A Performance Evaluation
of the Tennis Serve:
Implications for Strength,
Speed, Power, and
Flexibility Training
Mark S. Kovacs, PhD, CSCS1 and Todd S. Ellenbecker, DPT, CSCS2,3
1
Player Development, United States Tennis Association, Boca Raton, Florida; 2Physiotherapy Associates, Scottsdale
Sports Clinic, Scottsdale, Arizona; and 3Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) World Tour, Ponte Vedra Beach,
Florida
SUMMARY
THE TENNIS SERVE IS THE
MOST POWERFUL AND POTEN-
TIALLY DOMINANT SHOT IN TEN-
NIS, YET VERY FEW PLAYERS
PERFORM THIS WITH MAXIMUM
VELOCITY, POWER, OR SPIN ON
A CONSISTENT BASIS. THIS AR-
TICLE WILL DISCUSS 3 PHASES
AND 8 STAGES OF THE TENNIS
SERVE WITH HIGHLIGHTED
EVALUATION MARKERS THAT
CAN AID THE COACH OR
TRAINER IN DEVELOPING TRAIN-
ING PROGRAMS WITH SPECIFIC
EXERCISES AND DRILLS TO IM-
PROVE THE QUALITY OF THE
ATHLETE’S TENNIS SERVE. THE
8 STAGES ARE THE (A) START, (B)
RELEASE, (C) LOADING, (D)
COCKING, (E) ACCELERATION,
(F) CONTACT, (G) DECELERA-
TION, AND (H) FINISH. THIS ARTI-
CLE WILL HIGHLIGHT COMMON
FLAWS IN TECHNIQUE AND
PROVIDE SUGGESTED EXER-
CISES AND RECOMMENDATIONS
TO IMPROVE THE RELIABILITY,
VELOCITY, AND SPIN OF THE
SERVE.
22 VOLUME 33 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2011
INTRODUCTION
he tennis serve provides stren-
T gth and conditioning specialists,
sport scientists, players, coaches,
physical therapists, and athletic trainers
a great opportunity to improve perfor-
mance. It can also lead to potential
injury if the stroke is not performed with
appropriate technique or if the physical
aspects of the athlete (strength, speed,
power, flexibility, muscular endurance,
and muscular balance) are not trained
correctly. It is the only stroke in tennis
that is 100% under control of the player,
and it is not a response to a ball hit by an
opponent. The serve does produce large
loads on the shoulder and lower back,
which can result in overuse injuries
(4,12,18,20). It is also a highly complex
stroke because of the reliance on mul-
tiple segments in the kinetic chain to
produce power through properly timed
rotations and complex coordinated
muscular activations (28), as well as
the most important from a strategic
standpoint (15,19). The difficulty in the
movement results from the summation
of forces from the ground up through
the kinetic chain and out into the
ball. This summation of forces is also
required in forehand and backhand
Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association
groundstrokes for successful stroke
performance. On the serve, if this is
successfully performed, this summation
of forces is achieved while also throwing
the ball upward (with the nondominant
hand) and impacting the ball just below
its peak on its downward flight (2).
Effective servers use the kinetic chain
via a muscle activation synchrony of the
coordinated lower extremity muscles
that provide a stable base for the trunk/
core to rotate and extend and flex while
also helping to produce force. If any of
the links in the chain are not synchro-
nized effectively, the outcome of the
serve will not be optimal (i.e., velocity,
spin, placement, and reliability) (17).
The serve has been studied in a similar
manner to the baseball throwing mo-
tion, and although much can be gained
from the data in baseball, some vital
differences exist between the serving
motion and the throwing motion (5,14).
Some of these differences include the
planes of motion, the use of the non-
dominant arm, the trajectory of the
KEY WORDS:
coaching; overhead athlete;
biomechanics
forces produced and released, technical
components of the movement of the
lower body and hips, as well as the
variety in ball placements. Another
major difference is that unlike in
baseball pitching, the tennis serve has
a long segment (tennis racket) that hits
the ball, as opposed to a shorter lever (in
baseball) that throws the ball (5,12,14).
