W I ND E N G I N E E R I N G V O L U M E 26, N O .

2, 20 0 2 PP 8 5 –10 8 85

Variable-Speed Wind Turbines with Doubly-Fed

Induction Generators

Part I: Modelling in Dynamic Simulation Tools

Vladislav Akhmatov .
NESA Transmission Planning, NESA A/S, NESA Allé 1, DK-2820 Gentofte, DENMARK
<vay@nesa.dk>, <va@eltek.dtu.dk>

ABSTRACT
Variable-speed pitch-controlled wind turbines with doubly -fed induction g enerators (D F IG)
are m odelled for power sy stem dy namic stability. T he m odel is ex plained and the parts of
the model are verified. The model is implem ented in the simulation tool PSS/ E and created
as a modular structure. This means that it is possible easily to add other control loops, as
other m odules, to the existing m odel code for ad-hoc investigations. T his article is the first
part of a large work dealing with investigation of dy namic interaction betw een the variable-
speed wind turbines equipped with D F IG and the power grid.

KEYWORDS:
Variable-speed wind turbines, doubly -fed induction g enerators, converter control, pitch
control, dy namic models, simulation tool PSS/ E .

1. INTRODUCTION
This article is the first part of a larg er w ork carried out at NESA Transmission Planning
(NESA ) dealing with investiga tions of dy namic interaction of variable-speed wind turbines
equipped w ith D F IG and large power sy stems. This article focuses primarily on modelling
variable-speed w ind turbines, D F IG and converter control sy stems. The results w ith relation
to power sy stem stability are described in the second part of the investig ation [10, 11]. The
w ork presented has practical relation to dy namic stability investigations carried out at NESA
on behalf of the w ind turbine manufacturer Vestas W ind Sy stem s A / S (Vestas) and the
Ea stern D a nish power sy stem operator, ELK RA F T Sy stem, with incorporation of larg e wind
farm s into power grids in D enmark and w orld w ide.
Conventional stall regulated w ind turbines have asy nchronous g enera tors with short-
circuited rotors, so rotational speed is w ithin the 1 to 2% slip of norm al, ‘fixed speed’, operation.
The power coefficient, C P , is optimised for the m ost probable local wind speed; usually a bout 8
m/ s over land in D enmark ; see Fig. 1. F or the m odelled (‘given’) turbine computed in Fig. 1, the
optimal ‘fixed’ speed is 21.5 R PM at 8 m/ s (called henceforth ‘the sy nchronous speed’), despite
lack of optimisation at other w ind speeds.
However variable-speed operation of the same turbine at optimum tip-speed ratio w ould
produce m ore energy [2, 3, 4]. The benefit is significant for wind speeds below the most
probable if the wind turbine is at otherwise sub-sy nchronous operation, see Fig.1. A t such
‘sub-sy nchronous operation’, the turbine is controlled so that the local maximums of the pow er
efficiency curves, C P , are reached at any wind speed. The other advantage is that the thrust, T on
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the turbine is reduced at sub-synchronous operation. The gain in power production, P M , at wind
speeds above the most probable can be more at variable-speed operation than fixed-speed.

a) Power coefficient, C P, of the given wind turbine as a function of wind speed and rotational speed.

b) Mechanical power, P M , of the given wind turbine as a function of wind speed and rotational speed. The
variable speed is limited at 24.5 RPM for operational reasons; otherwise it would be beneficial to increase
speed further with increase in wind speed above 8 m s.

c) Thrust, T, as a function of wind speed and rotational speed.

Figure 1 2 MW (electric) wind turbine modelled by the Blade Element Momentum (BEM) method, rated mechanical
power 2.2 MW (losses in friction and generator). Pitching at larger than the rated value wind speeds is not
included. Airfoil profiles of [1].
W I ND E N G I N E E R I N G V O L U M E 26, N O . 2, 20 0 2 87

This is because the optimisation of the power efficiency curves, C P , is still possible by
currying the wind turbine in super-sy nchronous m ode. On the other hand, the thrust, T , on the
wind turbine and the tip speed will both increase as the wind and the rotational speed are both
increasing, as show n in Fig . 1 for the thrust. A t increasing rotational speed, the centrifugal
forces on the g enerator windings a nd other rotating parts of the construction are also
increasing. In this case, the fact that the wind turbine is a sel f-bearing constr u ction and
concerns about safely operation of the w ind turbine are tak en into account, more than the
possible g ain in the power.
W ith respect to the construction safety, both the turbine speed and the shaft torque are
limited in order to reduce the mechanical loads on the w ind turbine construction, especially
the thrust, T . Ba sically, the rotational speed is limited to around +10% of its sy nchronous value
(the steady limit, but dy namically up to +30% [3]).
The variable-speed operation m ak es it possible to increase annual power production by
approxim ately 5 % [3]. F or the given w ind turbine, the speed range is between -50% to +10%
with respect to the sy nchronous speed (21.3 R PM) w hich is w hy the w ind turbine is defined as
the fully variable-speed w ind turbine.
The D anish m anufacturer Vestas produces variable-speed w ind turbines equipped with
doubly -fed induction g enerators (D F IG ) - OptiSpeed® w ind turbines1. This sy stem allow s
variable speed operation over a restricted range. The D F IG consists of a w ound rotor
induction generator w ith back-to-back converters on the slip rings of the rotor, as illustrated in
Fig. 2. The rotor converter is controlled by the power electronics (sw itching IG BTs) [5, 6] and
its operation corresponds to adding an ex ternal voltag e phasor in the rotor circuit. The
voltag e phasor is controlled so that the frequency in the rotor circuit corresponds to the
desirable rotational speed of the rotor.

Figure 2 Functional scheme of the DFIG.

Com pared to conv entional asy nchronous g enera tors, the D F IGs m ay hav e sev eral
advantages (depending on the realisation of their control by the converter), such as:

(1) ability of reactive power control,

(2) de-coupling of active and reactive power control by independent control of torque
and rotor excitation current [5, 7].

