CHAPETER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Mineral resources play a vital role in the economic growth of a country. The accelerating
growth of the world’s population combined with an improving standard of living throughout the
world greatly increases demand for mineral products of all types. The combination of
development of abilities of the explorations and of the scholar researchers of mineral sectors can
effectively improve exploration and exploitation of the mineral resources (Solomon T., 2009).

Improvement of infrastructures and growth of the manufacturing sector requires a dependable

supply of a good quality construction raw materials as well as a wide range of industrial minerals
and rocks (GSE, 2003).

Ethiopia is endowed with a wide variety of minerals and rocks, some of which are available in
large quantities and are of excellent quality. Minerals such as potash, bentonite, kyanite,
diatomite, graphite, kaolin, talc, quartz, and etc, occur in sufficiently large reserves that could
warrant medium to large-scale mining (Solomon T., 2009).

The industrial minerals in Ethiopia occur in various geological formations from Precambrian to
recent. As the distribution of rocks is governed by geological factors, the diverse geological
environment of Ethiopia has ultimately formed huge and wide varieties of deposits of rocks that
can be used as industrial raw materials. Industrial minerals are formed associated with igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. The industrial sectors are a large consumer of industrial
minerals (GSE, 2003). Since the study area is located along MER, there is aboundance of young
volcanic rocks of diferent purpose, mapping and characterization of thise area is important.

1.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

1.1.1 Location
The study area is located in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Regional state
(SNNPR) of Ethiopia, Gedeo zone, around Samaro and Walleme area. The stuy area is located at
a distance of 359 km south of Addis Ababa and it lies between 0420000-0427000 E altitude

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0703000-0712000 N longitude with an average elevation of 1800 m.a.s.l.

Fig 1 location map of the study area and its surrounding (Department of Geology)

1.1.2 Accessibility
The study area is accessible across a main asphalt road that runs from Hawasa to Moyale passing
through Dilla town. There are also rural gravel roads that connect different localities on the study
area which are very important during traverse work.

1.1.3 Physiography
The study area is a part of main Ethiopian rift (MER) and south eastern plateaus. The elevation
of the area varied from 973 to 3300ma.s. Based on morphology and topography, the Dilla map
sheet was classified as rift floor, dissected valley, escarpment and plateaus. It`s lowest elevation
was about 1000ma.s at the northeastern within Omo basin and highest elevation was around
2800ma.s on the discontinue plugs. Most of the Precambrian rocks exposed at dissected valleys
and gorges at the southern part of the map. The escarpment approximately was on the central
part of the mapping area, it’s generally in the north east and divided in to rift floor and plateau.
The escarpment attains maximum elevation 3300ma.s.l and minimum elevation of 2500ma.s.l.

1.1.4 Climate condition

The study area is characterized by high temperature and high rain fall condition. The main rainy
season is from June to September and the short rain fall season is from January to April. The
average annual rain falls is 107.22mm and mean annual average temperature is 200c.

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1.1.5 Land use and land cover

The Gedeo zone is sub divided in to six woredas, namely Wonago, Bule, Kochore, Gedeb,
Yirgachefe and Dilla zuria woreda. In all these woredas, with regard to land-use, 80% is
cultivated, 19% is grazing land and 1% is covered by forest and others. Most of the peoples of
the area cultivate different fruits such as coffee, banana and avocado. The main traditional food
of the people is called ‘Kocho’ and they export large amount of coffee. Besides, residents of the
area also depend on quayrring of different types of industrial minerals and rocks such as rhyolite,
tuff, koalin and ignimbrite. These industrial minerals and rocks are traditionally quarried and
extracted for multipurpose uses such as construction of buildings and road pavements;
(http://WWW.snnprs.gov.et/investment .pdf

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Even if the local people mine different IMR for different purposes, there is little knowledge
about the potential of the area. Furthermore, the whole area is not fully investigated and there is
no well prepared resourc map that shows the distribution of industrial minerals and rocks.

In addition to the active mining sites there could be another potential industrial rocks & minerals
site which may found in the area, if proper exploration and evaluation is carried out in the area, it
results in increasing productivity of industrial minerals which creates a good job opportunities
for local peoples and it increases supply of industrial mineral products.