The purpose of this article is to provide
a practical performance evaluation of
the tennis serve using 8 specific stages,
and from these 8 stages, tennis-specific
exercises can be incorporated based on
areas of identified weakness or to
improve performance. This article will
build upon the small body of literature
on serve-specific strength and condi-
tioning exercises that can improve the
performance and reduce injuries asso-
ciated with the tennis serve (19,25,26).
To fully evaluate the tennis serve,
a need exists to alter the components
usually seen in the traditional throwing
analysis (13,16). The 6 stages of
the traditional throwing analysis are
(a) windup, (b) early cocking/stride,
(c) late cocking, (d) acceleration, (e)
Figure 1. Phases and stages of the tennis serve.
deceleration, and (f ) follow-through,
whereas the following 8-stage model is
a more detailed analysis tool for
strength and conditioning specialists
and coaches. The 8-stage model has 3
distinct phases— preparation, accelera-
tion, and follow-through phases. The
phases describe 3 distinct dynamic
purposes of the tennis serve: to store
energy (preparation phase), to release
energy (acceleration phase), to decel-
erate and come to a complete stop
(follow-through phase) and prepare for
the next movement. However, before
specifically discussing each of the
stages, a brief discussion of the kinetic
chain’s role in the serve is needed. To
highlight the role of the entire body in
these stages (Figure 1), a segmented
analysis is very helpful from a clinical
understanding. Each stage is a direct
result of muscle activation and techni-
cal adjustments made in the previous
stage, and it is important when evalu-
ating an athlete to look at the serve
from a total body perspective and not
only in a segmented fashion. These 8
stages are listed as specific time points.
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org
Remember that movements occur
between each still photograph, which
represent the true dynamic character-
istics that occur during each stage of
the tennis serve. It also needs to be
highlighted that 2 stages are actually
a specific split-second point in time
(cocking and contact), and although
described as a stage for language
consistency purposes in the analysis,
they actually represent a mere instant
in time.
PHASES AND STAGES OF THE
TENNIS SERVE
PREPARATION PHASE—START
STAGE (STAGE 1)
The start of a player’s serve is a rather
individual aspect of the service motion
and does not directly influence the
force production due to no ground
reaction forces (GRFs) above those of
standing at this point in the motion
(Figure 2) (27). Many players start
using varying technique, feet positions,
and timing. The goal of the start is to
align the body to best use GRFs
throughout the remainder of the
service motion. Most individual
23
A Performance Evaluation of the Tennis Serve
Figure 2. Preparation phase—start
stage of the tennis serve.
differences seen during the start stage
of the serve are stylistic and do not
necessarily have any direct influence
on the outcomes of the serve (speed,
spin, accuracy, and consistency). How-
ever, general training for balance and
stability is helpful during this stage.
Exercise: balance disc tennis service–
specific isometric quarter squat.
Stand with a balance disc or stability
trainer under each foot assuming the
starting position of the service motion.
Maintain optimal balanced position
with slight knee bend and hands
together in front. Hold for a period of
30 seconds and repeat several times. Be
sure to use a racket and ball to best
simulate the balance position of the
serve motion (figure 3). An additional
variation of this exercise is to do
a single-leg balance, which is more
difficult to further challenge the body
and train to increase proprioception
and balance.
PREPARATION PHASE—RELEASE
STAGE (STAGE 2)
This stage is the time when the ball is
released from the nondominant hand
(left hand in a right-handed server),
and this is a very important stage of the
entire service motion because the ball
release and positioning of the ball in air
is vital in determining the ball contact;
also it is important that this release
24 VOLUME 33 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2011
Figure 3. Balance disc tennis service–
specific isometric quarter
squat.
stage is performed correctly (Figure 4).
Unfortunately, no valid and reliable
published data have been performed
on the outcomes of how different
release angles, heights, spins, and speeds
may ultimately influence the remainder
of the service motion, specifically the
influence on force production, loading
mechanics, etc.
Figure 4. Preparation phase—release
stage of the tennis serve.
Exercise: foam roll—lat. Lay directly
on your left side (right-handed server)
over a foam roll placed perpendicular
to your body as pictured. With the
foam roll placed under your side and
with the tossing arm in an overhead
position, roll back and forth over the
foam roll to stretch the latissimus dorsi
muscle on your left side. Note that the
weight of the lower body is supported
on the outside border of the foot.