By the latter a dvantage, it is meant that the D F IGs can be m agnetised from the rotor circuit
(by the converter), but not necessarily from the power g rid. H ere we distinguish two principal
situations:

1 OptiSpeed® is an invention of Vestas W ind Sy stem s A / S, D enmark , and covering a variable-speed wind
turbine equipped with a D F IG .
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(1) W hen g rid-connected to a strong power sy stem w ith the voltag e is at, or near to, 1
p.u,, the D F IG w ill be mag netised from the rotor circuit and there is no exchange of
reactive power with the power sy stem. The D F IG will produce active power only
and be neutral with respect to reactive power.
(2) W hen grid-connected to a w eak power sy stem w here the voltage m ay fluctuate, the
D F IG may be ordered to produce or absorb an am ount of reactive power purposing
the voltag e control. The D F IG w ill produce active power and exchange som e
reactive power with the g rid, i.e. the voltage control ability.

Com pared w ith conv erter-connected g enera tors also used in v a ria ble-speed w ind
turbines, the converter in the D F IG scheme needs to be rated to supply the rotor power only
[5, 7, 8]. The rotor power is around 25% of the total generator power. This m eans that the
converter rating is a maximum of 500 k W with a 2 MW wind turbine. R educing the converter
rating is similar to reducing its size and cost.
On the other hand, the converter and its power electronics are the most sensitive part of
the w ind turbine in case of disturbances in the entire netw ork . The converter can be ‘blocked’
(it stops switching) even w ith relatively sm all disturbances in the power netw ork , with
tripping of the wind turbine as the consequence. The converter blockag e is initialised by
exceeding the monitored values such as: currents in the stator and the rotor circuits, the
terminal voltag e, the frequency etc. Therefore the D F IG m odel should be detailed enough for
correct sim ulation of the converter blockag e sequences.
The D anish manufacturer Vestas has offered their OptiSpeed® wind turbines for larg e-
scale offshore sites in D enmark . In the first D anish larg e-scale wind farm , commissioned at
Horns R ev during 2002, and directly connected to the transmission power sy stem , there are
eighty 2 MW varia ble-speed Vestas w ind turbines [9]. The va riable-speed w ind turbines with
D F IG represent a novel technology within wind power for large-scale applications and their
models have to be set up for making power stability investig ations.

2. DFIG MODELLING IN STEADY-STATE

Finding an operational point of the D F IG in steady -state corresponds to the initialisation [12]
before running dy namic simulations.
The D F IG consists of a w ound rotor induction g enerator w ith a converter feeding the rotor
circuit. The generator has a sy m metrical three phase w inding distributed around the uniform
air-g ap. The g enerator is doubly -fed so:

(1) the voltag e on the stator, V S, is applied from the grid,

(2) the voltage on the rotor, V R , is induced by the converter. The converter has such a
frequency that w hen superimposed on the rotor speed, there is a sy nchronously
rotating field in the air-ga p.

Only fundamental frequency components are assumed. Higher harmonics, losses in core
and windings, and losses in the converter are all neglected for sim plification. The electric
schem e of a D F IG is given in Fig.3 a s a modified version of the conventional equivalent circuit
[5, 6, 8, 13]. On the schem e, V S is the voltage at the generator terminals, V R is the m ag nitude of
the rotor voltage source, and a is the phase difference between the voltag es in stator a nd rotor
[14]. The im pedance of the stator, R S +j.X S, the mag netising reactance, j.X M , a nd the impedance
of the rotor, R R /s +j.X R , and the currents in stator, IS, and in rotor, IR , are all as stator values.
W I ND E N G I N E E R I N G V O L U M E 26, N O . 2, 20 0 2 89

A t initialisation, the active power set-point is defined by the incoming w ind, as the power
produced by the w ind turbine minus losses, a nd the rea ctive power set-point in accordance to
the control stra tegy chosen. The active and the reactive powers are initialised independently
of each other, similarly to sy nchronous g enerators. The following considers that:

(1) The active power set-point is given by the user, P E . This value is a sum of the power
supplied from the stator to the g rid, P S, and the power exchanged w ith the converter
at the rotor slip-rings, P R . The losses in the converter are neglected, then P E =P S +P R .
(2) The speed slip of the D F IG, s, (also the w ind speed and the pitch angle, w hen
necessary ) can be found from the power set-point using the BE M-m ethod as show n
in Fig.1. Use of the BE M-m ethod is discussed in Part 6.
(3) The reactive power exchanged between the D F IG and the power g rid is equal to the
reactive power in stator, Q E = Q S. This is because of the assumption that the
converter is able to control the power flow at the converter-supply side at any time
so its reactive power is zero. This assum ption is reasonable because the converter
ra ting is a m axim um 25% of the g enerator rating and it is used primarily for
supplying the active power of the rotor to the g rid.
( 4) The rea ctive power from the stator will be zero in case of a strong power sy stem or
w hen there is no requirement for the D F IG control ability of the voltag e. In this case,
the D F IG supplies only a ctive power and is m ag netised through the rotor, w ith the
power factor of the D F IG close to unity. Otherwise, the reactive power set-point of
the D F IG w ill be defined for voltag e control - these requirements can be found in
larg e-scale applications [15].

W hen this is said, one can see that the given values are the active and the reactive powers,
P E and Q E = Q S, the terminal voltag e, V S, and the speed slip, s, of the D F IG. Initialisation of the
D F IG consists in finding the power distribution between the stator and the rotor, P S and P R , the
currents in stator and rotor, IS and I R , and the rotor voltag e source, V R .
The initialisation problem can be solved by superimposing the currents in the stator
IS =IS1 + IS2 a nd in the rotor IR =IR1 + I R2 induced by the voltag e source V 1 = V S and V 2 =V R /s, as
show n in Fig. 4, and a pplying the relations P S +j.Q S =V S.conj(IS), P R +j.Q R =V R .conj(IR ), and
PE = PS + PR.
A n unam biguous solution of the initialisation problem cannot be found using the super-
im posing only, because the number of unk now n is larg er than the number of equations. The
finale solution m ay be found using a selection algorithm applied to the solutions from the
previous superimposing. The procedure is illustrated by the ex ample below.
Consider that a D F IG ( 2 MW ra ting ) is in ra ted opera tion, P E = 1.0 p.u., a nd the
corresponding speed slip is s = -0.10. The stator voltag e is 1.0 p.u. and there is no requirement for
the reactive power, Q S = 0. The g enerator param eters are R S = 0.00779, X S = 0.07937,
X M = 4.1039, R R = 0.0082 and X R = 0.40, all in p.u. [16]. The solutions for the active a nd the
rea ctive powers are show n in Fig. 5 as functions of the phase difference, a , w ith the voltag e
source ma gnitude (in p.u. in the stator values), V R .
In g eneral, the solutions for the electric power in the range from 0.0 to 1.0 p.u. (the
genera tor cannot supply m ore power than the m echanical power produced by the w ind
turbine) and for the reactive power in the range from -1.0 p.u. and 1.0 p.u. are of interest.
In this case, the solutions related to P E =1.0 p.u . and Q S =0.0 p.u . are of interest and these are
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within the ranges 200` to 210` for a a nd between 0.11 p.u. and 0.12 p.u. for V R , respectively. The
solution for the initialisation of the D F IG can be, then, found w ithin the given (reduced) ranges,
and using iteration it is found a =206o and V R =0.115.