Local peoples engaged in artisanal mining in the study area are facing different problems caused
by lack of knowledge about mining safety. For example, when the worker cut & sizes the
dimension stones there are dust particles and splinters that can enter in to his/her eyes capable ofs
causing injures and other health problems. This project could help them to understand about the
safety mechanisms during mining activity and be aware of the related problems. The people
should also consider the negative impact of mining on groundwater quality and surface land
degradation. In addition to this the current project work could help as a primary reference for
future study.

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1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE PRESENT STUDY
1.3.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE

The general objective of this project work is mainly concerned with the investigation,
characterization and mapping of industrial minerals and rocks around Dilla town in Southern
Ethiopia.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
The study is emphasized to attain the following specific objectives.
 Construction of geological map of the study area at a scale of 1: 50, 000,
 Examining the types of industrial minerals and rocks,
 Reserve estimation of the existing industrial minerals and rocks in the study
area,
 Assessing the economic use of these industrial minerals and rocks,
 Constructing the stratigraphy of the study area

1.4 Materials and Methodology

1.4.1 Materials
The materials used in the work and their respective applications are given below as:-

 Topographic map: - used to delineate current study area, as a base map to prepare
different maps, and located ourselves during the time of field work,
 Geographical positioning system (GPS): - used to measure elevation, easting and
northing,
 Camera: - is used to take photos (i.e. structures and lithologies),
 Geological hammer: - used to break representative rock samples,
 Colored pencil: - used to mark points on both geological and topographic maps,
 Sample bag: - used to collect different samples and carry from field,
 Markers: - used in coding the samples and
 Hand lenses: - used to magnify the grains in the minerals and rocks.

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1.4.2 METHDOLOGY

1.4.2.1 Data Collection Method

Both primary and secondary data have been collected to achieve the objectives of this project
work. The primary data was collected by using combination of methods like, field observation,
sample collecttion, descrption of different lithology and GPS reading and measurements of
orentation of different structures. On the other hand, secondary data obtained from published and
unpublished reports, previous maps, related newspapers, written journal articles, internet website
and others. From these, we got occurrence, location, areal covarge data, local applications of the
rocks and processing mechanisms used in the area.

1.4.2.2 Data Analysis and Interpretation

 The data that is obtained from primary and secondary source was analyzed
using stratigraphic column, geological map and topographic maps.
Geaological and resource distribution maps at scale of 1:50,000 are
constructed, resource estimation is done beside stratigraphic log. Finally, the
data is interpreted according to the objective of the project work.

1.5 Significance of the study

This study will generate some practical facts that may serve as a means to discover new potential
sites to increase the production of industrial minerals & rocks in the study area. Furthermore, it
contributes some tangible input to the effects of mining in health, ground water quality and land
degradation. This would give much opportunity to the local miners to have more information
about mining safety and it helps the industries to increase their participation in the field in one
and another way.

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1.6 Literature review

Industrial minerals and rocks are important for different purpose like, for construction,
agriculture, chemical industry, etc. Mineral resources are important natural assets and are in
nation’s best interest to stimulate a greater understanding of its indigenous wealth. Information
on the extent, quality and distribution of potential economic mineral resources is essential for
effective and informed decision which is critical to meet the objectives of sustainable
development. Thus, the geological survey of Ethiopia (GSE) has established in 1968 as a
national institution responsible for geological mapping, ground and air borne geophysical
surveys, mineral exploration and evaluation as well as geotechnical, hydro-geological and
geothermal activities. (Tibebu M.and Hailemichael F., 2003)

Industrial raw materials and rocks are crucial for the economic development of any country.
Improvement of infrastructure and growth of the manufacturing sector requires a dependable
supply of good quality construction raw mineral as well as a wide range of industrial minerals
and rocks.

Despite the availability of significant number of industrial mineral resources, Ethiopia has been
importing raw materials and related products to supply the existing industries. These include
lime, fillers, pigments, glass, flux materials, refractory bricks, bentonite, diatomite and others.

