Egypt after the Pharaohs Alexander The Great is the starting point.

- occupied Egypt in 332 BC that before was of Persian empire

o Egyptians didn’t like Persian’s rules and apparently welcomed
Alexander.
o According to legend Alexander legitimized his rule by going to the
oracle of Zeus Ammon who said that Alexander was the “Sun of
Ammon”  the legitimate successor of Egyptian Pharaohs and
justified his conquest in Egypt.
He founded the city of Alexandria that will be the richest metropolis in the
Mediterranean during the Roman and Hellenistic period.
- Alexandria was a Greek type of city  replaced Memphis.
- Was a bridge between the Mediterranean and the Near East – also
connected with Athens.
He left Egypt in 341 BC and gave power to governor w/ Persian title “Satrapt”
 When Alexander died the body was buried in Alexandria  important because in ancient word the body of the
ruler personified absolute monarchy, Ptolemy the 1st legitimized his rule.

Ptolemy I Soter was Satrapt from 323-306 BCE & king from 304-283 BCE
 founded a monarchy  very important because he established main line of Macedonians ruling in Egypt.
 Was not a royal  son of an obscure general of Alexander The Great called Lagos.
o why he emphasized himself being legitimate.
 His kingdom wasn’t confined to the territory of Egypt  soon became an empire including various areas of the
Near East, Northern Africa, Cyprus, Turkey and part of Palestine.
 Built tomb of Alexander in the vicinity of Royal Palace, was called SOMA (the body), or SEMA (the burial).
o It was the major touristic attraction in the period.
 Presented himself as an ideal king, military leader, administrator of justice, “truth-loving” king
o He was a childhood friend of Alexander.
o also an historian  he wrote on Alexander.
 Story : saved by Zeus, the eagle of Zeus have saved him in many occasion.

Image: Depict himself as Satrap and later king

Image: depict himself in two registers

 Ptolemaic kings = charismatic

 Hellenistic king image from the ideal image of a citizen  4th cent. philosophy
o Qualities of dynasty written on their epithets
• ALEXANDER founds Alexandria in 331 BC
• PTOLEMY I SOTER (“Saviour”) 305-285 BC
• PTOLEMY II PHILADELPHOS (“Sister-loving”) 285-246 BC
• PTOLEMY III EUERGETES (“Benefactor”) 246-222 BC
• PTOLEMY IV PHILOPATOR (“Father-loving”) 222-205 BC
• PTOLEMY V EPIPHANES (“Eminent”) 204-180 BC
• PTOLEMY VI PHILOMETOR (“Mother-loving”) 180-146 BC
• PTOLEMY XII NEOS DIONYSOS AULETES (“New Dionysus”) 80-51 BC
• CLEOPATRA VII PHILOPATRIS (“Fatherland-loving”) 51-30 BC
• PTOLEMY XV CAESAR “CAESARION” (“Little Caesar”) joint rule + Cleopatra 36-30 BC
 They had an official epithets AND also satirical names  ie. the father of Cleopatra was named “new Dionysus”
but also Auletes  flute player.

One of the major news creation of a ruler cult helped the king confirm his legitimacy.
 Probably followed the Egyptian rite of coronation  Coronation itself made the divine character of the king
 Coronation of Ptolemy the 1st became the festival of the divine Horus.  In Greek Alexandria the coronation took
place in the day that was the new year day.

P1’s son (Ptolemy II Philadelphos) = to thank his father, he deified him after his death.
 He established the deification of his parents (also his mother Berenice) = as saviour gods (theoi soteres)
o There was a dynastic festival in their honour every 5 years.
 He took this deification really seriously and worked in a way to be a living god.
o Ptolemies after him became living gods like pharaohs
1
One of the major inventions under Ptolemy I and II is the Museum and Library.
 The Mouseion was the temple of the muse with intellectuals from all over the Mediterranean (they had to
speak Greek).
 They could do research in the library
 They collected all the books available in their world and translate
 also it was a universal library including all works of history, literature, science translated in Greek language.

Image: Invention of Serapis

Image: Polygamy & bro/sis marriage coins

3rd cent. Onwards

 The official governor language was Greek. There was a wide range of bilingualism.

The Ptolemaic empire was very extensive BUT best known period of Ptolemaic history is from Ptolemy I to Ptolemy III.
 First two Ps promoted series of reforms, established Ptolemaic army (Macedonian and Egyptain)
o every soldier has given a piece of land from which he earned (probably a device to reinforce the loyalty of
the officers at a difficult time).
o From a political point of view they were involved from the beginning in a sort of never-ending war against
the king of Syria (Seleucid empire) – another general of Alexander.
 Some say there were 5 different Syrian wars (274-200 BCE) – for land that is around modern day
Lebanon and Palestine
 Ptolemy I acquired the Cyrenaica in 332 BC = occupied the costal Levant as far north as Byblos and took control of
Cyprus.
o He extended from the coasts of Greek to the frontier of Carthage =
 Until Rome became a significant player, the only state that could rival the Ptolemies was the Seleucid Empire,
founded by Seleukus 1st. Seleucid and Ptolemies will be in contrast for the Levant.

Family connections and dynastic alliances played a large part in imperial ambitions.
 Ptolemy I made Memphis original residence BUT moved royal seat to the new city of Alexandria.
 The move created the duality that was to characterize Ptolemaic rule.
 Kings and queens continued to be crowned at Memphis by priests of Ptah.

The political map of the

Mediterranean world in the
third century BC shows that the
Ptolemies controlled an
extensive empire.

 275-225 BCE: best

documented period

Relationship with Rome (the emerging superpower)  The Ptolemies were aware of the rise of Rome.
The first contact was between Ptolemy II and the Romans (Cassius Dio source).
 Egypt supported Rome during the 1st Punic war (246 – 241BC).
o Ptolemy declares neutrality (he was a friend of the Carthaginians too).
 During the 2nd Punic war, Ptolemy IV supported Rome (222-205 BC)
o in thanks = 210 BC, Roman embassy carried a toga for the King and help against Macedon (when Philip
attempted to gain possession of their territories in the Aegean) Greece and Syria.

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  Ptolemy V, neutral and differential attitude to Rome
o he supported Rome but he lost some territory = some historians think that this is the start of the decline of
the empire.
On the decline of the empire
 Ptolemy V never learned how to rule  manipulated by court officials
o he was assassinated by his military staff in early 180 BC.
o His youth and inexperience had not only seen the loss of Ptolemaic territory but constant internal
instability
 Polybius and others say decline start with Ptolemy IV
o He was negligent, lazy, often drunk,
 But the reality = Egypt and Rome were both expanding and Rome asked Egypt to be loyal but in fact was taking
some territory away from Egypt.
o End of 2nd cent. Antiochus III took advantage of P5s weakness
 Began massive campaign to reclaim Asia Minor for Seleucid
 Rome quickly responded and defeated Ant. III
 Didn’t give Egypt back any territory but it fell to Rome
(in a few decades the empire was reduced)
Antiochus IV
 The new Seleucid king attempted to conquer Egypt during reign of Ptolemy VI (around 170 BCE)  Demanded
return of interior Syria to Seleucid control
o Romans forced him out
o 3 children of P5 ruled together
o P6 travelled to Rome in person
 Summer of 168 BCE, tried again  left Seleucid governor in Memphis
o Roman ambassador Pompillus Leanas met Ant. at Eleusis (neighbourhood in Alexandria), ordered him
to leave
 Ant. left by the end of July

 The last century of Ptolemaic rulers usually depicted as a rather gloomy stalemate = a period of decline in which
the kings were merely puppets of Rome.
o In 65BC Crassus and Julio Caesar showed interest in the idea of making Egypt a province but nothing
came of it.
 Ptolemy XII Auletes fled from Egypt in 58BC and Pompey got his friend Gabinius to restore him in 55BC. For a
time thereafter Ptolemy’s financial affairs were managed by a roman of equestrian rank, Rabirius Postumus. When
Auletes died his will was deposited in the Roman treasury.