Figure 3 Equivalent scheme of a DFIG in steady-state.

Figure 4 Initialisation of a DFIG model using super-imposing.

Figure 5 The electric power, P E , - (a) and the reactive power, Q S, - (b) of a DFIG at given terminal voltage and slip as
functions of the phase difference, a , and the rotor voltage source magnitude, V R .

Plots for the powers a nd the currents in stator and rotor are given in Fig.6. A s found in this
exa mple, P R » ±s.P E and V R »±s.V S. These relations a re said to be g eneral for a D F IG w hen Q S =0
[8, 17]. In rated operation and Q S =0, the currents a re close to 1.0 p.u.
A nother k now n [5, 7, 8], ‘general statement’ for the D F IG power is that the active power is
alway s supplied from the stator to the grid independently of the speed slip, a nd the power is
supplied from the rotor to the g rid a t super-sy nchronous opera tion a nd a bsorbed a t
sub-sy nchronous operation (w hilst the power supply from the stator m ains is increased by the
sam e value). A t sy nchronous operation, the power is absorbed by the rotor to cover the
power losses on the rotor resistance, P R =V R 2/R R . The ‘general statements’ can be used to
verify if the operational point of the D F IG found at initialisa tion is reasonable.
W I ND E N G I N E E R I N G V O L U M E 26, N O . 2, 20 0 2 91

Figure 6 Electric power supplied from stator - (a) and rotor - (b), and currents in stator - (c) and in rotor - (d) within
the reduced ranges for the phase difference, and the rotor voltage, V R.

3. VERIFICATION OF DFIG INITIALISATION

A precise verification of the initialisation routine of a D F IG m odel mig ht be based on
m ea surem ents or on compari son w ith computation results obtained from a relia ble
sim ulation program , for instance the program used by the w ind turbine ma nufacturer,
because such programs are alway s verified by the manufacturer.
In this w ork , verification of the steady -state operation is ma de using corresponding
simulation results kindly offered by the m anufacturer Vestas for their 1.75 MW OptiSpeed®
wind turbine g enerator. In the verification of the initialisation routine of the D F IG m odel, the
specific genera tor param eters given by Vestas are applied. W hen verifying the initialisation
routine, it is assumed V S = 1.0 p.u. (690 Volts) alw ay s. In the m odel, the power losses in the
converter and the slip-rings are neglected, but these are included in the computations by
Vestas, w hich presum ably w ill lead to som e discrepancies w hen compared to Vestas’ results.
Vestas has given the total electric power, the power distribution in stator and rotor, and the
currents in stator and rotor. The slip and the reactive power Q S = 0 are given by Vestas for each
operational point.
Using the total electric power, P E, the reactive power, Q S, the slip, s, and the voltage in stator,
V S, the initialisation routine defines the power distribution in stator, P S, and rotor, P R , and the
currents in stator, I S, and rotor, IR . In Ta b.1 som e of verification results are show n as deviations
betw een the results giv en by the m a nufacturer Vestas a nd the results found by the
initialisation routine

| |
X1 – X2
D X = 2. X + X .100%
1 2
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w here D X is the deviations given in Tab. 1, X 1 and X 2 denote the values given by Vestas and
found by the initialisation routine, respectively. A s can be seen, there is good ag reement
between computations offered by Vestas and the values calculated in the model for the electric
power distribution in stator and rotor. F or the values of the currents in stator and rotor, small
discrepancies are seen w hich need more ex planation.
In calculations and initialisation of the D F IG m odel, the value of the terminal voltage is
consequently k ept at the rated value of V S =690 Volts. In the computations by Vestas, the
terminal voltage has been around its rated value, but not exactly. In the D F IG m odel, the power
losses in the converter are neglected, but the converter losses are included in the computations
by Vestas as it is in a real D F IG. This ex plains the possible discrepancies at the verification.
W hen the D F IG is close to the sy nchronous speed, the power exchanged between the rotor
circuit and the grid through the converter is sm all, so even small discrepancies m ay lead to a
large relative discrepancy. This ex plains the 25.8% discrepancy in the rotor power in the first
row of Tab. 1.
The m anufacturer Vestas has agreed that, w hen the same sets of data are applied, the
initialisation routine of the D F IG model can be used for representing steady -sta te opera tional
points of the D F IG used in the 1.75 MW OptiSpeed® w ind turbine by Vestas.
A correct definition of the steady -state operational point is important for computation of
the currents in the D F IG and, as will be show n below, for conclusions w ith respect to the
converter protection/ action at a short circuit fault in the entire network s.

4. DYNAMIC MODELLING OF DFIG

D y namic m odelling of the D F IG in power sy stem stability investigations can be separated into
the following parts:

(1) modelling of the D F IG itself using its phy sical state equations,
(2) representation of its control sy stem in m eans of control of the active power and the
reactive power, and
(3) representation of the generator protection sy stem and the converter blocking [10, 11].

F urther, the w ind turbine should be treated as a complex electromechanical sy stem [18, 19,
20] w here the drive-train sy stem, the aerody namic rotor and the pitch control are included.
A s ex plained above, the opera tion of the D F IG and its param eters are fitted to the w ind
turbine a erodynamic characteristics.
D espite the form al separation, all these shall be treated as the whol e w hen ma king
dy na mic stability inv estig a tions of power sy stem s w ith v a ria ble-speed w ind turbines
equipped with D F IG .