The indusial mineral resources on the country occur in all the three rock types (metamorphic,
sedimentary and volcanic) ranging in age from Precambrian to the recent (Tibebu M., and H/
Michael F., 2003).

Ethiopia is endowed with a variety of industrial minerals and rocks some of which are available
in large quantities and are very good quality. However, only small proportion of such resource is
currently being exploited. In the view of known resources the glass, cement, ceramics, refractory
and fertilizer industries appear to be most promising sectors for development also in the interest
of the country’s future development. (Tibebu M. and H/michale F,)

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1.6.1 Previous work

At country level, there is small scale (1:2,000,000) geological map which cover all part of the
country and another more detailed one at a scale of 1:250,000 which covers about 46% of the
country prepared by the institute of ‘Geological survey of Ethiopia (GSE)’. Thus, Dilla-Koti area
is covered only at scale of 1:2,000,000 geological maps which are very general with less detail
geological data.

Previously, geology of Dilla-Koti area has been studied by Dilla-University geology department
(Habtom et.al. 2011). According to these geologists, their study gives emphasis on geological
map study which is the corner stone of every geological study related to geological scientific
research and/or resource development. According to (Habtom et.al. 2011) the dominant rock
exposures encountered in Dilla-Koti area are tuffs, ignimbrite, basalt, rhyolite and trachyt where
they form eight lithological groups with various proportional combinations. Rhyolite and trachyt
are the dominant rocks on the area covering much of the escarpments and domes.

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 CHAPETER TWO

REGIONAL GEOLOGY, STRATIGRAPY AND STRUCTURE

The structural and igneous events of the east African rift system, in general, the Ethiopian rift, in
particular, have passed several geological events during Tertiary-Recent evolution of the system to
produce the present day geologic and geomorphologic features of the region (Raunet, 1976). This
period were mainly characterized by volcanic processes with minor quaternary sedimentation. The
Ethiopian volcanics were divided into two main series: Trap Series (or plateau Series) and rift
volcanic (Mohr, 1971; Mohr, 1983; Zanettin and Justin-Visentin, 1974; Zanettin, 1993; etc as cited
in Tamiru (2006).

In the tertiary, an uplifting of the Precambrian crystalline basement (together with its sedimentary
cover where it exists) began, as a result of the internal thrust and convexo movements within the
mantle under the Earth’s crust. Under the effect of this tension, the basal complex cracked and let
through huge amounts of basaltic lava, followed by ignimbrite outpourings. These volcanic
formations, which may be up to thousand meters thick, make up the “trap Series”. The total area
covered by flood basalts (trap series) in Ethiopia has been estimated to be 600,000 km 2 (Mohr and
Zanettin, 1988). These flood lavas have been divided into groups:

2.1 Ashange Group: consists predominantly of thick basalt lava flow, trachytes and rhyolites
with interbeded pyroclastics erupted from fissures. The flows have variable thickness of 200-
1200m. The thickest exposed sections occur close to the rift escarpment, suggesting that the main
source was associated with the rifting. The fissural basalts are represented by transitional but with
alkaline affinity, and are characterized by a lower Na 2O/K2O ratio and lower content in Al2O3.

2.2 Meqdela group: outcropped within the Ethiopian rift, on the escarpment and near plateaus.
Acidic rocks including acid tuffs, mostly ignimbrites, rhyolite and trachytes. They are interbeded
with lavas and agglomerates of basaltic composition.
The maximum thickness of trap series on the Ethiopian plateau is 3500m and is represented by
Semien Mountain while in the NE plateau the maximum thickness is 2500m on Arsi highland. In
Sidamo, the thickness of trap series richs up to 1000m (Mohr, 1971).
In the late tertiary and early Pleistocene, as a result of this release of large amount of magma and
the gradual widening of the fractures, a continual-scale collapse occurred and gave rise to the rift
valley. The Ethiopian rift is the northernmost extension of the great East African rift that extends
from North-Eastern Ethiopia to Mozambique in South Africa, with a length of more than 4000km.
The Central Main Ethiopian Rift (MER) is a large 1km deep Graben with an average width of
about 70-80 km an a length of 700 km stretching from the Ethiopian-Kenyan border in the south to
the Afar depression in the north (Di Paola, 1972). The rift dissects the high lands of the country
into the eastern (Harar) and the Western (Central Ethiopia) plateaus and is bounded on two sides
by a series of large normal faults. In early Pliestocene, mostly to the north of Lake Abaya, was filled

