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Telephony: Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal ECE
Telephony: Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal ECE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Telephony
II. Switching System
III. Subscribers’ Loop
IV. Decibels and Noise Limits
V. Telephone Traffic
VI. Numbering Concepts
VII. Signaling
VIII. Frequency Division Multiplexing
IX. Time Division Multiplexing
TELEPHONY
Lesson 1
Telephony is the art of projecting a sound wave into a given apparatus, transforming the
sound wave into an electrical wave, passing the electrical wave over a wire or channel
and then transforming the electrical wave back into sound wave.
State of Pulses:
1. Make – circuit closed/off hook, 4o %
2. Break – circuit opened/on-hook condition, 60 %
(make and break time =0.1 sec)
3. Interdigit delay – continuous make of 500 ms
770 Hz 4 5 6 B
852 Hz 7 8 9 C
941 Hz * 0 # D
6. Protection Circuits
1. Over-voltage Protection - it protects the circuit for over voltage supply
coming from the central office.
2. Polarity Reversal – it protects the circuit from any reversed voltage polarity.
Problem Solving:
1. How long does it take to dial 765-8340 in second using pulse dialing?
2. How about if using a touch-tone dialing? How long does it take to dial the same
number in 1?
SWITCHING
Lesson 2
Types of Switching:
1. Manual Control System – a call is being carried out by an operator using
switchboards and wires with jack.
2. Progressive Control or Step by Step Switching – also known as Strowger Switchig
System, named after the inventor Almon B. Strowger, 1889.
It is the oldest automatic switching system, electromechanical in nature, in which
intelligence is located in relays mounted on each switch.
It also known as direct control switch with three stages:
1. Line Equipment- includes the line finder
2. Switch Train – consists of selectors arranged to operate in a sequence
connecting the calling line to the connector group of the called line.
3. Connectors – are switches that complete the connection to the called party.
3. Common Control Switching
Also known as Crossbar Switching System.
It is a switching system, still mechanical in nature but the intelligence of the
system is separated from the actual switch.
It utilizes a switching matrix, which externally managed by common control, to route
telephone calls.
4. Stored Program Control (SPC) or Electronic Switching System (ESS)
Is the first generation ESS was employed in the year 1960.
It is a switching system control is in electronic circuit instead of mechanical
devices, and the network or matrix is replaced with tiny glasss-encapsulated reed
switches.
The final generation is known as digital switch.
Exchange Hierarchy
1. International Exchange/Center – a center to which the tertiary centers are
connected to establish trunk connections and these center access the gateway facilities
for international trunk connections.
2. Quarternary Exchange/Center – a center to which tertiary centers are connected to
establish trunks connections
3. Tertiary Exchange/Center – a center to which secondary centers are connected to
establish trunk connections.
4. Secondary Exchange/Center – a center to which the primary centers are connected
to established a trunk connections
5. Primary Exchange/Center – a center to which local exchanges are connected and
via which trunk connections are established
6. Local Exchange – an exchange of a local network to which the subscribers are
directly or indirectly connected
7. Tandem Exchange/Center – an exchange used for connecting local exchange within
a multi-exchange network.
SUBSCRIBERS LOOP
Lesson 3
Subscriber Loop- the connection between the telephone set and the central office
switching equipment. Also known as local loop.
I= 24 mA to 60 mA ( optimal value is 35 mA )
R tel = 150 (old)
= 600 to 900 ohms ( new)
Where:
R misc – resistance of the main distribution frame plus drop wire resistance
(neglected)
R tel – resistance of the telephone set
R switch – switching office equipment resistance
R cable – cable resistance used and varies according to size
Loaded Cable – a loop with loading coil to extend the cable length
AWG Dimensions
Gauge Diameter (mm)
19 0.91
22 0.644
24 0.511
26 0.405
Problem Solving:
1. If the central office supply is -48 volts, the total resistance is 2400 ohms, the
switching office and the telephone set resistances has 400 ohms and 300 ohms
respectively. Considering a North American standard will the subscriber have dial
tone? What is the maximum loop resistance in order to maintain the dial tone or
other signaling element on the cable pair?
2. From the table, using 19 H 44 for the design of a subscriber loop for an 8 dB loss
limit, determine the loop limit for this specification. How many inductive coil
should be added and what is the resistance equivalent of each loading coil.
Mathematically:
dB=10 log (P1/P2)
if P1 > P2, power gain
if P1 < P2, power loss
Properties of logarithm
log (AxB)= log A + log B
log (A/B)= log A - log B
log (Ax)=x log A
log (1)= 0
log (A-1)= log (1/A) =0-log A= - log A
dBm -means that the 0-dB point reference in 1 mW or dB above or below the reference
power of one milliwatt.
dBm=10 log (P1/P2)
where: P2 is one milliwatt
dBw -reference with one watt.
dBw=10 log (P1/P2)
where: P2 is one watt
dBk -dB in reference (above or below) one kilowatt.