INTERNAL PROBLEMS = Revolts in Thebes 

 They asked for independence
 At the beginning of 207/6 BC, a couple of native pharaohs were proclaimed in succession. In the same period a so-
called Demotic literature flourished = prophetic lit. that reflected rebels’ feelings.
o A Demotic chronicle was composed, a collection of romantic tales of earlier Pharaohs which emphasises
the pre-Ptolemaic native tradition. The message is clear: the foreign are Macedonian rulers, their city is
Alexandria, Memphis will rise again.
Egypt became a strategic area when Rome decided to invade Parthia.
 In the 80 years before final destruction of Carthage = Rome was a super power and the Senate discussed the
possibility to include Egypt formally as a province.
 Ptolemy X in 87-86 BC  deal made, a political stratagem, which served to protect the king from dynastic
conquest or conspiracy  if you kill me, once I died the kingdom will be the propriety of Roman Senate.
 In 65BC, the censor M. Licinus Crassus suggested that Egypt come under direct control of Rome (dominant reason:
financial gain)
o but Cicero though it was better to leave the kingdom in the hands of local king because it was a very
complicated place to run / multicultural place with an Egyptian population and a Greek elite in conflict.
o It was more convenient to leave the place as an allied kingdom.
 Egypt was an experiment for learning how to rule an eastern kingdom
o Cicero understood whoever was in charge of Egypt could also dominate in Rome  it was dangerous to
give Egypt to an only one roman governor.

Cleopatra’s father
Cleopatra’s father explains a lot about her.
3
Ptolemy XII (Auletes -flute player ) was born during the last 2 decade of the 2nd century BCE,
 turbulent childhood  was sent to the island of Koss with his father b/c grandma wanted him far from Egypt.
 He did not succeed his father, Ptolemy IX directly,
o there was a complex dynastic struggle that lasted for nearly a year.
o Ptolemy IX died in late 81 BC to be succeeded by his daughter Cleopatra Berenice III
 but the following summer, opposition against the rule of a single queen was high  So, her 19 yo
cousin and stepson, Ptolemy XI was given joint rule, which included to expectation of marriage.
 The death of 3 rulers in a few months left a power vacuum = P12 was the only descendent that could rule.
o married his sister Cleopatra VI.
o He was 20 when he came to the throne and his indulgent life of luxury soon circulated.
o The first years or his reign were quiet. In late 69 BC Ptolemy’s legal wife fell out of favour, the details are
obscure, she is missing from documents, inscriptions. She vanished a few months after Cleopatra’s birth.
 Auletes became an ally of powerful Romans = Pompey  Egypt helped him conquer Judea, became the master of the
near east.

60 BCE  struggles in Egypt.

- Economic crisis (they uses grain to paid taxes).
- Strabo said that Aulete was destroying all the treasures of the country, including the golden sarcophagus of
Alexander the Great (it disappeared and was replace an alabaster one).
 Egyptian drachma value was lessened
o Contents w/in were less pure

59 BCE  Julius Caesar paved the way for Aul = said he was Rome’s friend
 A formal treaty was kept at Rome

Cyprus was really important, not only for strategical reasons but also for the presence of Copper that meant lot of money.
 58 BC Rome annexed Cyprus  previously Egypt’s (in the hands of P12’s brother
o this incident used up the last of Ptolemy ‘s credibility at home = caused regime change
o P12 deposed & Cato confiscated the Royal treasures,
o Rome offers the Ptolemy (bro) a priesthood in Cyprus  but he refused and committed suicide (he
poisoned himself).
 For this part of history there aren’t lots of sources but there are some documents: a papyrus
contains a fragment talking about Ptolemy Auletes and his stay in Rhodes with Cato in 58BCE,
apparently it want to show that the people in Rhodes don’t like Ptolemy Auletes.
 Annexation was really unjustified
 Aul. chased out of Alexandria  went to Rhode Island, then Athens (sister state)
o He tried to go to Rome to be restored as king
 Don’t know if Cleo was with him
 He tried to bribe the senate
o Group of Alexandrians led by Dion went to Ostia to speak to senate, against Aul  but Aul had them
killed

With the expulsion or self-exile of P12 in 58 BC, the wife Cleopatra VI emerged from the obscurity; perhaps to represent
their daughter : Berenice IV (the only child of Ptolemy the 12th that was close to the adulthood).
 Possible that mother and daughter ruled jointly for a while  a papyrus refers to “the queens”.
 How much longer Cleopatra VI survived is uncertain : she may have lived until early 55 BC, her death left
Berenice as sole ruler.
o Berenice has no husband  comical series of events : one candidate died, another was detained by Aulus
Gabinuius, another was killed by Berenice. A fourth, a certain Archelaos, was successful.

At the same time, Gabinius was planning an invasion of Egypt = illegal act that would involve him in serious difficulties in
Rome
 55 BC  On Gabinius’ staff there was also the young Marcus Antonius as cavalry commander.
o Distinguished himself in two battles  prevented Ptolemy from massacring the inhabitants of pelousion.
King Archelaos was killed in the second battle, Antonius saved his body and ensured him a royal burial.

Ptolemy XII listed his eldest surviving daughter (Cleopatra) and the eldest son ( Ptolemy 13 th ) as joint heirs  The boy was
included to avoid the difficulties that Berenice found without a male on his side. He give to his heirs the titles of new gods
and loving siblings (Theoi Neoi Philadelphoi).
4
P12 died in the 1st month of 51 BCE – Natural death. During the last year his daughter Cleopatra was already co-rulers.

 Ptolemy was really near to the Egyptian clergy and there is evidence (stela) which indicated that he was crowned in 76
BCE at Memphis. Some scholars think that he increased his link with the traditional Egyptian Temple some others think
that it’s an exaggeration because lots of Ptolemies king were also close to the temple.

BM stela 184. Funerary inscription of Tnufe-ho wife of Psenamunis, the last priests of Memphis under Augustus

Reputation of Auletes  not very good

- Maybe son of a concubine of his father, so he is called Bastard, not of royal decent.
- Flute player nickname
- Had a reputation as a wizard, competent in poisons and things like that.
Cleopatra’s mother  Cleopatra was really good to speak Egyptian, that was unusual. Some scholarship investigated if
she could have learned Egyptian language from her biological mother. There’s no proof. There are so much legends on
Cleopatra that is very difficult to write a really history.
Cleopatra’s brother 
• Ptolemy XIII (murderer of Pompey)
• Ptolemy XIV  join the ruler with her
• Co-regents only or husbands too?
• Different historiographical traditions
• Caesar «Civil War» III 108 : does not hint to a marriage
• Cassius Dio XLII 35.4 : Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV were married.

+ young sister: Arsinoe

The Different Sources 

1. Documents (Egyptian stelai from Memphis; Greek papyri)
2. Historiography – attitudes towards Cleo
• 2.1. favourable to Cleopatra or neutral: Julius Caesar. often exaggerating her relationship with Caesar:
Appian of Alexandria.
• 2.2. minimising her relationship with Caesar : Bellum Alexandrinum by Aulus Hirtius Caesar’s general.
• 2.3. Hostile to Cleopatra: Livy (Pro-Augustan), Cassius Dio, Flavius Josephus.
• 2.4. Moralizing, interested in anecdotes: Plutarch.
• Reputation of Cleopatra: incestuous, adulterer, murderer of her own siblings.

Strabo, Geography – Book 17 – entirely devoted to Egypt

Writes in point of view of Augustus
A. B.
- “Egypt was in decline”, “under
drunk rule of Cleo”

B. = Aul had 3 daughters, one

(the eldest) was legitamate,
Berenice.
- If this passage is true
then every other kid
after her was
illegitamate?? Doesn’t
make sense.