8
with deposits from ash clouds, which poured from the cracks and gave rise to ignimbrites. In
quaternary the alteration of the basic outpouring (alkaline basalts) and acidic outpourings (ryolites,
ignimbrites, obsidians, pumice and ashes) occurred. After it had collapsed, the rift valley was
covered, during the quaternary, with lacustrine stretches, of which the present lakes are only
remnants. Thus, the post-rift volcanic activity very often took place in lacustrine environment and
environment and produced rocks with produced rocks with volcano-lacustrine facies (ryholite, and
ignimbrite, pumice, tuffs, clays, etc). Recent fractures began during the Holocene; they run NNE-
SSW and have sheared all the earlier formations of the rift floor, especially in the centers. This fault
belt is called, by Mohr (1967), a Wonji Fault Belt and it is extremely dense in places (Zanettine,
1978; Boccaletti, M. et al, 1997). It has been suggested that east–west structures may be an
important factor in controlling the locations of volcanism along the rift. Thick sediment
accumulations of lacustrine origin cover large areas of the rift floor (Solomon Tadesse, 2009).
The below table (Table 1) presents the summary of stratigraphy of the region as compiled from
Tamiru (2006), Solomon (2009), and other geological literatures.

Table 1. Stratigraphy of the regional Geology (compiled from Tamiru (2006) and Solomon (2009)).

Relative age Lithologic unit

Coluvial and alluvial deposit: boulders, pebbles, gravels,

Recent formation

sands
Holocene

Lacustrine deposits: silt and clay

River delta sediments

Fissural basaltic rocks with related scoria cones

Uppe

Volcano sedimentary rocks

Pleistocene

Middle

Ignimbrite with rhyolite and pumice

Lower

Rhyolite
Oligocene-
Miocene

Olivine basalt

Ignimbrite with minor tuff, volcanic breccia

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Concerning the structural setup of Ethiopian rift, the region is affected by a system of faults as a
result of active extensional tectonics, which is a characteristic of the Main Ethiopian Rift

Figure2. 1 Structural map of Ethiopian Rift (after Boccaletti, 1997)

10
(MER) as a whole (Boccaletti, 1997). Two main fault systems have been distinguished in the MER:
a N30°E-N40°E trending fault system which characterize mainly the rift margins, and a N-S to
N20°E trending fault system, the Wonji Fault Belt (WFB) of Mohr (1962), which exhibits a number
of overlapping, right stepping en-echelon fault zone obliquely cutting the rift floor.
MER attains a width of about 100km in the central sector, between Fonko and Langano lake area,
but narrows southwards in the Abaya Lake region where it is bifurcated by N-S striking Amaro
horst. In this area the whole rift graben is separated in to Ganjuli basin (Abaya-Chamo basin) in
the west and the Gelana depression in the east.

The eastern margin is well developed and it is defined by more or less continuous system of
boundary faults, whereas western boundary border is marked only by a few non-continuous major
faults.
According to Boccaletti (1997), in the southern rift, the western margin is marked by N-S to N20°E
striking faults and the eastern margin is marked by about N25°E from north as far as Dilla area,
south of which the direction becomes more or less N-S. Vertical displacement along the main
boundary faults increases southwards where it reaches more than 1000m in Dilla area. To the west
curvlinear boundary fault having an orientation between N-S and N40°E, rises up to 1700m higher
than the Ganjuli basin.
WFB is highly concentrated in the rift valley floor, the area most affected by these tectonics
are north of lake Abaya, the narrow strip of the land separating lakes Chamo and Abaya,
West of Abaya lake (Mirab-abaya), and parts of Gelana basin. The first three areas belong
to the same tectonic processes but it seems to be interrupted because it is hidden by lake
Abaya, however it probably continue over the bottom of the lake as suggested by the line of
small islands. Figure 3 representing reconnaissance structural map of Ethiopian rift.