4.1. STATE EQUATIONS OF DFIG

The state equations of a D F IG can be w ritten “by the book” as a 5th order sy stem of differential
equations [21, 22]:
dC
V DS = R S . IDS – v .
C QS + DS
dt

dC
V QS = R S . IQS – v .
C QS + QS
(1)
dt
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dC
VDR = RR . IDR – s . v .
C QR + DR
dt

dC
VQR = RR . IQR – s . v .
C DR + QR
dt

plus the fifth equa tion for the g enera tor rotor speed, w here the stator voltag e is
V S =( V DS,V Q S), the voltag e induced in rotor is V R =(V DR ,V QR ), the currents in stator and in rotor
are I S =(I D S ,I Q S ) a nd I R =(I DR ,I Q R ), respectiv ely, a nd the flux es in stator a nd rotor a re
C S =( C DS, C Q S) and (R =( C C
DR , QR ), respectively, ex pressed in terms of (D,Q)-ax es’ quantities
with the (D,Q)-ax es rotating at sy nchronous speed.

Comm only, the m odel (1) is adapted for the purpose of the dy namic stability investiga tions
dC dC
by neglecting the stator flux tra nsients DS = 0 a nd QS = 0 so that the equation sy stem
dt dt
(1) is reduced to the 3rd order [23, 24].

Table 1 Verification of initialisation of the DFIG model

against computations given by the manufacturer Vestas.
Total power, p.u. Slip, - Stator power, % Rotor power, % Stator current, % Rotor current, %
0.290 -0.0133 0.29 % 25.8 % 0.23 % 1.68 %
0.570 -0.1200 0.25 % 2.22 % 0.26 % 3.18 %
0.850 -0.1200 0.29 % 2.62 % 0.17 % 3.74 %
1.000 -0.1200 0.35 % 3.13 % 0.29 % 2.70 %

Figure 7 Computational results using the 3rd versus the 5th order models of the DFIG subjected to a transient short
circuit fault in the entire network for (a) - the terminal voltage, (b) - the generator speed, and the currents
(c) - in stator and (d) - in rotor. The DFIG is at rated operation (1.75 MW ) and controlled by the scheme in Fig.
9, the converter protection is not included.

F or a D F IG, w here the active power and the reactive power are controlled independently
of each other, this sim plification leads only to elimination of the fundamental frequency
transients (50 H z transients in case of D enmark ) in all the electric properties of the D F IG, as
show n in Fig. 7. Neglecting the stator tra nsients in the generator model is valid for the purpose
of sm all -si g n al st ability inv estig ations [18 , 25]. A n ex am ple of sm all-sig nal stability
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investigations may be the evaluation of flicker level from the g rid-connected w ind turbine [18].
Short-term stability investigations, with respect to consequences of a short circuit fault in the
power sy stem, cannot be treated as small-signal investigations because the voltage drop during
the faulting time is not necessarily small. In this case more detailed analysis and careful
argumentation shall be used.
The common argumentation for neglecting the stator transients in the D F IG models, used in
short-term stability investigations,is application of the de-coupled control of the active power and
the reactive power or simplifications for reducing computation times and complexities [6, 23, 24].
The last mentioned, with reducing complexity,is obviously not physical, but was more related
to the time, many years ago, w hen computational options were small.
The arguments concerning application of the de-coupled control seems to be more relevant. In
this case, the physical behaviour of the D F IG is more related to the behaviour and the control
ability of a synchronous machine. Detailed arguments for neglecting the stator transients in the
case of short-term stability investigationsin the power sy stems with synchronous generators may
be found in [23].
In these investigations, it is found similarly that eventual discrepancies between the electric
properties of the D F IG reached using the models of the 3rd versus the 5th order will have only
academic interest2 as long as the converter protection [10, 11] by over-currents is not considered.
The converter of the D F IG is, however, often designed to handle the rotor power (and the
magnetisation of the generator from the rotor circuit) only, as the basic advantage of this variable-
speed concept. On the other hand, this may make the converter to be the most sensitive part of the
wind turbine generator [10] because the currents going through the converter might be limited
(one must take into account that the IGBTs of the converter may be damaged by over-currents).
A number of electric values such as the currents in stator, rotor and grid-converter mains and the
voltage are monitored for the converter protection against overloads at disturbances in the entire
network [10, 11].
A s can be seen from comparison between the results reached by using the 3rd versus the 5th
order models, shown in Fig. 7, the 3rd order model predicts too low values of the currents in stator
and in rotor, generally caused by elimination of the fundamental frequency transients. The
discrepancies caused by the model simplifications are found w hen the short circuit fault is
subjected to the grid and even w hen the fault is cleared. This means that the simplified model of
the DF IG, w here the fundamental frequency transients in the currents are neglected, may result
in misleading results with respect to the converter action (protection and blocking versus
continuing operation) and, then, w ith respect to the outcome in a given power stability
investigation [10].
The fact that the converter connected to the open rotor circuit of the D F IG contains power
electronics, w hich need protection a g ainst electrical and therm al overloads/ dam a g es,
distinguishes the D F IG from other conventional (sy nchronous or induction) g enera tors with
shorted rotor circuit. The model of the D F IG must produce correct behaviour of the currents
for evaluation of risk of eventual dama ges of the power electronics of the converter, prim arily

2 Note that the order, the 3rd versus the 5th, of the conventional asy nchronous generator model does
matter with respect to behaviour of electric values of the generator and short-term voltage stability [25].
The m anufacturer Vestas has agreed that use of the 3rd order m odel of the D F IG in transient stability
investig ations leads to incorrect results because the fundam ental frequency transients in the m achine
currents are neglected. This is a lack of the small signal model and can lead to misleading conclusions
with respect to the converter action - blocking due to over currents versus not-interrupted operation
[10, 11]. The manufacturer Vestas has agreed that the 5th order m odel of the D F IG , at least, is necessary for
power stability investigations.
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the IG BTs, and, then, the action of the converter protection sy stem . More details about this
subject are given in [10].
This short discussion is made for illustrating w hy representation of the stator transients,
dC DS dC QS
and , is necessary w hen modelling the D F IG in power stability investigations.
dt dt
F rom the power sy stem, the D F IG is seen a s two Norton equivalents corresponding to the
equivalent of the generator w ith the sy nchronous im pedance Z’=R S+j.X ’ and the current
source, J G , as described in [23], and the equivalent of the grid-converter with the impedance of
the converter-to-grid lines, Z C =R C +j.X C , and the current source, J C . This is show n in Fig. 8.a. The
superposition of the impedances and the current sources is given in Fig. 8.b.