5
Nov 12
Economic crisis 
 Cleopatra had many problems in addition to her dynastic troubles.
o Her father’s dept was not totally paid.
 48 BCE, when Julius Caesar arrived to Alexandria  still owed 17 million drachmas.
o Drought and food shortages were becoming serious.
 The Nile flood was extremely low and food riots were imminents in Alexandria.
o Auletes’ money reform = silver content in coins reduced to 84%
 In Cleo’s time, went down even more = 64-34%
 She inscribe the value onto coins, even if the silver content wasn’t exact

After Auletes’ death

- Eldest daughter, Berenice ruled for 1 year
- When she died  Cleo assended to throne (co-rule with bro) – late Feb / early March, 51 BCE
o Documents that are dated before this date were associated with her dad, then after the date it was her name
o Image: stela from fayum

Early Rule & The Nile flood

We have some papyrus in Greek that preserving some ruling of Cleopatra and her Brother. They were ruling together.
- The first document is a papirus founding in a Mummy casing
o created mummy mask by recycling old written documents
 a lot of documents from reign of Cleo and time of Augustus from this source
o AN EDICT ABOUT: the problem of the food supplies, 27 October, 50 BCE (C.Ord.Ptol. 73 = Select
Papyri II 209)  after the nile flood of that year
 King Ptolemy XIII and queen Cleopatra forbid transport of grain to anywhere but the capital,
Alexandria. Not allowed to sell in lower Egypt. The penalty for contravention is death. Informers
are to be rewarded with one third of the property of the guilty party (in the case of slaves with a
sixth plus freedom)]
 They were trying to feed people, but WHO exactly?? – the city had a large population
We have other documents that attested the crisis :
 50 BCE, letter to a strategos (general) of the Herakleopolite nome [(BGU VIII 1760.11-33) from mummy casing at
Abusir el-Melek]:
o To get the full harvest in with no delay
o “if there is a single artaba missing, it will be charged to you personally”
o Artaba – persian measurment (a lot of agricultural terms came from the Persian rule)
 48 BCE, Royal decree protecting cultivators  farmers were in danger from attacks and robbery
o “The cultivators who have obtained safe conducts from us are not to be arrested until they have completed
bringing the harvest; whoever contravened this order will have his goods confiscated and will be subject to
an even more severe penalty”
o phenomena of the disappear of the population is a common feature of the agricultural culture. Many
people just moved away, escaped.
 Aug 9, 48 BCE, Civil war in Mediterranean  Battle of Pharsalus (civil war) – Caesar defeats Pompey
o In the same year Cleopatra was exiled from Egypt by her brother Ptolemy 13 th who wanted to gain the
control of the country. (Pompey decided to violate the terms of the will of P12 and named P13 as sole
ruler)
 Don’t know where she went : maybe outside Egypt / maybe in a traditional Egyptian Temple in
Theba or Memphsis .
 When Cleo left, P13 was only 13 yo – surrounded by advisors & tutors from the court of P12 = in
particular he was adviced by Theodotus.
o Cleo raised her own army and started a war against her brother
 AND minted coins
 She went to Syria  belive that she could’ve been raising an army or seeking husband.
 Months later tried to return, but bro was blocking her
 48 BCE Lowest Nile flood.
Image: Cleo coins

48 BCE = Battle of Pharsalus / Cleo exiled / Cleo minted coins in Syria / lowest
Nile flood / Pompey escaped to Egypt BUT P13 kills him / Caesar comes and stays in
Alexandria / start of ALEXANDRIAN WAR.
6
Pompey vs. Caesar
- Pompey modeled after Alex the great
- After Pharsalus, Pompey tried to escape to Egypt, refuge from P13 = Aug 28, 48 BCE
o Was betrayed and killed by P13 on order of Pothinus, a eunuch, P13’s tutor
o killed Pompey as a favour to Caesar
 Wasn’t the right move – Caesar was angry
 Caesar sided with Cleo
We have lots documents on the death of Pompey.
- The murder was told in history and poetry  because it looked like an unjust death. ALSO he was seen as someone
who could’ve stopped Caesar from becoming a dictator (seen later as a hero for the Republic)
o Pompey arrived to the coast, in the area of Pelusium near the sanctuary of Zeus Casios.
o He was beheaded by his centurion, Severus.
o Body is thrown on the beach – head brought to Alexandria, embalmed and given to Julius Caesar three
days later.
 the legend say that Caesar turned his head to the other side and cries.
 He buried the head of Pompey in the precinct of Nemesis just outside Alexandria.  has never
been found though

 Nemesis was a funerary goddess for people who die before their times.

Caesar in Alexandria
- Stayed in the old part of the royal palace. The royal palaces was an entire quarter / neighbourhood in Alexandria
- He realized P13’s army was larger than his
o Didn’t want to war with him BUT he could never show to be in support of the murder of Pompey
o He wanted to reconcile Cleo and P13  it was in his interest to fufill the will of P12 & to get his money
back
- He went to Alexandria to chase Pompey AND to get his money back (for campaigns that he planned in Parthia)
o And to get Egypt on his side for his campaign
- The winds weren’t blowing right, so he couldn’t leave AND he couldn’t get support
o 48 BCE one of the most difficult for him

ALEXANDRIA
- City designed by = Alexander & Deinocrates of Rhodes
- Divided into 5 quarters / neighbourhoods  named after first 5 letters of Greek alphabet
o Beta = the royal neighbourhood
o Delta = jewish neighbourhood
- It was in street grids
Island of Pharos
- Pharos = “lighthouse”
- Built by Sostratus Cnidus for P1 or P2
- Considered one of the 7 wonders of world

Cleo & Caesar

- Caesar failed to reconcile P13 & Cleo  sided with Cleo
- According to Plutarch  Caesar called Cleo out from hiding
o Her friend, Apollodorus, bribed the guards of P13 and she was able to sail in on the Nile overnight
o In a sack, she was introduced to Caesar
o He was impressed by the 20 year old and supported her
o A LEGEND
- Their romance is often exaggerated, especially by Alexandrian historians

MAIN EVENTS in the Alexandrine war of 48/7 BCE :

• Caesar in the «inner royal palace»
• Romans are in the «Great Harbour»
• Alexandrians in the «Eunostos or of the Happy Return».
• King Ptolemy prisoner of Caesar in the palace.
• Caesar attempts to reconcile P13 and Cleo  according to will of P12
• Achillas (general) and Pothinus (eunuch) convince P13 to start war against Caesar and Cleopatra.
7
 • Caesar burns Ptolemaic fleet and occupies island of Pharos. Great battle.
• Fire extends to library of Alexandria? No.
• Achillas poisons acqueduct carrying water to the Romans. Caesar excavates pits overnight on the coast.
• Battles in the Great Harbour. Caesar escapes by sea.
• How Caesar won? = Arrival of Antipater the Idumean and Mithridates of Pergamum to support him
• They win in battles at Pelusium and on the Delta.
• The Jews from the «Land of Onias» and the high priest of Jerusalem Hyrcanus also help Caesar.
• P13 heads to the Delta to fight Mithridates  but is defeated and dies.
• March 47 BCE: Caesar conquers Alexandria and forgives the Alexandrians.
• Then he nominates Cleo and P14 = reges socii et amici populi romani.
• Cleo is still not ruling alone
Role of the Jews :
- Flavius Josephus = Role of jews only remembered by him – he cites other historians in his work though
• Hyrcanus convinces the Jewish communities of the Nile Delta to fight against P13
• They win at 1)Pelusium; 2) in the Delta at the «Camp of the Jews».
• Role of Jews is remembered only by Flavius Josephus in the Jewish Antiquities 14.131-2. He cites the names of
historians Ipsicrates, Strabo and Asinius Pollio as his sources.
• To thank the Jews in 47 BCE Caesar grants Jews freedom of cult
• grants Antipater fiscal exemption and confirms Hyrcanus as high priest
• Edicts preserved on bronze tablets in Rome and cited verbatim by Josephus.
• Their authenticity has been defended by historian M. Pucci Ben Zeev in her 1998 book

After the Alexandrine War, 47 BCE

- Caesar goes back to Alexandria, forgives Alexandrians
- Throne to Cleopatra + Brother P14 (13 yo).
- Caesar need Cleos support (military and money) to go finish off supporters of Pompey
- April or May, Caesar left Egypt left 3 romans legion to protect the new king and to punish the new king in case
they passed the order of Caesar.
o He went to Syria – fought against rebel king Pharnaces, in Battle of Zela
o Where he wrote “veni, vici, vinci” in letter to friend
The major effect of the Alexandrian war on Cleopatra was that if eliminated most of her rivals of power.
- In 46 BCE, Cleo granted priviledges to a temple of Isis at Ptolemais
o To Theon: “Let it be announced to those concerned that the temple of Isis to the south of Ptolemais built
for our salvation by Kallimachos (Cleo’s general) , the epistrategos, be free from taxes and granted the
right of asylum, together with its surroundng dwellings as far as the wall of the city”
- Don’t know where Cleo was exactly during the Alexandrian war