Repeat for several sets of 30-second
stretches (Figure 5).
PREPARATION PHASE—LOADING
STAGE (STAGE 3)
During the loading phase (Figure 6),
there are 2 broad types of lower-body
loading (foot position) options—the
foot-back or the foot-up technique
(Figures 7, 8).
Elliott and Wood (11) showed that
players using a foot-up technique de-
veloped greater vertical forces, which
allowed the players to reach a greater
height than players using the foot-
back technique. The foot-up technique
allows the players to develop greater
vertical forces and vertical displacement
than with the foot-back technique
(3,11). The back leg provides most of
the upward and forward push, whereas
the front leg provides a stable post to
allow a stable axis of rotation. Elliott
and Wood (11) have shown that ball
velocities were not different between
foot-up and foot-back techniques.
Service velocity is correlated with
greater muscle forces created by
a forceful leg drive during the loading
stage (Figure 6) (1). According to 1
Figure 5. Foam roll—lat.

Figure 6. Preparation phase—loading
stage of the tennis serve.
study (15), the pushing action, using
a backward to forward sequence, as
evidenced by the higher horizontal
forces in elite-level servers, may be of
greatest importance in generating high-
speed serves. Therefore, maximizing the
leg motion (change in vertical and
horizontal forces) will help produce
a consistent leg drive that can enhance
shoulder action and efficiency. It was
found that elite servers, compared with
beginner servers, had a greater vertical
and horizontal force production. Elite-
level servers activate the major muscles
Figure 7. Foot-back serve technique.
of elastic tubing, position yourself in
the stance position of your service
motion. Reaching up to grasp the
cable or tubing with your right hand
overhead, laterally flex against the
resistance, performing the movement
of right lateral flexion (right-handed
server) and simultaneously pulling the
dominant arm downward as pictured.
Bend the knees to assume the loading
position of the serve. Slowly release the
weight or tubing working eccentrically
as you fight the resistance back upward
to the start position (Figure 9).
Exercise: tennis serve loading stretch.
Stand approximately 1 ft from a wall
with a strap attached overhead as
Figure 8. Foot-up serve technique. shown. With your racket arm grasping
the end of the strap, assume your serving
position (load position) leading forward
of the lower body earlier than less ad- with your front hip. Hold this position
vanced players. This is something that for 30 seconds to gain flexibility in the
should be emphasized during strength tensor fascia latae/iliotibial band and
and conditioning training sessions. quadratus lumborum. Note the position
of the knees in a flexed position to
In general, the lower trunk (core)
muscles become active toward the end simulate loading in preparation for the
explosive acceleration movement of the
of the preparation phase (stage 3,
loading; stage 4, cocking) (4). Shoulder tennis serve (Figure 10). It is important
to understand that this stretches the
and pelvis lateral rear tilt is a component
of all powerful servers before the cocking muscles on the nondominant (tossing
arm) side because the muscles on the
phase (i.e., during the loading phase)
(24). The shoulder and pelvis ‘‘lateral rear
tilt’’ is shown in Figures 7 and 8 and they
describe the movement that places the
right shoulder and right hip (in the right-
handed server) in a position that is lower
than the left shoulder and hip. This rear
lateral tilted alignment facilitates the
development of angular momentum
through lateral trunk flexion during the
forward swing, which is a major factor in
a high-velocity serve (2).
A front knee flexion angle greater than
15° during this loading stage has been
suggested as a good observable marker
for effective front ‘‘leg drive’’ (7). The
activation patterns of the lower trunk
muscles clearly demonstrate a high de-
gree of cocontraction during a tennis
serve, especially during stages 3 to 7 (4).
Exercise: high-cable, single-arm, rota-
tional service pull. In a standing posi- Figure 9. High-cable, single-arm, rota-
tion under an overhead cable or piece tional service pull.
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 25
A Performance Evaluation of the Tennis Serve
dominant side are actually shortened
during this position.