Figure 8 Norton equivalent of the DFIG and the grid-converter.

W hen interfacing the transient model of the D F IG to the dy namic stability tool ( e.g. the
tool PSS/ E used at NESA ), it is necessary to acknowledge the constraint of the dy namic
stability tool w here the stator flux transients a re ignored. The stator flux transients are
represented internally in the D F IG model, w hich is sufficient for representing the fundamental
frequency transients in the currents if the interfacing to the dy namic tool is tak en correctly
into account. The reasons and methods for doing this are developed a t NESA a nd described in
[25] for conventional asy nchronous generators.

4.2. CONTROL SYSTEM OF A DFIG

The D F IG is controlled in a sy nchronously rotating ( a ,b )-reference fram e with the a -axis being
oriented along the terminal voltag e vector. In this way, the active power and the reactive
power a re controlled independently from each other. The control scheme is principally
org anised “by the book” [5, 7, 17, 26] with two series of two PI-controllers, as show n in Fig. 9.
The sw itching dy namics in the converter a re neglected, assuming that the rotor converter
is able to follow the reference values of V a R
and V b R
at any time.
A lso power losses in the converter and delay s caused by the D C-link capacitor are
neglected. F urther, it is assumed that the converter at the grid-side exchanges a ctive power
only w ith the power g rid, and the reactive power exchange between the converter-supply
terminals and the grid is alway s zero or small. This im plies that the converter on the grid-side
is able to follow its reference values at any time, so its representation is neglected. Similar
assum ptions are m ade in [17, 27, 28].
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Figure 9 Generic control scheme of the DFIG for independent control of the active power and the reactive power using
PI-controllers.

4.3. ABOUT CONTROL SYSTEM VALIDATION

The m anufacturer Vestas has ag reed that the control scheme of the D F IG can be realised in a
generic w ay, as show n in Fig. 9. This generic control sy stem w ill be sufficiently representative
and sufficiently realistic for the purpose of power stability investigations.
In a close cooperation w ith Vestas, NESA has im plem ented a very precise model of the
va riable-speed w ind turbine w ith the D F IG and its control sy stem in the simulation tool PSS/ E,
but this control principle is not discussed in this article due to confidentiality.

4.4. MODULAR STRUCTURE OF MODEL

The converter control model is discussed in a realistic, but generic, w ay. This decision is made so
not to focus on a given and specific converter design with its specific properties, but
implementation of a generic model dealing with the concept of the variable-speed wind turbine
equipped with the DF IG. This way is more suitable, since the wind turbine model will be used
primarily in power stability investigations. It covers the concept, not the given and specific design.
Therefore, the D F IG model is set up with a m odular structure so the manufacturer’s
converter control routines may be implemented in the model for making a d-hoc stability
investigations at any time. So a m odule in the model can be easily replaced by a new one,
especially created for ad-hoc investigations.
The manufacturer Vestas has, however, k ept their supervising role in the present project,
w hich has show n to be ex tremely im portant for realistic results, despite the m odel being
developed at a generic level.

5. DRIVE-TRAIN SYSTEM MODEL

The m echanical sy stem of the wind turbine consists of the drive-train sy stem , i.e. the shaft
sy stem, and the w ind turbine itself. It is necessary to include representations of the both
components for dy namic stability investigations [19, 20, 29].
The model of the drive-train sy stem is given by the sy stem of differential equations a s “by
the book” [29]:

dv
2 . HM . M = TM – K . u MG
– DM . v M,
dt

dv G
2 . HG . = K .u MG
– TE – D G . v G, (2)
dt

du MG
=v 0
.
(v M
–v G ),
dt
W I ND E N G I N E E R I N G V O L U M E 26, N O . 2, 20 0 2 97

w here the torque produced by the rotating w ind turbine, T M , is the accelera ting torque, the
electric torque of the generator, T E , is the decelera ting torque, K is the effective shaft stiffness
and u MG is the twist in the shaft sy stem, the values D M .v M and D G .v G represent the dam ping
torque in the w ind turbine and the g enerator, respectively, the values v M, v G and v 0 are the
speeds of the wind turbine a nd the g enerator rotor and the sy stem speed, respectively. The
model given by the equation sy stem (2) is the so-called tw o-m ass model [25].
The value of the twist, u MG ,
is in el.ra d, and the effective sha ft stiffness, K , being in
p.u./ el.rad is the low speed shaft stiffness reduced by the total drive-train sy stem ration in
square [25, 29].
In the sim ulations, the values of inertia H M = 2.5 s, H G = 0.5 s and the shaft stiffness K = 0.40
p.u./ el.ra d. a re a pplied. The sha ft representation results in torsional low -frequency
oscillations in the transmission sy stem and in the generator rotor speed as the result of the
fault, and its importance w ill be ex plained in [10].

6. WIND TURBINE MODEL

W hen simulating fixed-speed, stall wind turbines, a simplified representation of the rotating
turbine is commonly used. Commonly, the wind turbine is given by its inertia, H M , and the
aerodynamic relations are described by the C P – l – curve w here the tip-speed-ratio l = v M .R/V, v M
is the rotational speed, R is the radius, and V is the incoming w ind speed [18, 30].
In case of pitch- and active-stall-controlled wind turbines, similar descriptions are used
w here the set of the C P – l – b – curves are applied with the global pitch angle ( [14, 19, 30]. This
description is, however, correct as long as steady -state behaviou r of the wind turbine is
investigated. This steady -state description relates to the power efficiency, C P , optimisation
and the static load, the thrust T, minimisation problem s by rotating speed, v M, and pitch, b , at
the given wind speed, V .
W hen pitching, even at m oderate pitch rates, dy namic inflow phenomena play a part and
may result in overshoots in the mechanical torque, T M , produced by the rotating w ind turbine
[1, 31, 32]. Similar behaviour may be ex pected w hen the rotational speed is changing fast. This
behaviour cannot be treated in term s of using the set of the C P – l – b – curves, but is necessary
for modelling of pitch-controlled w ind turbines.