Nov 16
CLEOPATRA AND CEASAR
“Having made himself master of Egypt and Alexandria, Caesar appointed as kings those whose names Ptolemaeus had written down in his will with an earnest
appeal to the Roman people that they should not be altered. The elder of the two boys — the late king — being now no more, Caesar assigned the kingdom to the
younger one and to Cleopatra, the elder of the two daughters, who had remained his loyal adherent; whereas Arsinoe, the younger daughter, in whose name, as
we have shown, Ganymedes had long been exercising an unbridled sway, he determined to remove from the realm, to   p65  prevent any renewed dissensions
coming into being among factious folk before the dominion of the royal pair could be consolidated by the passage of time. The veteran Sixth legion he took away
with him: all the others he left there, the more to bolster up the dominion of the said rulers, who could enjoy neither the affection of their people, inasmuch as they
had remained throughout staunch friends of Caesar, nor the authority of a long-established reign, it being but a  few days since they came to the throne. At the
same time he deemed it conducive to the dignity of our empire and to public expediency that, if the rulers remained loyal, they should be protected by our troops:
whereas if they proved ungrateful, those same troops could hold them in check. Having thus completed all his dispositions, he set out in person for Syria.”
Pseudo-Caesar. Bellum Alexandrinum chapter 33

Notes:
- Caesar won Alex War
o P13 lost & disappeared -> maybe drowned
- Alexandria welcomed Caesar and asked for forgiveness
o Caesar gave throne to Cleo and to her bro, P14 – Arsinoe removed from throne

- Written by a general of Julio Caesar, who died in 43 BCE (Irtius / Hiritus)

o Wrote it after the death of Julio Cesar, he had his note.
- An account of the war from the point of view of Caesar.
o Makes no mention of the suppose fire of the Alexandria Library

8
 o Important point (from Latin version) = Ceasar left 3 legions (he didn’t trust the army of Cleopatra) to
protect the two rulers but also to control them  Cleopatra and Caesar were not lover at this time.
o The 2 rulers enjoy the diplomacy of Caesar  Cleopatra was only an allied and friend of him.
- Hitrius is protecting the emperor from possible gossip that he’s “not loyal to the Roman republic”.

- Describes Caesars departure from Egypt

o “Few days” can be a couple of week but not more than 1 month
 Caesar, won the Battle of Zela at the end of March of 46 BCE, left no later than the end of April.
o Passage been analized a lot  critics wanna understand if Caesar had really spent time in Egypt (on
holiday) & if his love with Cleopatra is more myth than history.  MYTH: that Caesar spent months w/
Cleo
 We have have a passage from Historian Appian of Alexandria and a passage in a Poem by Lucan
(latin poet)  Both talked of a Nile cruise of Cleo and Caesar.

“He had love affairs with queens too, including Eunoe the Moor, wife of Bogudes, on whom, as well as on her husband, he bestowed many splendid presents, as
Naso writes; but above all with Cleopatra, with whom he often feasted until daybreak, and he would have gone through Egypt with her in her state-barge almost
to Aethiopia, had not his soldiers refused to follow him. Finally he called her to Rome and did not let her leave until he had ladened her with high honours and
rich gifts, and he allowed her to give his name to the child which she bore.  2 In fact, according to certain Greek writers, this child was very like Caesar in looks
and carriage. Mark Antony declared to the senate that Caesar had really acknowledged the boy, and that Gaius Matius, Gaius Oppius, and other friends of
Caesar knew this. Of these Gaius Oppius, as if admitting that the situation required apology and defence, published a book, to prove that the child whom
Cleopatra fathered on Caesar was not his. 3 Helvius Cinna, tribune of the commons, admitted to several that he had a bill drawn up in due form, which Caesar
had ordered him to propose to the people in his absence, making it lawful for Caesar to marry what wives he wished, and as many as he wished, "for the purpose
of begetting  children."  But to remove all doubt that he had an evil reputation both for shameless vice and for adultery, I have only to add that the elder Curio in
one of his speeches calls him "every woman's man and every man's woman." Seutonius. Life of Caesar chapter 52

Notes: Seutonius alludes to the cruise.

 Nave thalamego/ Thalamegos : a greek word & a technical terms  Great cargo ship = a Nile vessel for military and
transport of grain.
- Various talk about this boat (Strabo, talks of a harbour where these barges were used)
- Thalamos means bridal bed  so there may be misinterpretation of the whole event.
o In fact, apparently seems a military exploration, going down the Nileriver.
 Lucan in the 10th book said that Caesar in Egypt wanted to go and find the origin of the river.
Source of Nile = topical issue at the time it, in a certain sense, indicated the origin of history
- Alexander The Great tried, according to legend, to find it = a legendary expedition, there is no evidence for it.
o Caesar as “New Alexander” tried to do the same
- Ethiopia was the region where people think the river starts.
Another reason to explore Egypt was the preparation of the expedition against the Parthian empire.

CONCLUSION: possible they had a relationship in this occasion BUT they had also very important political iusse to do.
- Caesar had love affairs also with Eunoe (iunoe) the Moor  ssupport idea that he wasn’t burning for Cleopatra.
- 46 BCE, had to keep fighting Pompey’s supporters in Africa  and there, he also had affairs

 In spring (April ?) he left Egypt, Cleopatra was near the end of her pregnancy and Caesar, respectably married, may have
wanted to distance himself from the imminent birth.

Caesarion
In 46 BCE, Caesar called Cleo to Rome.
- Cleopatra had a child, Caesar gave permition to name son after him  he never recognised child as legitimate tho
- Paternity of Caesarion?
o In the Seutonius ^ = kid looked like Caesar
 Some believed that he was Caesar’s son  Mark Antony advocated it (interesting)
 Gaius Oppius (secretary, very close to Caesar) wrote a book to say that was not his child.
o From the passage, basically there were various factions of who was Caesarion’s dad
This passage is a sort of stratification of different gossips:

“Furthermore, all sorts of rumors were being bandied about in the crowd, some telling one story, others another. Some said that he had decided to establish a
capital of the whole empire in Egypt, and that Queen Cleopatra had lain with him and borne him a son, named Cyrus/Caesarion, there. This he himself refuted in
his will as false. Others said that he was going to do the same thing at Troy, on account of his ancient connection with the Trojan race.

Something else, such as it was, took place which especially stirred the conspirators against him. There was a golden statue of him which had been erected on the
Rostra by vote of the people. A diadem appeared on it, encircling the head, whereupon the Romans became very suspicious, supposing that it was a symbol of
servitude. Two of the tribunes, Lucius and Gaius, came up and ordered one of their subordinates to climb up, take it down, and throw it away. When Caesar
discovered what had happened, he convened the Senate in the Temple of Concordia and arraigned the tribunes, asserting that they themselves had secretly placed
the diadem on the statue, so that they might have a chance to insult him openly and thus get credit for doing a brave deed by dishonoring the statue, caring
nothing either for him or for the Senate. … After this address, with the concurrence of the Senate he banished them. Accordingly, they went off into exile … Then
9
 the people clamored that he become king and they shouted that there should be no longer any delay in crowning him as such, for Fortune had already crowned
him.” Nicolaus form Damascus. Life of Augusus. Chapter 20.

Notes: Was a rich person from Damascus who worked at the court of Cleopatra, as the tutor of the children of Cleopatra
and Antony, and then at the court of Herod.
- Argues that Caesar had refuted the birth of the child as false, as a lie.
- He also showed (“golden statue of him”) how Caesar was acting like king
o Factors that brought about the Ides of March
Lupercalia
- Debate about Cleo’s influence in the story about the diadem on Caesar’s statue  he was acting like an eastern
king in story, so gave conspirators more reason to kill him
o
Cyrus is probably an error of the copy.

Where was Cleo?

Dates :
• 58 BCE the senate orders that all statues of isis located on the capitolium be destroyed.
• 53 BCE the senate orders removal of all private chapels to Isis.
• 50 BCE destruction of monuments dedicated to isis. (Cf. Valerius Maximus 1.3.4).
• 48 BCE orders were given again to destroy walls around rebuilt sanctuaries on capitolium.
• 46 BCE arrival of Cleopatra in Rome.
• 46 BCE, Cleo in Rome & later in the year (Oct) Caesar went back Rome
• 45 BCE, Caesar made his will & DIDN’T name Caesarion in it
• 46 BCE – Arsinoe was brought to Rome to be in triumph with other people captured from Caesar’s
victories (Cleo & P14 were apparently there

 Caesar decided to NOT kill Arsinoe because of Cleo and P14  common practice to parade foreing kings and queens in
triumph & then killed at the end
- Arsinoe was removed and went to greek temple for asylum
o Passage of Seutonius said after this triumph she left
o Some scholar argued that she stayed for years because when Caesar died she was in Rome.