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 Cairo
Fig 2.2
structural
relationship
of east
African rift
system (from
google earth)
KHARTOUM

CHAPTER ADDIS ABABA

THREE

GEOLOGY
OF THE NAIROBI INDIAN OC EAN

STUDY
AREA DAR ES SALAAM
DAR ES SELAAM

3.1
Introduction

The study area is found around Samaro and Walleme area in Gedeo zone, Southern Ethiopia with in
the range of 0417000E to 0423000E and 0700000N to 0712000N.The Study area covers 30,000,000m 2
(30km2) area and the over all thickness of the study area is 160m.Major lithologic units are rhyolite,
ignimbrite, tuff and ash with major geological structures such as fault and joint. The target area is
characterized by undulated topography and the existing industrial minerals and rock are mostly
grouped under extrusive igneous rocks. Investigated and characterized industrial rocks and
minerals of area are exposed along the river cuts, hill sides quarry sites and road laterally
extending throughout the study area.

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3.2 Lithologic Units
Generally, there are two types of volcanic rocks in the study area. These are lava flow and
pyroclastic deposite, each of them being described as follows.

3.2.1 Lava flow

3.2.1.1 Rhyolite

Rhyolite is an extrusive felsic (silicic) volcanic industrial rock. The high silica content and lower
temperature of Rhyolite magma results in high viscosities and violent eruptive styles. It is silica
enriched and depleted in iron & magnesium in composition.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wik/rhyolite/)

Rhyolite unit is found in the northern part of the study area which is exposed at the hill side. This
unit is formed by lava flow. It has aphanetic texture with light brown to grey color. It also shows
alternating bands of light & pink colors. In the same place, the original color of the rhyolite is
changed to black due to weathering.

Fig3. 1 Field photo of rhyolite unit (around Oda Ya’a campus)

3.2.2 Pyroclastic Deposit

3.2.2.1 Ignimbrite
Ignimbrite is produced by voluminous eruption of rhyolitic magma; it is a welded pyroclastic
flow deposit type. The welding is due to mechanical welding and welding compaction.
Mechanical welding is due to overlaying material. Ignimbrite that is formed at higher

13
temperature is highly welded and the materials will be interlocked or hardened than ignimbrite
that is formed at lower temperature. Due to this property, ignimbrite’s hardness increase
downward in the study area. It covers wide area in the study area and is exposed along Waleme
river cut, quarry sites and road cuts.It contians some crystals.

Fig 3.2 Field photo of iginimbrite unit around Waleme

3.2.2.2 Tuff
This unit is less compacted compared to ignimbrite. It contains lithic fragments that vary in color from
dull to light. Tuff found in the area is one part of the Meqdela group. It is formed by pyroclastic fall
deposit. This unit is mostly found with intercalation of ash and ignimbrite; it is exposed at road
cut and quarry site in the study area. It is felsic (acidic) in composition.

14
Fig 3.3 Field photo of tuff unit around Waleme

3.2.2.3 ASH
It covers wide of area of the study area.Volcanic ash consists of pulverized fragments, rock
minerals and volcanic glass created during volcanic eruption and the grains are less than 2mm in
diameter. Volcanic ash is formed during explosive volcanic eruptions when dissolved gases in
magma expand and escape violently in to the atmosphere. In the study area, ash deposit is found
in gentle slope in which the area is covered by agricultural crops. Due to its wide dispersal, ash
can have a number of impacts on society, including human and animal health, disruption to
aviation, disruption to infrastructures(e.g. electric power supply systems, telecommunications,
water and waste water networks etc).

3.4 Field photo of Ash unit around Main campas Dilla university

3.3 Mineral

3.3.1 Kaoline (China clay)

Kaoline is economicaly important industrial mineral in the study area. It is a commerical clay
pricipitated and hydrated ammino silica clay mineral from kaolinite. In some parts of the study
area silica and feldspar rich rock like ignimbrite is altered in to koaline mineral. It is fine grained,
unconsolidated and is brightish and reddish in color. It is found around Waleme and Mejege
rivers in small amount.