6.1. STATIC CONSIDERATIONS

The static characteristics of the w ind turbine can be carried out using the w ell-k now n Blade
Elem ent Momentum (BE M) method [1, 24, 26]. The curves, show n in Fig . 1. are computed with
use of BE M-m ethod.
In the BEM-m ethod, the w ind turbine blade is separated into a number of sections, and the
blade g eometrical, aerody namic and m echanical properties are given for each section as
functions of the local ra dius, r, from the hub [1]. The cross-sectional airfoil elem ent of the blade
section at the local radius, r, is show n in Fig. 10. The cross-sectional element defines the blade
element at ra dius r in (x 1, y1) plane. The local velocity, V REL (r), being relative to the rotating
blade is given by superimposing the axial velocity V .(1-a) and the rotational velocity r .v .
M (1+a’)
at the rotor plane. The undisturbed wind speed is V and the tangential velocity of the rotating
blade section is r .v M. The induced velocities in the rotor plane -a .V and +a’.r .v M are induced by
the vortex sy stem of the wind turbine.
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Figure 10 Cross-sectional blade element.

The local angle of attack is defined a s [31]

a =f –u (3)

( )
w here
V . (1-a)
f = tan-1 ,
r v M . (1+a’)
. (4)

is the a ngle between the relative velocity and the rotor plane, and the local pitch,(, is
defined as the sum

u = +b , (5)

w here the local blade twist, , a nd the global pitch, b .

The norm al, F N , a nd the tang ential, F T , forces being parallel to the y 1 and x 1 a xes,
respectively, acting on the blade section are [31]

FN = L . cos( f ) + D . sin(f ),
(6)
FT = L . sin(f ) + D . cos( f ).

w here the lift force is denoted by L , and the drag force is D. The resulting thrust, T , and the
mechanical power of the w ind turbine, P M , become

e
R
.
T=B FN (r) . dr, (7)
0
and

e
R
PM = B . v M
. F T(r) . dr, (8)
0
Using equation (8), the power efficiency, C P , of the w ind turbine is defined as the ratio
between the m echanical power produced by the wind turbine and the total power of the w ind
within the rotor sw ept area

PM
CP = (9)
1/ .
2 r AIR
.
V3 . .
R2

Using the set of airfoil data for the given wind turbine and equation (9), the family of the
C P –l –b –curves m ay be derived w hich are comm only used in stability investigations with
va riable-speed wind turbines or pitch-controlled fixed-speed w ind turbines [6, 19, 33].
Ex pressions (7-9) are used for computing the curves in Fig. 1 w here advantages and
limitations of the va riable-speed concept have been discussed.

6.1.1. OPTIMISATION BY SPEED

Rew riting equation (9) as
W I ND E N G I N E E R I N G V O L U M E 26, N O . 2, 20 0 2 99

PM = 1/2 . r AIR
.
Cp . .
R2 . V3

v . R
and applying the tip-speed-ratio l = M , is reached [33, 34]
V

CP
P M = 1/2 . r . . R5 . .
v 3
M. (10)
AIR
l 3

Making optimisation for reaching the optimal power efficiency C P at the given wind speed
by a djusting the rotational speed, ex pression (10) leads to

C POPT
OPT = 1 / . r
PM 2
. .
R5 . .
v 3
= KW . v 3
. (11)
AIR
l 3
OPT
M M

and K W is the wind turbine dependent coefficient.

The last ex pression gives the algorithm for the optimisation of the varia ble-speed w ind
turbine by tracking the optimal speed value at the given w ind. The result of the optimisation
is reaching of the optimal power efficiency at the given speed, as show n in Fig. 1.a.
W ithin the optimal range, the rotational speed should be pr oportional to the w ind speed.
F or the given wind turbine [1], the rotational speed is set to be 10.5 RPM at the w ind below 4 m/ s
and to 24.5 RPM at the rated wind speed of approxim ately 14 m/ s and above. In the range from
4 m/ s to the 14 m/ s, the rotational speed is the linear function of the w ind as v M = a V . V + b V , with
suitably chosen coefficients a V and b V [35], as show n in Fig. 11.

Figure 11 Optimised rotational speed as a function of the wind for the given variable-speed wind turbine.

In the variable-speed regim e, the tip speed, the thrust and the centrifug al force on the
rotating parts (the genera tor w indings, for instance) increase w ith the rotational speed, v M,
w hy the rotational speed value must be limited even w hen the price will be reduction of the
mechanical power. In the present case, the rotational speed is limited by 24.5 R PM w hich, at
the w ind turbine radius R =30 m , corresponds, as an exam ple, to the tip speed of 76 m/ s.

6.1.2. GENERIC VERSUS OPTIMISED PITCH

The m ost sig nificant optimisation of the power production of the w ind turbine is achieved
w hen adjusting the rotational speed to its optimal value at the given speed. But the power
production can be, furthermore, slightly optimised by tracking the global pitch to its optimal
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position a t the given wind speed and the optimised rotational speed. This is illustrated by the
C P -curves and T-curves in Fig. 12 computed with use of the BE M-m ethod.

a) Power efficiency at the wind 8 m s as a function of the rotational speed at the global pitch in the range -5° to +2°.

b) Thrust at the wind 8 m s as a function of the rotational speed at the global pitch in the range -5° to +2°.

Figure 12 Optimisation of the wind turbine by pitch at the wind speed below the rated value. In the given example, the
optimised pitch is around -2°, so that slightly below 0°. The gain in the power efficiency is around 0.01 (or 1%).