Lot of debate of when Caesarion was born

- Caesarion was probably born in 45 BCE.
o Cleo in Rome in 44 BCE, but in March she escape to Egypt (from some letters of Cicero)  don’t know
why she was in Rome tho
- Know that Caesar was departing for Parthia, 3 days before his murder = already prepared all the plans, and
Cleopatra & her brother were important in this sense.

Have some greek inscriptions in which Caesareion is called Ptolemaios, Philophator, Philometor.
- Earliest is 43 BCE = “Ptolemaios ho kai Kaisar Theos Philophator, Philometro”  Cleopatra was try to present her
son as the legitimate son of Caesar
o Important because after Caesar died = he became a God.
o The problem is that there was another adopted son of Caesar  Octavian.

Image: Coin from Cyprus

Image: Another coin of Cleo & Caesarion
Image: House in Pompey fresco

Nov 18
Cleo statues in Rome
Image: Antonia as Venus
- Despite the fact that Cleopatra was #1 enemy of Rome  her image was used & what she did, others followed
(depicting like Venus or her hair).
o WHY – there is that Pompeii fresco in beginning of 3rd cent.
 Mark Antony images were destroyed tho
o Passage that say statues of Cleopatra were not destroy,
 people paid money to keep the statues, etc. OR maybe they made up these accounts to explain
why they still had these statues arounds

10
 o There aren’t too many images of Caserion BUT there are famous representation of Cleo + Caesarion
 Some of his portraits are confused with Octavian  when Oct portrayed himself in Egyp. Style

Images: Temple of Hathor & Black Basal statue

Image: Caesarion / Horus statue
Image: Limestone stela of high priest of Ptah

Fate of Caesarion
- Caesarion was killed after Cleopatra’s death b/c of Areius, the greek lit. teacher of Augustus.  "Not a good thing
were a Caesar too many."  It is a parody of the second book of the Iliad  “It s not a good idea that there is so
many leaders”.
o Plutarch blames Rhodon, persuaded Caesarion to go back and he died
- The same info comes from Cassius Dio : Roman History, 51.15.5-6
“And Caesarion while fleeing to Ethiopia was overtaken on the road and murdered.”
Cleopatra, Herod and the Jews of Egypt
- Cleo wasn’t exactly a friend or enemy of the Jews – BUT she was really tolerant and fair to the Jews

Literary Sources:
- Plutarch = moralistic view / Cassius Dio = bit reliable but coincides w/ Augustan propo.
- Mainly Flavius Josephus  Jerusalem priest, anti-Roman rebel leader, then historian at Rome in the 90s CE
o Author of books on the Jewish War of 66-70 CE and on Jewish Antiquities.
o Writes about cleo in all his works & always defends the cause of the Jewish people.
- Nicolaus of Damascus  tutor of children of Antony and Cleopatra, then court historian of King Herod of Judea.
o He wrote an universal history in 144 books  flatters Herod
- Point of view of Josephus and Nicolaus is influenced by Herod who hated Cleopatra  the queen emerges as a
monster, the main competitor of Herod.
 question: Jewish communities of Egypt may have had different views. True?

Josephus vs. Apion

- Apion, according to J. argued Cleo was ungrateful to all the Jews of Alexandria b/c she refused to give grain to
them
o Grain distributions was based on rank  this was taken as evidence that Alexandrian Jews were not
proper citizens by Apion
 And the Jews didn’t worship the same gods and emperor as the city – so, not citizens
- What does it mean “ungrateful” ?  2 interpretations :
 Cleopatra was put on the throne by Caesar after a & Jews supported Caesar  Cleo needed to be grateful
 She should be kind and grateful to king Herod specifically, b/c Herod’s father fought on the side Caesar
o The community was loyal to the Ptolemies – but priest convinced them to change sides, to be on Caesar’s
- Josephus depicts her pretty negatively
o He said that her death was the divine punishment to her crime.
o His information that Cleopatra was not grateful could come from Herod and Nicolaus, it could reflect the
idea that was present in Herod, whose propaganda coincided with the on of Augustus.
Her “crimes”
- We have edicts that shows Cleo had the Alexandrians in mind first, regarding distributing food during famine
o During this time the gov. didn’t distribute based on need (so not to the poor) BUT THE OPPOSITE
 To the priviledged (the tax exempt)
- Her “ungratefulness”
o Not true she was against the Jews

Docs. on Cleopatra towards Jews

- One inscription, not dated, (greek and latin) of Cleopatra granting asylum rights to synagogue.
o Very rare to find an insctiption with latin translation  so even Roman troops could read and respect this
right of asylum.
“(Greek) On the orders of the Queen and King: In place of the previous plaque with the dedication of the proseuché let this
be written. King Ptolemy Euergetes declared the proseuché inviolable (asylon).”
“(Latin) The Queen and king established. Regina et rex iusserunt.»

BUT nothing proves that her relation with Jews was good either.
- She probably acted in different ways at different times (she was a politician)
11
 o Not against Jews BUT there were some times in the 40s BCE when she didn’t give out grain
 And that was used later as evidence that she hated Jews
o And she was against Herod  b/c he was seen as an usurper, he was not a royal blood – so she sided with
the royal house

- Jews of Alex. were pretty influential up until time of Caligula

- There were a # of Jewish communities in Alex so, a # of them could have good relatiosn

Nov 19
A Multicultural Society?
- Greeks who settled in no-Hellenic parts of empire tried to maintain their own culture
o Their determination (try-hardness) maybe because most of these Greeks were from marginal areas of
Grecia ( Macedonia, Thrace)  needed to reaffirm their Greekness
o Greek education & institutions can be found wherever these people settled
- Interesting to see the interplay between Egyptian and Greek customs  especially on marriage.
o Greeks had restrictive rules on women
 In Athens – women had a little independence and no public life, the nearest male relative gave
women in marriage at his discretion.
 This idea remained widely accepted
o Egypt the population was a mix of small foreign groups scattered among the locals
 Most Greek settlers were men = veteran of Alexander  intermarriages were inevitable
 The mix of Egyptain and Greek made it so in Egypt – the very Greek traditions couldn’t
really survive
- Legal environment of Ptol. Egypt
o Laws (even in Greece) differed from each city
 Alexandria, Nauchratis and Ptolemais - all Greek - had their own laws.
 Above the Greek laws were the edicts of Ptol. kings
o In the Kora (Egypt countryside) situation was different,
 Majority of pop. was Egyptian, even tho a lot of legal docs were in Greek & many people
were bilingual
 We know all this through Papyri  show how Greek and Egyptian work side by side
 People made transactions using different languages and systems
o Depend on nationality of the people & where transaction took plac
- Elements of continuity : Greek used language & all women acted with a legal guardian
- Another sign of Greek conquest
o Spread of slavery
 Greek had slave for domestic service, in Egypt, more poor farmers so slavery was less spread.
 In Pharaonic period there was slave BUT 80% were of free status.
o Exposing infants  not Egyptian
 In Egypt people are poor & cost of life was low = so they brought up every child.
 In Hellenistic period, evidence that some of the poorest fams. had to leave their kids at
landfills  and rich Greeks would find them and raise them as slaves (contracts of wet nurses
hired)
 Also see, some poor Egyptian families rent their kids out to Greek families

- Some influences of Egyptian on Greek

o Independent status of women, didn’t need male figure to sign things

- Not a strict apartheid system

o BUT there was separation of GREEK & EGYPTIAN systems / tribunal
o And privileges based on ethnicity  What exactly distinguish a Greek from an Egyptian remains
opaque.
 Egyptian and Greek are more modern terms than ancient – they didn’t think the same way
 Over time there was definitely more of a mix

What is Ethnicity?
12
Ethnicity = an independent dimension of social reality that temporarily forms alliances with other aspect of life in
society.
- Not biologically given BUT a product of a social system of classification.
- Language and name were important ethnic labelling
o BUT in Egypt many people were bilingual and use different names (for Egyptian and Greek laws).
 Ex. when Egyptian enter the bureaucracy  Greek name.
- Documents that specified where people were from  mainly under first 2 Ps, when first gen. of Greek settlers
still remembered and identified with where they came – BUT after not really importantly documented
- Traditional Egyptian temples were centres for rebellion – very anti-Greek, during Ptol. period
o Every rebellion they had traditional candidates for Pharaohs
o These temples were also banks and granaries  so had the money & power