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Fig 3.5 Field photo of kaoline mineral from waleme junction

3.4 Geological Structures

Primary geological structures such as bedding and secondary structures such as faults and joints are
identified in the study area.

3.4.1 Fault

Fault is found in ignimbrite and tuff unit around Walleme in the study area. The fault
which is found in ignimbrite has strike of N300W and dips towards 1200NE. It shows fault
escarpment which is characterized by horst graben normal fault. The Waleme river crosses
the ignimbrite as it lows along the graben bed.

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Fig 3.6 Horst graben fault around Waleme

3.4.2 Joints
These structures are the dominant structures in the study area and are recognized in ignimbrite
unit. The joint found in Ignimbrite unit is non systematic joint and the spaces are filled with
soils. The joint spacing in the ignimbrite unit is approximately 1 meter. The joint aparture in the
ignimbrite unit is estimared to be 10 centimeter.

Fig 3.6 Field photo of joint around Waleme

3.4.3 Bedding
Bedding is found between ash, tuff and ignimbrite unit from top to bottom respective

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 CHAPTER FOUR

USE OF INDUSTRIAL MINERALS AND ROCKS

Industrial mineral deposits significantly differ from others because of customer
specification for industrial minerals products are frequently based solely on physical properties
rather than chemical property, their price are sensitive to market demand and product
specification and industrial minerals are produced in unequally impressive range of tonnage.
There are different industrial minerals and rocks found in the study area, in which these rocks
and minerals are used for buildings, different constructions, monument, for agricultural work and
as raw materials for different industries. Ignimbrite is most exploited and extensively used rock
in the area. Tuff and ignimbrite are generally porous, soft to sharpen and easy to split; hence they
have been used as building stones in Dilla area for long time. Also these volcanic rocks found in
the study area are compositionally rich in silica, in which silica is the most important industrial
minerals used as raw materials for different industries in making glass, refractory, paint, plastics,
making ceramics and it creates a good job opportunity for the community.

Industrial minerals and rocks are classified based on different methods. Mainly they are
classified on bases of their applications/end uses as those used for construction, ceramics. ,
electronics, plastics, glass, detergents, paper and house decorative (Harris, F.P 1984)

Table2. Classification of IMR in the study area

Industrial minerals and rocks

Constructio Dimension stones Example: Rhyolite and
n materials Ignimbrite
Aggregate Example: Rhyolite
1
Cobble stone Example: Ignimbrite

2 clay deposits Ceramic Example: kaolin

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 4.1Construction Material
In the the study area among the identified industrial mineral and rocks, ignimbrite and rhyolite
are widely used for construction purpose.

Ignimbrite that is found in the area is well weleded, alkaline rich and is characterized by low
degree of weathering. It is proccessed and shaped as per requirement in the study area by
different quarring industries.

Fig 4.1Field photo of constraction material which prepared from ignimbrite

19
Rhyolite of the study area is highly compacted, felsic in compostion and is characterized by low
degree of weathring. It is proccessed and used for construction.

Fig 4.2 Field photo construction material which prepared from rhyolite

4.2 Dimention stone

Dimention stone can be prepared from different industrial minerals and rocks such as rhyolite
and ignimbrite. At this study area, most of the area is covered by ignimbrite which is suitable for
dimention stone because ignimbrite can be easily shaped and cutted since its strength is relatively
weaker than rhyolite.

4.3 Agregate Resource potential

The study area contains rhyolite which has a potentioal for aggregate production. The aggregate
can be made by machine (grinder) or from fine sediments along the flowing rivers.

4.4 Cobblestone and Ceramics

Ignimbrite of the study area can be used as a cobblestone for road and the mineral kaoline of the study
area can be used for ceramics.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

5.1 OCCURENCE OF INDUSTRIAL MINERALS AND ROCKS

In the study area there are different types of industrial mineral and rocks that formed by
different volcanic eruption. They are exposed at different locality across river cut, road cut and
hill side. The most dominant industrial rocks in the study area are rhyolite, ignimbrite, tuff and
ash beside the mineral kaolinite. All of these industrial mineral and rocks that found in the study
area are acidic (felsic) in composition and they are formed by explosive type of volcanic
eruption. The study area is found along MER on which there is high thermal reservior in which
there is intraction of hot water and magma and explusive eruption occures.

