of the Iranian

The Iranian empire was established by

8. India during Mauryan period

8.1 Rise of Magadha Empire You would like to know : The

For Additional Information : The You would like to know : During

drinks, guiding principles regarding code of

Important information : In the rock Antiochus II Theos of Syria (260 B.C.E.

9. Post Mauryan India

Heliodorus at Besnagar (Vidisha) indicates

For Additional Information : The reign and achievements of Satavahana Emperor

king of the Satavahana dynasty,

Literature : Art and Architecture : The influence of

For Additional information : The

Society : The society of Satavahana

10. Changing Times

10.2 Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas

For additional information : The rule of Shaka king

During the period of Kumargupta, son of kings proved to be incapable of protecting

11. Kingdoms in South India

12. India, Nations in the northwest of the Indian

12.1 Trade and Cultural Relations in

13. India, Shri Lanka and Southeast Asia

13.1 India and Sri Lanka sermon from Thera

The ‘Anand Temple’ is another important

Dvaravati style of temple architecture

The Dvaravati Sculptures show a great

After the death of Suryavarman II, Heritage by UNESCO.

For additional information : A

supremacy in some of the islands like Java,

For additional information : The base of every platform is decorated

14. Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom

14.1 Political conditions in India

For Additional Information : One period Mahmud Ghazni, Babur, Nadir