1. P.Michigan I 66. Petition of an Arab (?) about ill treatment of a non-Greek. 3rd century BC
An unnamed person petitions Zenon about being mistreated, allegedly because he could not speak Greek properly. Since the
action is set in Palestine (a Ptolemaic possession since 305 BC) he may well be a Syrian or an Arab. The Jason mentioned in
the papyrus may be a Jew. He probably dictated the letter to a scribe.
“…To Zenon greeting. You do well if you keep your health. I too am well. You know that you left me in Syria with Krotos and I
did everything that was ordered in respect to the camels and was blameless toward you. When you sent an order to give me
pay, he gave me nothing of what you ordered. When I asked repeatedly that he give me what you ordered and Krotos gave me
nothing, but kept telling me to remove myself, I held out for a long time waiting for you; but when I was in want of necessities
and could get nothing anywhere, I was compelled to run away into Syria so that I might not perish of hunger. So I wrote you
that you might know that Krotos was the cause of it. When you sent me again to Philadelphia to Jason, although I do
everything that is ordered, for nine months now he gives me nothing of what you ordered me to have, neither oil nor grain,
except at two month periods when he also pays the clothing (allowances). And I am in difficulty both in summer and in winter.
And he orders me to accept ordinary wine for salary. Well, they have treated me with scorn because I am a “barbarian”. I beg
you therefore, if it seems good to you, to give them orders that I am to obtain what is owing and that in future they pay me in
- order
full, in Zenon,
thatwas Greek
I may not immigrant
perish of hunger because I do not know to act the Hellene (hellenizein, also = “to speak Greek”).
You, therefore, kindly causeofalarge
o Manager estate
change of Appollonius
in attitude during
toward me. P2 to all the gods and to the guardian divinity of the king that
I pray
o He had an archive of over 2000 letters
you remain well and come to us soon so that you may yourself see that I am blameless. Farewell. [on the back] To Zenon.”
- Letter 1 (up)  complains to Zenon, mistreatment b/c he’s not Greek
o Written in Greek, probably dictated to scribe
- Letter 2 (down)  Zenon buying a 7 year old slave girl
o Slave trade in Ptolmaic Egypt but not a lot of documents b/c Greek elite were a small pop.
o Shows Greeks reverting to Egyptian calander
o Toubias – a jew and calvary man
o Greeks didn’t need to define themselves based on where they’re from, all were “Greek”
 Except Macedonians that specified
 BUT even Egyptains (given Greek name) entering Ptol army were identified as Macedonians
2. P.Cair.Zen. I 59003 = Select Papyri I 31. Sale of a slave girl. Birta (Transjordan) 259 BC
The Ptolemies tried to keep their Greek subjects from enslaving the native population of Egypt (for unpaid debts, for
example), preferring to see them import from outside Ptolemaic territory to meet their perennial demand for slaves. Here we
have a Greek in the service of the finance minister of Ptolemy II buying a slave-girl while in Transjordan; her ethnic
identity is only partly preserved, but Sidonian appears to be the best restoration. Many, if not most, slaves were used for
household service, and women predominated in this slave population. The purchaser was Zenon son of Agreophon, the
assistant of Apollonios, Ptolemy Philadelphos’ dioiketes or finance minister.

“[In the reign of] Ptolemy [i.e. Philadelphus] son of Ptolemy and of his son Ptolemy, year 27, [the priest] of
Alexander and of the brother-sister gods and the kanephoros of Arsinoe Philadelphus being those in office in
Alexandria, in the month of Xandicos at Birta in the Ammanitis. Nicanor son of Xenokles, Knidian, in the
service of Toubias, sold to Zenon son of Agreophon, Kaunian, in the service of Apollonios the dioiketes, a
Sidonian ? [slave-girl] named Sphragis, about seven years of age, for fifty drachmas. [Guarantor …] son of
Ananias, Persian, of the troop of Toubias, kleruch. Witnesses: …judge; Polemon son of Straton, Macedonian,
of the cavalrymen of Toubias, kleruch; Timopolis, son of Botes, Milesian, Herakleitos son of Philippos,
Athenian, Zenon son of Timarchos, Kolophonian, Demostratus son of Dionysius, Aspendian, all four in the
service of Apollonios the dioiketes. (Endorsed) Deed of sale of a girl.”

- Ethnic labels came later Ptol period to indicate somes fical status
o Ex. In Cleo’s era – if someone said they were of Persian origin = meant they were giving up rights of
asylum and liable to execution if they couldn’t pay debt

13
 - SO:
oEarly immigrant generation (name, lang, culture) all differentiated them so they had strong links to Greek
world
o Later generations (Greekness = less clear) there was intermarriages and bilingualism
- Race mixing was prominent in Egypt BUT descrimination came from culture, education and money

MEMPHIS  Very important multicultural place. Find

- Ionian & Pharian settlers as mercinaries since 6th cent. BCE – late Pharonic period use of foreign military
o After Alexander’s conquest – Greeks moved in
o After Syrian conquest of Jerusalem in 587 BCE – Jews moved too
 Complaints that Jews in Egypt were less strict and devoute
- All the foreigners were ideal for Ptolmaic army b/c they were faithful to crown & didn’t sympathize with native
Egyptian pop.
o Maybe one of the reasons why there were some anti-jewish feelings (not based on relgion BUT politically)
- Found other groups there too
ALEXANDRIA  similar to Memphis, but younger
- Had 5 neighbourhoods – same ethnic groups tended to live together
o Groups stuck together to use the network of contacts made by each other
 Jews & Idomeians were settled as military garrisons in 3 key points of Egypt: Memphis, Hermapolis, Sien – throughout
Ptol. period
- Points to control country
- Civilians in those towns too
- Syncrstic relgion for Egyptian and Greeks, BUT for the Jews there was also no opposition to separate worship
- Military men brought their fams too & it created communities
o Had their own magistrates, counsil of elders, etc.

MORE ON JEWS:
4. Letter of Aristeas to Philocrates (2nd century BC) about Jews policing the countryside.
Chapters 12-13 On that occasion he [Ptolemy I] deported circa 100,000 people from Judaea into Egypt. Of these he armed
about 30,000 chosen men whom he settled in the countryside in garrisons”. Chapter 36: “He [Ptolemy I] has enrolled them
in the army with a high pay. Moreover, judging from the loyalty of the other Jews who were in Egypt from before, our
father [Ptolemy I] established some garrisons which he entrusted to them so that they would intimidate the Egyptian
population …”

5. Letter of Aristeas to Philocrates: ethnic community (politeuma) of the Jews existing in Alexandria at the time of
Ptolemy II Philadelphus. 3rd century BC.
Chapter 310. “When the work was done, Demetrius [of the Phaleron] assembled the community of the Jews on the spot,
where the work of translation had been accomplished, and he had it read to the entire congregation…They gave Demetrius a
similar ovation and asked him to send their leaders a copy of the entire Law. After the reading of the scrolls the priests,
standing, the elders of the translators, and the delegates of the community (politeuma) as well as the leaders of the people
made this declaration….”

There are archives that shows tha life of foreigh people  Archive of RITON  he belong to the politeum of Creta. His
family has Egyptian names.

 Presence of Jewish synagogues in Egypt. Inscriptions with dedications of synagogues. Dedicated both to God and to
Kings. It wasent forbiddent to show their loyalty.

6. Persecution of Jews under Ptolemy IV Philopator (or Ptolemy VIII Physcon) (From J. Mélèze-Modrzejewski, The
Jews of Egypt (Princeton 1997), 143. Original source: Third book of Maccabees, 4:1-10. 2nd-1st century BC?)
“Philopator decreed that all the Jews of Egypt were to be conveyed in Alexandria, there to suffer the supreme punishment,
as well befits traitors. The rebellious Jews were declared guilty of fomenting a plot against the throne. Once they had been
punished, the king hoped that the realm would again enjoy peace and prosperity. Whoever dared to hide a Jew, young or
old, even babes and sucklings, was to be put to death, he and all his family. All houses in which a hidden Jew was
discovered were to be set afire. On the other hand, any person who denounced the guilty parties would receive a reward of
two thousand drachmas from the royal treasury, as well as other benefits: the honours of Dionysos or, if the informer was a
slave, his liberty”.