Among the industrial mineral and rock of the study area, rhyolite and ignimbrite have
good quality interms of strength and degree of consolidation. But the rest ash and tuff do not
have good quality due to very low degree of consodalidation and strength. Therefore, from the
study area only ignimbrite and rhyolite are used for construction purpose as a dimention stone,
aggrigate and cobbleston.

At some area there is kaoline mineral, treated igneous industrial mineral, exist due to
alteration of acid rich rock but in small amount. The quantity of industrial mineral and rock in
the study area in cubic kilometre is as follow.

Ignimbrite = 0.735 cubic kilometer

Rhyolite = 0.09 cubic kilometer

This means that ignimbrite covers more area. Most of the rhyolite is distributed throught
study area along hill side; where as ignimbrite is distributed at lower elevation along walleme
river cut. Ash and tuff overlies ignimbrite unit.

5.2 Charaterization of industrial Minerals and Rocks

Industrial minerals and rocks found in the study area are geological materials which are mined
for their commercial value which are not fuel(fuel minerals) and are not source of metals
(metallic minerals) but used in industries based on their physical and/or chemical properties.
They are used in their natural state or after beneficiation either as raw material or as additives in
wide range of applications.

The study area is igneous terrian, so each geological material is characterized by its texture and
mineral composition (West, 1995; Tugrul and Zarif, 1999). Fine grained acidic igneous rock
(ignimbrite and ryholite in the area) can result in alkali silica reaction when used as aggregate in
portland cement leading to volumetric expantion and cracking.

21
Rocks that are found in the area such as ignimbrite and rhyolite can be used for construction
purpose and as a dimensionstone since they are welded, posses low weathering, low pourosity,
found in sufficient quantity and appropriate strength and density.

5.3 Mining Activity in the Study Area

In the study area there are different quarry sites in which there is producation of industrial
rocks. The local people have been mining the existing industrial rocks at different locality such
as ignimbrite and rhyolite. Generally, the rocks from the quarry sites are used for extracting
construction materials such as dimension stones, ornamental stones, and different rocks used for
building and other industrial raw material. In addition to this, there is fine aggrigate producation
potential along Walleme and Mejege rivers..

5.3.1Waleme Quarry Site

Ignimbrite and tuff are exposed in both side of the Waleme river. Due to this, local peoples
extract ignimbrite easily at different locations by following along the river. On the top of the
river side’s there are low strength and low density rock units called tuff. As depth increases, the
rocks are more welded by either mechanical (overloading) or thermal welding; high strength
rock units called ignimbrite is found. Ignimbrites extracted from this quarry site are expensive
and used in both buildings and aggregates due to high strength. In this quarry site there is
approximately about 4500m3total reserve of ignimbrite..

Fig 5.1 Waleme quarry site

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5.3.2 Fine Aggregate Production
Sand suppliers for site workers (miners) are Mejege and Waleme river beds’s sediments
and alluvial deposits. Thus, fine aggregate (sand) is mined by dredging method, in which sand is
collected from river beds and bottom of running water using shovel. The aggregate supply is
very low. Very old quarrying mechanism is made and the producers do not attempt to clean and
grade the sand rightly from the source.

Fig 5.2 Fine aggregate production at Mejege rever

5.4 Preliminary Reserve Potential Estimation

Reserve calculation and/or estimation of the industrial minerals and rocks, which is very
important to give a hypothesis on the sustainability of the raw materials on the area, which are
studied under the delineated study area is one of the specific objectives of this project work. The
industrial minerals and rocks that have been studied in the study area include ignimbrite, rhyolite
and kaolinite. The reserve estimation of an industrial minerals and rocks is determined based on
anequation (A.Salman et al., 2009 and O.A.Ehinola, 2007) in which areal coverage, thickness,
volume and bulk density of each industrial minerals and rocks is very important.