dBk=10 log (P1/P2)
where: P2 is one kilowatt
dBv -represents the voltage level in dB with reference to 1 volt
dBv=20 log (V1/V2)
where: v2 is one volt
dBa -dB above an adjusted reference noise; Noise level that has same interfering
effect in a F1A handset as a -85 dBm, 1000 Hz tone
dBa= pure test tone (in dBm) +85
dBa= F1A weighted noise (in dBm) + 82
dBa= 601A/F1A weighted (in dBm) + 77
dBaO -dB adjusted at 0 dBm level point. The dBa0 value state the noise would be test
point level had been 0 dBm.
dBaO=dBa- TPL
where: TPL- test point level
dBrn -dB above or below reference noise. Noise level that has same interfering effect in
a 144 Handset as a -90 dBm, 1000 Hz tone, 144 weighted.
dBrn= 10 log (Po/1pWp)
where: 1pWp= 1 picowatt
dBrnC -dB above reference noise, C-message weighted. Noise level that has same
interfering effect with C-weighting as a -90 dBm, 1000 Hz tone
dBrnC= pure test tone (in dBm)+90
dBrnC= F1A weighted noise (in dBa)+6
dBrnC= 601A/F1A weighted (in dBa)+6
dBrnC=10 log pWp
where: pwp= picowatt
dBrnCO-dBrnC at 0 dBm level point. The dBrnC value states what the noise would be if
test level had been 0 dBm
dBrnCO=dBrnC- TPL
where: TPL- test point level
Definition of Terms
pWp -picowatt, psophometrically weighted. A definite amount of noise power as
measured with psophometric weighted network.
VU -Actual amount of power (similar to dBm) as measured on a VU meter
specifically damped to give meaningful readings of voice and music.
Test Tone-pure signal at a single frequency. Standard Test tone is 0dBm, 1000 Hz.
Relative Level-difference between two powers. Power at one point compared to
power at some reference point, not a definite amount of power.
Problem Solving:
1. What is the level of the signal at the output of the amplifier if the input signal
value is 1mW and if the gain of the amplifier is 3dB?
2. What is the noise level in dBm at the output of the amplifier if the noise power is
given by 10-3 W?
3. Convert 13mW to (a) dBm (b) dBrn.
4. If the attenuation in a telephone cable is 1dB/mile and the transmitted voltage is 1
volt, calculate the voltage received 1000 miles away.
5. The loss of a cable is measured by applying a signal at one end and measuring the
result at the other end. Calculate the loss in dB. Impedance of the two cable ends
are equal.
Signal applied Signal measured
(a) 10 W 0.3 x 10 -5 W
(b) 160 mV 1mV
(c) 3mA 0.1 x 10 -4 A
TELEPHONE TRAFFIC
Lesson 5
Traffic Intensity The product of all calls and the average holding time of all calls.
Mathematically: A= C x T
Erlang Preferred unit named after the Danish Mathematician, Agner Krakup Erlang
Call Hour (Ch)-One Ch is the quantity represented by one or more calling having an
aggregate duration of 1 hour.
Call Second (Cs)-One Cs is the quantity represented by one or more calls having an
aggregate duration of 1 second.
Cent Call Second (CCs)-One CCs is the quantity represented by one 100’s call or by
aggregate of 100 Cs of traffic.
Call Second (Cm)- One Cm is the quantity represented by one or more call aggregate of
1 minute.
Equated Busy Hour Call (EBHC)-One EBHC is the average intensity in one or more
traffic paths occupied in the busy hour by one 2 minute call or for an
aggregate duration of 2 minutes.
Conversion:
1 Erlang=1 Ch=3600 Cs=36 CCs=60 Cm=30 EBHC
Traffic Density
Traffic per unit time.
Grade of service- A measure of the probability, that, during a specified period of peak
traffic, a call offered to a group of trunks or circuits will fail to find an idle
circuit at the first attempt.
Typical GOS: P=0.01
An average of one call out of 100 will be blocked or lost during busy hour.
Call Congestion:
P=number of lost calls/total number of offered calls.
Definition of Terms
Attempt Any effort on the part of a traffic source to seize a circuit, switch or other
traffic channel, whether or not the attempt is successful.
Traffic Refers to the average of all user requests being serviced by the network.
Traffic Rate The busy hour traffic density per traffic source.
Density per traffic source.
Lost calls or blocked calls-refers to calls that fail at the first trial.
Busy Hour The continuous 60 minute period in a day during which the highest usage
occurs.
Call Concentration-The ratio of the busy hour to the total day calls. It is the reciprocal
of length of day.
Holding time Length of time during which call engages a traffic path or channel.
Full availability-Each inlet has access to any outlet. Every free inlet is at all times able
to test every outlet.
Limited Availability-When not all the free outlets in a switching system can be reached
by inlets.
NUMBERING CONCEPT
Lesson 6
Definition Terms:
Numbering Area – area which any two subscribers use the same dialing procedure to
reach another subscriber in the telephone network.
Trunk Code or Area Code – digit or combination of digits (not including the trunk
prefix) characterizing the called numbering area with a country.
Country Code – combination of one to three digits characterizing the called country.