14
7. Anti-Jewish feelings on the part of the Egyptians. Letter of Herakles to Ptolemaios: Corpus Papyrorum
Judaicarum 141 = Remondon CE 1960. 1st century BC.
“I beg you, take him under your care so he may escape arrest; if he needs anything, treat him in the same way as you do
Artemidoros, and especially do me the favour of putting him up in the same place; for you know that they loathe the Jews
…” writes Herakles to Ptolemaios.

8. Importance of the Jewish community in Alexandria and Egypt. Strabo in Josephus AJ XIV 117-8. Text of the 1st
century AD, but refers back to the situation in the Ptolemaic period.
“In Egypt, for example, territory has been set apart for a Jewish settlement, and in Alexandria a great part of the city has
been allocated to this nation. And an ethnarch of their own has been installed, who governs the people and adjudicates suits
and supervises contracts and ordinances, just as if he were the head of a sovereign state.”

Nov 23
The civil war : Caesarians versus Caesaricides
- After ides of March  senate decreed assassins needed to be punished & Caesar’s acts and will would be ratified &
he had public funeral (23rd March, 44 BCE)
o Caesar left his money and garden to the people & the people were really sad about his death
 There were riots against the conspirators
 Within a month conspirators left Rome  went to Greece to form their own army & allied with
Sextus Pompey, the son of Pompey (he was like pirate chief now)
- Brutus went to Greece / Cassius had more support in the near east and became a leader of the forces there.
o By 43 BCE, Cassius was ready to fight the consul
- April 44 BCE – Gaius Octavius enters Rome  becomes Gaius Julius Cesar Octavianus, heir of Caesar (Augustus
only after 27 BCE)
o Claim wasn’t well received by Antony – BUT later they both were ok
- November 43 BCE = Octavian, Antony and Lepidus form a 5-year triumvirate (Second triumvirate)
o Official alliance, aimed to raise money, for the restoration of the republic
o Carried out proscriptions by executing equestrians and senators (like Cicero)
o Set out for Greece to fight with Brutus and Cassius  they faced in the Battle of Philippi in 42 BCE, but
it’s actually 2 separate battles
 first won by Antony against Cassius, & Brutus won against Octavian.
 Cassius didn’t know Brutus won & committed suicide.
 3 years later another battle fought & Brutus committed suicide and lost the battle.
- After Philippi, Antonius = strongest member of the triumvirate.
o Power and territory were divided between him and Octavian.
o At 42 yo, he was at the peak of his career, he was married to Fulvia
o He started to plan his Parthian campaign

Cleopatra sided with the Caesarians, especially Dolabella, proconsul of Syria (source: Cassius Dio)
- Cleo supplied money & troops to Dolabella (she requested Cleopatra’s four legions that Caesar had left)
o Request also from Cassius  Cleo took her time b/c she also needed the troops due to some problems in
her kingdom BUT sent the legions to Dolabella.
o Her sentiments were with the Caesarion part but she left open options also with the assassins
 Some money & support was sent to Cassius BUT apparently she was furious with the general
(from Cyprus) that did this and didn’t know this happened.
o Cleo herself actually commanded her own fleet to sail w/ Oct & Ant  rare in Greek queens (connected
her w/ isis more b/c 2 Isis festivals were nautical theme)
 But bad weather, needed time to recover  BUT by time she recovered, she wasn’t needed
- In return = Dolabella recognized Caesarion’s co-rule with Cleo (didn’t have the authority), approved by triumvirs
- Cleo assassinated her bro, P14, summer of 44 BCE
o Josephus tells of this  calls her a monster, he was only 15/16
 Maybe to make space for Caesarion & if P14 became an adult he would be king
o She also killed her sister Arsinoe IV w/ Antony’s help – she was a refugee at the Temple of Artemis at
Ephesos
 This is why public opinion of Cleo (the Jews & Roman) were so shocked by her actions

After the death of Dolabella, Cassius and Brutus = civil war continued
- Antony moved East  41 BCE, summoned Cleo from Antonious at Tarsos.

15
 o She ignored repeated letters  BUT FINALLY she went
o The official reason = Cleopatra was asked to justify herself for why she helped Cassius.
(later on, she was called a traitor to everyone, even Caesar)
 This has been interpreted as an excuse – he actually raising money to invade Parthia.
- Antony already been in Ephesos – getting rid of Arsinoe
o So he was welcomed and greeted by locals as Dionysus
 He was already presenting himself as Dionysus  a general, liked wine, likes jokes & Dionysus
was symbolic for setting out to Parthia – Dio is the conqueror of India and the East, “leader of
Asia”
 Cleopatra identified as Aphrodite / Venus & Isis (she was not the first, Arsinoe II and Cleopatra
Thea – her fav models)
 SO: their encounter before they met, was announced as the meeting of Dionysus & Aphrodite

Antony (& Cleo)

- Plutarch, Life of Antony, 2nd cent. = described Antony as the anti-Hero, ruled by passions
“25. Such, then, was the nature of Antony, where now as a crowning evil his love for Cleopatra supervened, roused and drove to frenzy many of
the passions that were still hidden and quiescent in him, and dissipated and destroyed whatever good and saving qualities still offered
resistance. And he was taken captive in this manner. As he was getting ready for the Parthian war, he sent to Cleopatra, ordering her to meet
him in Cilicia  in order to make answer to the charges made against her of raising and giving to Cassius much money for the war. 2 But Dellius,
Antony's messenger, when he saw how Cleopatra looked, and noticed her subtlety and cleverness in conversation, at once perceived that Antony
would not so much as think of doing such a woman any harm, but that she would have the greatest influence with him. He therefore resorted to
flattery and tried to induce the Egyptian to go to Cilicia "decked out in fine array" (as Homer would say), and not to be afraid of Antony, who
was the most agreeable and humane of commanders. 3 She was persuaded by Dellius, and judging by the proofs which she had had before this
of the effect of her beauty upon Caius Caesar and Gnaeus the son of Pompey, she had hopes that she would more easily bring Antony to her feet.
For Caesar and Pompey had known her when she was still a girl and inexperienced in affairs, but she was going to visit Antony at the very time
when women have the most brilliant beauty and are at the acme of intellectual power. 4 Therefore she provided herself with many gifts, much
money, and such ornaments as high position and prosperous kingdom made it natural for her to take; but she went putting her greatest
confidence in herself, and in the charms and sorceries of her own person”

- Plutarch is a very moralistic source and he likes anecdote  he quotes other sources one is Quintus Dellius.
- during meeting  Cleo shows herself in a splendid way – Antony was seduced
- Only source that says Cleopatra had a relationship with the son of Pompey – BUT there aren’t other sources that
say that
o Maybe a source that argues she slept w/ every Roman commander
o BUT it does note the beauty & intelligence of Cleo
- “sorceries”  Plutarch and other authors insist she’s a witch – she knew how to use potions  so Antony is her
victim

“26. 1 Though she received many letters of summons both from Antony himself and from his friends, she so despised and laughed the man to
scorn as to sail up the river Cydnus in a barge with gilded poop, its sails spread purple, its rowers urging it on with silver oars to the sound of
the flute blended with pipes and lutes. 2 She herself reclined beneath a canopy spangled with gold, adorned like Venus in a painting, while boys
like Loves in paintings stood on either side and fanned her. Likewise also the fairest of her serving-maidens, attired like Nereïds and Graces,
were stationed, some at the rudder-sweeps, and others at the reefing-ropes. Wondrous odours from countless incense-offerings diffused
themselves along the river-banks. 3 Of the inhabitants, some accompanied her on either bank of the river from its very mouth, while others went
down from the city to behold the sight. The throng in the market-place gradually streamed away, until at last Antony himself, seated on
his tribunal, was left alone. And a rumour spread on every land that Venus was come to revel with Bacchus for the good of Asia.”
- Scene could’ve been subject of artworks
- Conscious depiction relating Cleo and Antony as Aphro & Dio
- Plutarch goes on to describe banquet