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The area of influence is obtained from a plan or section of the geological map by dividing the
area of each raw material in to regular square sub areas. And hence for each square area (Ai) is
obtained as:

Ai= L x W; where, Ai = area of one square

L= length and

W = width of the square

By calculating the area of each square, then finally you can find out the total area of influence for
each raw material as follows:

AT = ∑ Ai; where, AT = total area of the raw material

n= number of square (sub area)

Another important data called the thickness of raw material is found from elevation dated by
using GPS reading. So by calculating elevation difference at each contact line of different
lithologies, it is possible to estimate the reserve of each industrial minerals and rocks. Finally, the
bulk density of each industrial minerals and rocks is also important data for reserve estimation
gathered from different literatures on the internet.

Generally, using the above information, a conventional method in calculating the reserve
potential of the raw materials, a formula with its variation is used and it is:

T = A x Th x BD; where, T = Tonnage (in tons),

A = area of influence on a plan or section (in Km2)

Th = thickness of raw material within the area of influence (in m); and

BD = bulk density of raw materials

Since, volume is also calculated as, V = A x Th

Therefore, T = V x BD

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Table 3: Reserve estimation

Raw Total area Average Volume Reserve

No material (Km2) thickness (Km3) (tonnage)
(Km) (V=A*Th)
1 Ignimbrite 10.5 0.07 0.735 0.735
2 Rhyolite 1.5 0.06 0.09 0.09

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 CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 CONCLUSIONS
The study area is located around Samaro and Waleme area, Gedeo zone, Southern Ethiopia
with the range of 0417000E to 0423000E and 0700000N to 0712000N.The main objective of this
project work was mapping and investigation of IMR.To fullfill the objective different
methodologies and datas have been used such as traversing across the study area by selecting
suitable traverse lines to collect samples, take measurements and photographs of the visible
lithologies and to describe the existing IMR and different literatures have been revised.

In this study area mainly fine grained igneous rocks such as ignimbrite and rhyolite are
quarried as amain industrial rocks. They are quarried for different purposes and the work creates
a job opportunities to the local residents. The rocks and minerals of the study area can be used
for building, construction, cobblestone, monument, agricultures and raw materials for different
industries and indirectly used as source of income for local peoples. Ignimbrite covers larger area
than the others followed by rhyolite as areserve.

There are geological structures such as faults and joints studied in the field. Most river of the
catchment area flows following these faults and hot springs rise up through them. The hot spring
is mostly used for social bathing, refreshment and as a holy water.

The stratigraphy of the regional geology includes ignimbrite, rhyolite, tuff, lithic and crystal
tuff, agglomerate and ash. The study area, which is part of MER and is included under Ashangi
group, also includes ignimbrite, tuff, rhyolite and ash.

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 6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
 During mining, local miners do not use any personal protective equipment; because their
mining mechanism may results injuries and serious diseases. Then, the government and
related organizations that took place in such activities should give awareness about what
are the diseases and injuries related to mining activities without using personal protective
equipment’s and their mitigation for local people.
 In some quarry sites found in the study area, quarrying operations where stopped because
splitting the resources (rocks) using their current equipments and man power due to the
increase in strength and compactness as we move down depth. So, we advise local miners
to follow weak zones such as joints in order to split harder rocks easily and the
government and the industry owners should support the workers by supplying modern
suitable mining equipment’s in order to increase productivity of mining sector, save
energy and time.
 And also these volcanic rocks found in the study area compositionally rich in silica, in
which silica is the most important industrial minerals used as raw materials for different
industries. It is used for making glass, refractory, paint, plastics and is used for making
different ceramics. But there is no mining companies that works on these resources.
There is lack of advertisement aboout potential of industrial minerals and rocks of the
study area. Geophysical surveys have to be conducted too.
 In the study area, there are industrial minerals and rocks with more than enough quantity
and high quality. Therefore, to extract these raw materials different private quarrying
industries should have to be implemented and invest at the area for the development of
the town as well as the country.
 There could exist potential geothermal energy reserviors along faulted areas (i,e hot
spring). So, the geverment should plan for geothermal energy exploration along those
areas to increase our country’s capital.
 Environmental, health and socio cultural impacts of mining in the areas should be clearly
identified and solved.
 The mining mechanisms have to be modernized.

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