PREPARATION PHASE—COCKING
STAGE (STAGE 4)
An effective cocking position (Figure 11)
is a result of an efficient loading stage
(Figure 6), which aids in increasing the
efficiency of the dominant arm in
driving the racket down and behind
the torso that lengthens the trajectory
of the racket to the ball (9), allowing for
a greater stored potential energy. High
eccentric loads (prestretching) are
applied on the internal rotator muscles
during the late portion of preparation
phase (backswing), which transitions
into the acceleration phase (stage 5)
before impact (1,21).
Maximum shoulder external rotation
was achieved 0.09 (60.01) seconds
before contact in professional tennis
players (12). Leg drive was near
completion (completion = knee flexion
0°) at this stage (12). At the instant of
maximum external rotation, the shoul-
der was abducted 101° (613°), hori-
zontally adducted 7° (6 13°), and
externally rotated 172° (612°), the
elbow was flexed 104° (612°), and
the wrist was extended 66° (619°) in
world-class tennis players (12). This
resulted in a near parallel position
between the racket and the trunk
Figure 10. Tennis serve loading stretch
(with strap or TRX).
26 VOLUME 33 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2011
Figure 11. Preparation phase—cocking
stage of the tennis serve.
(Figure 11). The magnitude of shoulder
external rotation is similar to that for
elite baseball pitchers (175–185°)
(5,14). These large magnitudes of
external rotation are actually a combi-
nation of glenohumeral rotation, scap-
ulothoracic motion, and trunk
extension (5,30). Very high activation
levels of the left internal oblique (in
a right-handed athlete) are seen in the
end of the preparation phase (cocking
stage, Figure 11) and during the
acceleration phase (4).
The stabilizing and approximating role
of the rotator cuff is clearly evident by
the high levels of activation during this
phase of the tennis serve. The moder-
ately high activity (maximum voluntary
isometric contraction 25–53%) (28)
during this phase shows the importance
of both anterior and posterior rotator
cuff strength and scapular stabilization
for proper execution of the required
mechanics for the cocking stage.
The kinematic summary of the gleno-
humeral position during the cocking
stage is of critical importance in injury
prevention in addition to allowing
optimal performance during the tennis
serve. Studies by Elliott et al. (10) and
Fleisig et al (12) both show abduction
of 83° and 101°, respectively, in the
position of maximal external rotation
in the cocking phase. This position also
has significant ramifications for injury
prevention because of the risk of
impingement in the shoulder with
excessive arm elevation (31).
Exercise: 2-arm 90°/90° external
rotation. Stand facing the attachment
point of the elastic tubing secured at
approximately waist height. Keeping
the elbows bent 90° and elbows just
slightly in front of the shoulders
(scapular plane), move the shoulders
into external rotation. Start with a posi-
tion with the forearms nearly horizontal
and end with the forearms in a vertical
position. Use a controlled movement,
especially as you return from the
vertical position to the start position
(eccentric external rotation muscular
contraction) to work the rotator cuff in
a lengthening contraction (Figure 12).
Exercise: reverse 90°/90° catch and
throw. Assume a half kneeling position
(right knee bent for right-
handed player) with your shoulder
abducted 90° and elbow bent 90° as
well. Look slightly behind you toward
a partner who is standing approximately
3 to 4 ft back. Have your partner using
an underhand tossing motion throw
a 0.5-kg-weighted to 1-kg-weighted ball
just in front of your hand. Keeping your
elbow up, catch the ball and decelerate
the movement immediately after catch-
ing the ball. Then explosively throw the
ball back to your partner and repeat. Be
sure to maintain the 90°/90° position
during the exercise (Figure 13). Note
that with younger junior players, a soft-
ball can be used initially because it is
Figure 12. Two-arm 90°/90° external
rotation.
lighter and allows for skill acquisition
and does not overload the often un-
derdeveloped musculature in this area.
Use of a lighter load on this exercise also
ensures that explosive movements can
be used.
ACCELERATION
PHASE—ACCELERATION STAGE
(STAGE 5)
It has been shown that elite servers
have a quicker acceleration phase
(stages 5–6) than beginner servers
(15). It is also known that advanced
serves move from maximum external
rotation to ball contact in less than 0.01
of a second (12). Peak electromyogra-
phy (EMG) data from the vastus
lateralis, vastus medialis, and gastroc-
nemius occur near the end of stage 5
(Figure 8) (15). All the muscles of the
trunk showed their highest EMG
values during the acceleration phase
of the serve (Figure 14) (4).