A s can be seen, the variable-speed wind turbine may be optimised by the pitch control in
order to slightly increase the mechanical power produced by the wind turbine.
This optimisation stra tegy has sense only in the wind range below the rated w ind speed.
A s seen from Fig. 1.c, the m echanical loads, e.g . the thrust, T, w ill increase with the wind speed,
w hy the variable-speed m achine must be protected at higher wind speeds by pitching. The
global pitch and the rotational speed are chosen so that the wind turbine produces maximal
power at the w ind speed below the rated wind, and the mechanical power is k ept at its rated
value at higher wind speeds a nd the thrust is minimised.
On this stag e, the following considerations a re useful:

(1) Optimisation by pitch leads to only slightly increased g ain in the m echanical power
after the optimisation by the rotational speed is completed. H ere, it is the last couple
percents for optimisation, w hich w ill not influence on the outcome of power stability
investigations.
(2) The optimal pitch values are all found to be close to 0` a nd for the given w ind
turbine, they are slightly negative values.
W I ND E N G I N E E R I N G V O L U M E 26, N O . 2, 20 0 2 10 1

(3) Optimisation of the w ind turbine is an important task , because the m ore power it
produces the larg er the profit w ill be from the sa me amount of incoming w ind. In
this investigation, the m odel w ill be used in power stability investigations, but not for
complete optimisa tion of the w ind turbine. This is w hy it is not necessary to include.
( 4) In spite of detailed optimisation, it is plausible that the wind turbine deviates a little
- w ithin a couple of percent - from its optimised operational point because of
dy namic variations in wind etc. Then a sm all deviation in pitch from the ex act
optimised value is still an allowed definition of an operational point of the variable-
speed w ind turbine.

Taking the considerations above into account, the pitch value is set to 0` at wind speed
below rated. A t higher wind speeds, the global pitch, b , is computed by the BE M method
purposing to k eep the m echanical power at the ra ted value. This statement relates to
initialisation of the generic m odel of the pitch control. The global pitch versus wind speed
curve is show n in Fig . 13.

Figure 13 Generic pitch versus wind at the optimised rotational speed.

6.2. UNSTEADY INFLOW PHENOMENA

Representation of the wind turbine aerody namics in terms of the static BE M method, alias the
set of the CP –v –b –curves, is based on the basic consideration that the w ind turbine is in
equilibrium at any time of operation. This implies that the wind profile form ed around the
wind turbine, a s sk etched in Fig. 14, is a ble to change m omentously at changing in the w ind, V ,
the global pitch, b , or the rotational speed, v M.
In other w ords, the w ind turbine changes from
the present state of equilibrium to another state of equilibrium w ithout any delay, but by a
step. In Fig. 14, this w ould result to an instant change of the w ind profile from (a ) to (b) w hen
increasing the pitch,b .

Figure 14 Transition in the wind profile formed around the rotating wind turbine W T from the state (a) to the state
(b) when increasing the global pitch angle.
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In several experim ental w ork s dealing with investigation of the pitch transients [1, 31, 32, 36]
it is, however, documented that the process of transition between two different states of
equilibrium is continuous and the order of the characteristic time constants of this transition
are 2.R/V and c/R .v M [1, 32].
This implies that it w ill tak e time for reaching from the state (a) to the state (b), see Fig. 14,
w hen pitching. This is because the w ind profile cannot be form ed instantaneously. The degree
of differences in the mechanical torque produced by the wind turbine between the step-change
versus the continuous change is so notable that this phenomenon cannot be neglected.
The relevance of the dy namic inflow phenomenon for the pitch-controlled wind turbines
was discovered by S. Øye [36]. The detailed investigations of the phenomenon have show n [1,
32, 36] that the unsteadiness and the time lag in the adjustments in the induced velocities may
be used for representation of the unsteady inflow in the wind turbine model.
A number of the theoretical models for representation of the unsteady inflow have been
developed [1, 31, 32, 36]. In this w ork , the engineering model developed by S. Øye [36] is applied
and implemented in the variable-speed wind turbine model.
Originally in [36], only the lag in the axial induced velocity is implemented. In this w ork , the
lags in both the axial and the tangential inducted velocities are im plemented. The wind turbine
model with representation of unsteady inflow phenomena is implemented in the dy namic
sim ulation tool PSS/ E as the user-developed model used at NESA for power sy stem stability
investigations.

6.3. WIND TURBINE MODEL VALIDATION

The model of the wind turbine w ith unsteady inflow phenomena is validated against the
measurem ents of [1, 32] carried out on the 2 MW pitch-controlled fixed-speed w ind turbine.
The w ind turbine w as equipped w ith a conventional a sy nchronous g enerator. A ll the data for
the w ind turbine been necessary for ma king simulations and validations are found in [1].
In the following, the case II.4 from [1] is computed w here the pitch-controlled fixed-speed
wind turbine is m odelled using
(1) the static BE M method so that CP –l –b –curves, or
(2) the m ethod with representa tion of unsteady inflow.
Case II.4 from [1] corresponds to the operation at the wind speed of 8.7 m/ s and the initial
pitch of 0` . A t the time t =1 s, the pitch reference w as set to +3.7` , and at the time t =30 s, the pitch
reference w as set to 0` ag ain. The pitch rate w as 7.2` / s, and the servo constant of the pitch
sy stem w as 0.25 s. The sim ulation results for the m echanical torque of the wind turbine with
the both m odel applications a re given in Fig. 15.

Fig.ure 15 Computed mechanical torque,T M , of the wind turbine as response to a pitch change:(a) - using C P–l –b –curves
(the static model), (b) - using the model with unsteady inflow (here combined with elastic model of wind
turbine blades), which is in good agreement with measurements of [1,32], in this case see Fig. 8.2 on p. 41 in
[1]and Fig.12 in [32].
W I ND E N G I N E E R I N G V O L U M E 26, N O . 2, 20 0 2 10 3

The m odel w ith representation of unsteady inflow is found to be in a very g ood a greem ent
with the m easured results of [1, 32]. This conclusion is m ade after a number of simulated cases
were compared to the corresponding m easured cases from [1], not only case II.4.
The w ind turbine response to the pitch-”step” is characterised by notable overshoots,
w hich a re not represented in the response produced by the static m odel w ith use of
C P – l – b – curves.
In other w ords, the dy namics a nd the control ability of the physical wind turbine with
respect to pitch control are notably different from the prediction in term s of the static
C P – l – b – curves. The subject dealing w ith the control a bility of the pitch-controlled wind
turbines is quite important w ith respect to the power sy stem stability applications. A s
demonstrated in [37, 38], use of the blade-angle-control for reduction of the m echanical power
of the g rid-connected [15] w ind turbines at a short circuit fault in the power sy stem improves
dy namic stability of the power sy stem.
The w ind turbine model w ith representation of unsteady inflow phenomena m ust be
applied for an accurate representation of control a bility of the pitch-controlled w ind turbines
purposing the power sy stem stability investigations.
It is noticed that the mag nitude of the overshoot and the chara cteristic time of decay in the
mechanical torque, T M , depend on:

db
(1) the pitch ra te, ,
dt
(2) the operational point of the w ind turbine so that the w ind speed, the initial pitch, and
the rotational speed, w here the overshoot w ill be lower at hig her w ind,
(3) the sig n of pitching, w here it is noticed that the overshoots are alm ost not present in
case of active-stall w ind turbines.