Numbering Functions:
1. Call routing
2. Addressing of called and calling party
3. activates necessary apparatus for charging
Numbering Concepts:
1. Uniform Numbering – a scheme in which the length of the subscriber numbers
are uniform inside a given numbering area.
2. Non-uniform Numbering – a scheme in which the subscriber numbers vary
within a given numbering area.
5 Elements:
1. International access code
2. Country Code
3. Area Code
4. Telephone Number
Charging of call:
1. Flat Rate – fixed fee for unlimited number of calls.
2. Message – number calls is counted on a call meter.
Types:
1. Switched Circuit – a call is automatically switched through to its destination
after dialing has been completed.
2. Leased (dedicated) Circuit – a permanent circuit for private use within a
communication network, with the line directly between the two locations or
routed through a serving central office.
SIGNALING
Lesson 7
Signaling
*Refers to specific signals on the transmission line that are used for controlling
the connection from the calling telephone to the called telephone and signals that are used
to indicate the status of a call as it is being interconnected
*provides a means for operating and supervising a telephone communication
system
*established connections, announces incoming calls and reports the fact that a line
is busy
Signaling Functions
1. Ringing Signals
*used to operate a visible or audible alarm to alert someone of an incoming call
2. Supervisory Signals
*used to convey information regarding switchboards conditions
3. Address Signals
*used dialing or digital information which is necessary to establish the desire
connections
2. Reverse Battery
*loop signaling is accomplished by reversing the polarity of the battery on the line
to indicate supervisory conditions
3. High-Low Method
*by representing the on-hook and off-hook condition in terms of resistance values
1. E & M Signaling
*employs 2 leads to connect the signaling equipment to trunk circuit, M lead
transmit battery or ground to the distant end of the circuits and while incoming signals
are received on the E lead as either a ground or open condition
3. In-band Signaling
*Signaling tones are transmitted within the speech band, usually 1600, 2400 or
2600 Hz
Frequency (Hz)
350 440 480 620 Cadence
Dial Tone X X continous
MULTIPLEXING
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
Lesson 8
Multiplexing
The process of transmitting two or more signals over the same communication
channel.
Multiplexer
The device that accepts many inputs but will only give one output.
Demultiplexer
The device that accepts one input but separate the signals into many outputs.
Message Channel
• Basic building block of the FDM hierarchy.
• For voice transmission utilizing voice band frequencies.
• Voice band frequency: 300-3400 Hz; 0-4000 Hz
Basic Group
• Next higher level in the FDM hierarchy.
• Composed of 12 voice band channels
• 60-108 kHz
Basic Supergroup
• The third level in the FDM hierarchy
• Composed of 60 Voice channels.
• From 312-552 kHz
Basic Mastergroup
• The fourth level in the FDM hierarchy
• Composed of 6000 Voice band channels.
Jumbogroup
• The fifth level in the FDM hierarchy
• Consists of 3600 Voice channels
Superjumbogroup
• The sixth in the FDM hierarchy
• Consists of 10800 voice channels
For CCITT
For AT&T:
Operation:
To transmit multiple digital signals, the data to be transmitted is formatted into serial data
words. One byte may be transmitted during the time interval assigned to a particular
channel. Each timeslot might contain 1 byte from each channel. One channel transmit 8
bits and then halts while the next channel transmits 8 bits, and then the third channel as
well transmits 8 bits and so on. This process is known as interleaving.
TDM-PCM 24
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 s
b7 b6 b5 b4 b3 b2 b1 b0
Note:
No. of channel/frame : 24
No. of bits/channel : 8
Total no. of bits: 193
Sampling rate : 8000 Hz
Total bitrate/frame: 1.544 Mbps
Period/channel: 5.18 μsec
Period/frame: 125 μsec
TDM-PCM 30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 ..... 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
b7 b6 b5 b4 b3 b2 b1 b0
Note:
No. of channel/frame : 32
No. of bits/channel : 8
Total no. of bits: 256
Sampling rate : 8000 Hz
Total bitrate/frame: 2.048 Mbps
Period/channel: 3.9065 μsec
Period/frame: 125 μsec
TDM Hierarchy:
North American/Japan
International (CCITT)
Level Number No. of Voice Channels Data Rate (Mbps)
1 30 2.048
2 120 8.448
3 480 34.368
4 1920 139.264
5 7640 565.148
Transmission Medium Designation Transmission No. VB Operating Freq. Data Rate(Mbps)
Twisted Pair N3 Analog 24 0.172-0.268 MHz
T1 Digital 24 1.544
T2 Digital 96 6.312
Coaxial Cable L1 Analog 600 0.006-2.79 MHz
L4 Analog 3600 0.564-17.55 MHz
L5 Analog 10,800 3.112-60.5 MHz
T4 Digital 4032 274.176
Optical Fiber FT3 Digital 672 44.736
Microwave TD3 Analog 1200 3700-4200
TH1 Analog 1800 5925-6425
TN1 Analog 1800 10,700-11,700
11 GHz Digital 672 44.736
18 GHz Digital 4032 274.176
Satellite Intetsat V Analog ~24,000 6/4 GHz Band and
14/11 GHz