Acceleration of the racket before ball
impact is accompanied by a rapid
reversal of the rotation of the lumbar
spine—from hyperextension and right
twist or rotation (‘‘counterrotation’’) to
flexion and left twist (rotation) for
a right-hander. This motion (some-
times described as corkscrew) transfers
Figure 13. Reverse 90°/90° throw.
the force of its torque to the spinal
segments (8), and it is important that
each tennis athlete has a structured
core/lower back injury prevention
program in place to offset these rather
unusual body movements.
Consistent with EMG recordings dur-
ing the acceleration phase of throwing
(13), high muscular activity is present
during the forceful concentric internal
rotation of the humerus (28). EMG
research published by Van Gheluwe
and Hebbelinck (29) using intermedi-
ate tennis players and by Miyashita
et al. (23) using skilled and unskilled
tennis players also found high activity
levels of the pectoralis major, as well as
the deltoid, trapezius, and triceps,
during the acceleration phase. Both
the reports showed a relative silence of
electrical activity in the accelerating
musculature during impact, with peak
levels of muscular activity occurring
just before impact. One exception is the
stabilizing contribution of the infra-
spinatus, which remained active during
impact (29). It is important to note the
continuous contraction of the rotator
cuff in the shoulder during the serving
motion both as a stabilizer and as an
accelerator in stage 4 (cocking) and
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org
Figure 14. Acceleration phase—accel-
eration stage of the tennis
serve.
stage 5 (acceleration) and the eccentric
stabilizing function during the follow-
through, but the infraspinatus is most
active during contact.
Exercise: plyometric 90°/90° internal
rotation in service position. Assume
a standing position facing a wall in
a service position. At 90° shoulder
abduction and 90° external rotation,
throw a 1- to 2-kg small medicine ball
against the wall, maintaining a stable
shoulder position at this 90°/90°
position, and catch the ball and repeat
the movement (Figure 15).
Exercise: high retraction in 90°/90°
external rotation. Stand facing the
attachment point of the elastic tubing
secured at approximately waist height.
Abduct the shoulders 90° in the scap-
ular plane (40° forward from the
position directly to your side) to start.
Keeping your elbows bent 90° as
pictured, move your arms backward
squeezing the shoulder blades together.
Hold the end range position for one
count and return to the starting position.
Be careful not to bring the elbows
further back, then directly to your side
as pictured and remember to focus on
the retraction (squeezing together) of
the shoulder blades (Figure 16).
27
A Performance Evaluation of the Tennis Serve
Figure 15. Plyometric 90°/90° internal
rotation in service position.
ACCELERATION PHASE—CONTACT
STAGE (STAGE 6)
At contact (Figure 17), in professional
Olympic tennis players, the trunk has
an average tilt of approximately 48°
above horizontal, the arm (shoulder) is
abducted 101°, and the elbow, wrist,
and lead knee were slightly flexed (12).
These positions are shown in Figure 17.
The mean shoulder abduction just
before contact is approximately 100°,
which supports the 100 6 10° pro-
posed by Matsuo et al. (22) to produce
maximal ball velocity and minimal
shoulder joint loading in baseball pitch-
ing. In another study (24), the angle of
elevation between the upper arm and
thorax at impact was approximately
110° in high-performance servers, irre-
spective of foot-up or foot-back serving
technique. This suggests that there is an
Figure 16. High retraction in 90°/90°
external rotation.
28 VOLUME 33 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2011
Figure 17. Acceleration phase—contact
stage of the tennis serve.
optimum contact point 110 6 15° for
the tennis serve. It has been shown
that elite servers have resulting from
more vigorous knee extension from
stages 3 to 6 (15).
Exercise: tennis serve shot throw.
Stand assuming your normal serve
ready or start position. Take a light
(1–3 kg), small, medicine ball in your
racket hand, and from the loading
position (Figure 18, left), throw the
medicine ball up and forward using
a ‘‘shot-type’’ throwing motion. Em-
phasize the loading position through
knee flexion and trunk rotation and
lateral bend as pictured. The explosive
nature of this exercise will carry the
athlete upward and forward into the
court (Figure 18).