In some publications, the inflow phenomena are included by a simple lead-lag [39, 40]. This
sim plification is, how ev er, incorrect3 partly due to considerable uncertainty a nd the
frequencies of the pole a nd the zero depend of the operational point of the w ind turbine. If the
inflow phenomena are included, the aerody namic m odels as described in [1, 31, 32, 36] should
be applied.
A n additional validation of the w ind turbine model will be carried out in the second part of
the investigation [10].

6.4. PITCH CONTROL SYSTEM

The m odel of the pitch control sy stem is set up in a g eneric w ay [41, 42, 43] w here the pitch
angle position is controlled by the g enera tor rotor speed, v G. The g enerator speed is
compared with its reference, and the error signal is sent to the PD-controller (optional and
applied here for a better sensitivity ) and, then, to the PI-controller producing the reference
value of the global pitch, b REF , [41, 42, 43].
The reference value is in the range between the optimised pitch, b OPT , and the maximal
pitch angle, b MA X . The optimised value is defined from the actual w ind, a nd in this case the
curve for the optimised pitch is given in Fig. 12. The m axim al value is b MA X =90` .
The reference value, b REF , is, further, compared to the a ctual pitch, b , a nd the error signal is
corrected by the servo [23, 44]. Neither the reference value, b REF , nor
the steady -state pitch, b ,
can be below the optimised value, b OPT . Oppositely, the control sy stem w ill go to the active-

3 Priv ate comm unication with D r. Stig Øye, the author of [36] and the co-author of [1].
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stall control domain. The g eneric model of pitch control is show n in Fig. 16. In this model, the
first order servo m odel is implem ented. It is noticed that the second order servo models m ay
be found in other investig ations [39, 45].

Figure 16 Generic model of pitch control sy stem.

F or obtaining a realistic response of the g eneric pitch control sy stem , a number of delay
mechanisms a re im plem ented in the m odel of the pitch control sy stem . These delay s
represent, basically, sa mpling and filters damping natural frequencies in the w ind turbine
construction. It is noticed that the models of pitch controls m ay, furthermore, include the
blocks representing compensation for the nonlinear aerody namics of the wind turbine [44].
The g eneric model used does not include this representation.
The m anufacturer Vestas has helped w ith tuning the para meters of the g eneric control
sy stem and representation of delay m echanisms for the purpose of getting realistic sim ulation
results.

7. CONCLUSIONS

The variable-speed w ind turbine is modelled as a complex electromechanical sy stem [18].

The complexity of the simulating model to be used in power sy stem stability investigations is
defined and the model consists of:

(1) the 5 th order m odel of the g enerator with representation of the stator transients,
(2) the converter m odel w ith de-coupled control of the electric pow er a nd the
mag netisation in the phasor domain,
(3) the model of the protective system of the converter, as a means of blocking or
uninterrupted operation; this will be applied in the second part of the investigations [10],
( 4) the drive-train sy stem m odel,
(5) the wind turbine model with dy namic unsteady inflow phenomena, for a correct
response at pitching and speed changing,
(6) the pitch control sy stem model w ith servo,
(7) the safety stop m odel, ,w hich w ill be applied in [10].

The m odel concept is based on the classical structure of the wind turbine representation in
dy namic stability investigations derived in [18]. It is especially focused on the necessity of the
5th order model of the D F IG w ith representation of the fundamental frequency tra nsients in
W I ND E N G I N E E R I N G V O L U M E 26, N O . 2, 20 0 2 10 5

the stator fluxes, w hich is ex plained by accurate representations of the currents in the
genera tor and the converter. This is ex tremely important for correct prediction of the
converter action (protection of IGBT sw itches) for disturbances in the power sy stem [10]. The
3rd order m odels result in too low values of the currents at disturbances, w hich give misleading
results with respect to the converter actions a t a short circuit fault in the entire netw ork .
The parts of the m odel of the v a ri a ble-speed w ind turbine a re v erified from the
measurem ents and computations kindly offered by the wind turbine m anufacturer Vestas
and from other m easurem ents found in published references. The model is found to be in very
good a greem ent w ith the measurem ents. So the model can be used not only in power stability
investig a tions, but also in w ork dealing w ith other technical fea tures concerning the
converter control a t disturbances in the power grid.
The m odel is im plemented in the dy namic sim ulation tool PSS/ E a s the user-developed
model and used at NESA for power stability investiga tions. This w ork has relation to stability
investigations carried out by the company NESA on behalf of the D anish power sy stem
operator ELK R A F T Sy stem and the m anufacturer Vestas w ith incorporation of large wind
farm s in electric power sy stem s in D enmark and w orld w ide.

8. CREDITS AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The present w ork is jointly funded by the D anish A cademy of Technical Sciences a nd by the
electric distribution company NESA A / S, Copenhagen, D enmark , grant EF -823.
The a uthor is grateful to Ja rle Eek and Björn A ndresen, Vestas W ind Sy stems A / S,
D enm a rk , and D r. H a ns K nudsen, D anish Energ y A g ency, C openhag en, D enm a rk , for
supervising the w ork with im plementation of the converter m odel and its control, useful
contributions and discussions of the results.
The engineering m odel of the dy namic inflow phenomena, implem ented by the author in
the w ind turbine model, w as originally developed by D r. Stig Øye, D ept. of Fluid Mechanics,
Technical U niversity of D enmark . The author is gratefully thank ful to D r. Stig Øye for useful
advice and discussions on the w ind turbine responses.
The author is thankful to Lector A rne H ejde Nielsen, D ept. of Electric Power Engineering,
Technical U niversity of D enmark , for discussions a nd comments.

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