Figure 18. Tennis serve shot throw.
FOLLOW-THROUGH
PHASE—DECELERATION STAGE
(STAGE 7)
The deceleration stage (Figure 19) of
the service motion is one of the most
violent stages of the tennis service
motion, and the majority of injury
prevention training should focus on
developing the upper-body decelera-
tion mechanics and muscles that help
optimize this portion of the service
motion. The left internal oblique was
more active than the right internal
oblique throughout a serve—except
during the deceleration stage (4). The
deceleration force between the trunk
and the arm during the deceleration
stage can be 300 N or higher. This
force is required to stabilize and
support the shoulder against the dis-
traction forces that can equal 0.5 to
0.75 times the body weight or more (6).
To stabilize the trunk during an un-
balanced posture (i.e., the deceleration
phase), the right erector spinae be-
comes highly active during the de-
celeration phase (4).
The follow-through phase is character-
ized by a moderately high activity of the
posterior rotator cuff, serratus anterior,
biceps brachii, deltoid, and latissimus
dorsi musculature. The posterior rotator
cuff activation levels range between 30
Figure 19. Follow-through phase—de-
celeration stage of the tennis
serve.
and 35% maximum voluntary isometric
contraction as the humerus is deceler-
ated after contact (28). This is needed to
maintain glenohumeral stability and
offset the distraction forces incurred
during the follow-through phase.
Exercise: deceleration stage. Stand
facing the attachment point of the
elastic tubing that should be at just
above waist level. Abduct the shoulder
90° and keep the elbow flexed 90°
throughout the performance of this
exercise. Start from a position of 90° of
external rotation (Figure 20) with
moderate tension in the tubing. The
arm will be slightly forward as pictured
to place it in the scapular plane. From
this position, rapidly move the arm into
internal rotation until the forearm is
parallel to the ground. When this
horizontal position is achieved, imme-
diately move the arm back into
external rotation until a vertical fore-
arm position is maintained. Hold that
position for a count of 2 seconds and
then repeat the rapid exchange again.
Perform several sets of 10–15 repeti-
tions to fatigue the posterior rotator
cuff. Note that until the exercise
movement can be optimally isolated
(humeral rotation), it may be helpful to
support the exercising arm’s elbow
with the opposite hand to keep 90°
of abduction.
Figure 20. Plyometric 90°/90° tubing
external rotation.
the single-leg RDL movement to
simulate the landing mechanics and
movement that needs to be strength-
ened to handle the thousands of serves
that a tennis player will hit during
a year (Figure 22).
SUMMARY
The tennis serve is a very complex and
important tennis stroke. The purpose
of this article was to provide an 8-stage
performance evaluation of the tennis
serve with specific exercise suggestions
to improve certain areas of weakness
from a strength, power, flexibility, and
muscular endurance perspective.
Figure 21. Follow-through phase—fin- Mark S.
ish stage of the tennis serve. Kovacs is the
senior manager
FOLLOW-THROUGH of Sport Science/
PHASE—FINISH STAGE (STAGE 8)
Strength and
Landing mechanics after the serve Conditioning for
(Figure 21) are a very important the United States
component because this is where the Tennis Association
majority of lower-body/core eccentric Player Develop-
loading occurs. The finish stage does ment program.
not influence the performance of the
serve, but it is vital in the ‘‘shock-
absorption’’ during the landing. If this Todd S.
stage is not performed appropriately, Ellenbecker is
greater stress will be imparted on the a physical thera-
entire body and could, in the opinion of pist, clinic director
the authors, increase the likelihood of and national
loading related injuries. director of clinical
research, Physio-
therapy Associates
Exercise: jump into single-leg RDL. Scottsdale Sports
This is a modification of a traditional Clinic, and the di-
single-leg Romanian Deadlift (RDL) rector of the Sports
exercise. The only difference is that the Medicine ATP Tour and chairman of the
athlete takes a small forward jump into United States Tennis Association Sport
Science Committee.
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