“Antony sent, therefore, and invited her to supper; but she thought it meet that he should rather come to her. 4 At once, then, wishing to display
his complacency and friendly feelings, Antony obeyed and went. He found there a preparation that beggared description, but was most amazed
at the multitude of lights. For, as we are told, so many of these were let down and displayed on all sides at once, and they were arranged and
ordered with so many inclinations and adjustments to each other in the form of rectangles and circles, that few sights were so beautiful or so
worthy to be seen as this.
27 1 On the following day Antony feasted her in his turn, and was ambitious to surpass her splendour and elegance, but in both regards he was
left behind, and vanquished in these very points, and was first to rail at the meagreness and rusticity of his own arrangements. Cleopatra
observed in the jests of Antony much of the soldier and the common man, and adopted this manner also towards him, without restraint now, and
boldly.”
- Stories of banquet is in traces of our sources
o Socrates of Rhodes describes the two-day banquet in Cilicia – BUT only have some fragments (FGH 192
F1)  describes the luxurious vessels the gold and purple fabrics, the roses which covered the floor.
o Antony first invites Cleo, then next day Cleo invites Antony
 In Plutarch, Cleo invites first  IMPORTANT = who invites first was greater and more powerful
 Description of the lights and beauty of Cleo’s banquet couldn’t be matched by Antony
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  similarity in Virgil = describing Dido of Carthage banquet for Aeneas
o Some think lights are typical décor for Near East, diff. from Rome
- Cleo observed Antony and saw he liked joke  she adopted the same tone and the same speech.
o Pharresia (freedom of speech) = characteristic of Cleopatra
 Was a Greek virtue that was normally for Male only.
 In Plutarch, presentation of Cleopatra as an Eastern Queen, very beautiful (Cassius Dio describes
her as the most beautiful among women) and her charm reside in the intellect and personality.

Famous description of Cleopatra by Plutarch, Life of Antony:

27.2-5 For her beauty, as we are told, was in itself not altogether incomparable, nor such as to strike those who saw her; but conversation with
her had an irresistible charm, and her presence, combined with the persuasiveness of her discourse and the character which was somehow
diffused about her behaviour towards others, had something stimulating about it. 3 There was sweetness also in the tones of her voice; and her
tongue, like an instrument of many strings, she could readily turn to whatever language she pleased, so that in her interviews with barbarians
she very seldom had need of an interpreter, but made her replies to most of them herself and unassisted, whether they were Ethiopians,
Troglodytes, Hebrews, Arabians, Syrians, Medes or Parthians. 4 Nay, it is said that she knew the speech of many other peoples also, although
the kings of Egypt before her had not even made an effort to learn the native language, and some actually gave up their Macedonian dialect.
- Interesting passage b/c, first time there is idea of Cleopatra not just a beautiful woman BUT somebody who was
very cultivated and she knew a lot languages.
o There is a pleasure that come from the tone of her voice  we know that her father was a musician, so she
maybe was also a singer and a musician
o Theme of music kind of attached w/ theme of a polyglot
 She could speak with various peoples without interpreters (list include Ethiopian, Hebrew, Arabs,
Syrians, etc.) – Aramaic was the lingua franca at the time.
o Plutarch underlines she was the only one who knew Egyptian, not just the Macedonian dialect.
o The theme of a ruler who can master all the languages = really interesting
 Mithidates VI of Pontus = famous polyglot, of Persian decent, could speak all 22 languages of the
population under his rule, «without using interpreters».
 Maybe Persian tradition = king was a sort of divine, could speak all the language of his
subjects.
 Maybe Cleo wanted to be seen like that
o Ability to speak in tongues is also devilish  poliglossia or glossolalia, prerogative of both the Holy Spirit
and of the devil.
- INTERESTING = how languages and kingship tied together w/ religion

Cleopatra’s personality & culture

- Her culture was well known
- Philostratus (a sophist), Lives of the sophists I, 5  talks about Cleo’s court life & love of letters and study
(filologia): for her even studying (filologein) became luxury (tryphe).
o He studied w/ the queen at the Mouseion
o Liked the Asian rhetorical style: colourful, sensual, rich.
- Antony later donated the entire Library of Pergamum to Cleo
o Some see this as Antony trying to remedy to the fire of the Library of Alexandria made by Caesar.

Inimitable livers
- Plutarch (L. of Ant. 29 1) describes their live (the lunches, banquets – spend lots of money)
- He talked of association called the Inimitable Livers. Anecdotes about Cleo, not really in any context (just Cleo and
Antony’s life together)
o Inscription stone dedicated to Antony: mention that sort of life  the great “god and benefactor Antony
the Great, inimitable in his erotic deeds”
o (Plutarch ties theme of food w/ theme of flattery) Cleo was organizing all these banquets & entertainment
b/c she wanted to seduce Antony  She kept him in constant tutelage
 Basically controlling him, constantly staying beside Antony.
 Cleo seen as the teacher and Antony as the “stupid pupil”.
o Antony as a tragic actor w/ Romans and comic actor w/ Alexandrians is meaningful
 Ant as Dio = god of theatre & Alexandrians were very passionate about theatre and drama
 In Alexandria people appreciated Antony because he was an aristocrat but was able to go to bars,
walk in easy normal clothes etc.  like P1
o Anecdote on fishing trip

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  Ant. was pretty bad BUT Cleo made him feel better by saying “it’s ok leaving fishing to us
Egyptians, you’re better for conquering others”  turned embarrassment into compliment

- Famous anecdote by Pliny the Elder  on Cleo’s great wealth
(one of the most famous stories)
o For a bet with Antony, Cleo dissolved the big pearl
earring in a cup of vinegar, then drinks it
o The other earring was cut in two & placed on a statue of
Venus in the Pantheon (in Pantheo) at Rome
*** significant b/c in Cleo portraits (ie. Coinage) always
represented with pear earrings.
Image: Coin of Cleo & Mark Antony
Image: Bust in Delos
One of the most famous story
Cleo said she could spend 2 and half million
drachmas on a single dinner.
This story reflection of not only the roman
distaste for the extravagant lives of eastern
royalty BUT also an increasing dislike of the
involvement of a Roman magistrate in such
happenings.

Nov 25
 Cleo’s Egypt = very important to Rome

Internal (civil war) & External (against Parthia) Problems

When Antony in Alexandria  Italy in civil war
- 41 BCE, found out his brother (Lucius Antonius) & wife (Fulvia) was fighting Octavian – supporting him against
Oct
o They were mad at Oct for confiscating their land = a way to pay his soldiers, giving land to his soldiers
o  War of Perugia
At the same time, another problem  written in Plutarch, Life of Ant. 30
- Parthians led by Labienus (one of the conspirators) – heading towards Syria

- According to Plutarch  at the beginning, Ant didn’t really care about Italian affairs
o Appian & C. Dio  he was blinded by passion for Cleo
- At a certain point he finally did something  went to Italy with 200 ships b/c Fulvia wrote to him
o Some his friends said it was Fulvia’s fault for the civil war – to distract him from Cleo
o BUT she got ill and died when she was sailing to him (near Gulf of Corinth)
 Some say they met up in Athens, and then when Ant was in Italy then she died
- Death of Fulvia was kind of a thing  b/c everyone blamed her for the civil war
o All sources BUT Appian say it was her fault
o Both sides convinced Ant & Oct to make peace
o Blaming women is a common theme
 At this point Cleo wasn’t really in Italian politics  if Fulvia was jealous, she would’ve been
jealous of Glaphyra  a princess Ant had relations with
 Oct also had something with her

Ant & Oct made peace, their treaty (also important effect on Cleo):
 Antony and Octavian divided the world between themselves  Antony become the master of the Near East &
Octavian had the west.
 Treaty reinforced by marriage  Antony marriage to Octavia – broadcasted through empire as fusion of East &
West
o She was a widow, known for her charm and for her skills as mediator.
o She was the same age of Cleopatra and had the legitimacy of being a Roman Matron.
o Accompanied Ant on his return to East.
o She was unusual & for the first time Cleopatra had a genuine rival.
 Marriage was a chance for new era of peace.
 her pregnancy = symbolic because the child personify the symbol of the peace & future of Roman
leaders  2 female: Antonia Major and Antonia Minor.
- Same time, 40 BCE, Cleo gave birth to two children  Alexander Helios & Cleopatra Selene (Ant’s kids)
o In Plutarch  lots of chapters comparing Octavia (epitome of Roman female virtue) & Cleo (the lover,
whore, etc.)
 Why these depiction may be b/c of his sources
 One was Aug’s autobio & Nikolau of Damascus (part of King Herod’s court)bio of Aug.
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  Authors may have been trying to suck up to Aug by portraying Octavia as the anti-Cleo

[Octavian guaranteed his sister as well as his wife, Livia, extraordinary privileges, including sacrosanty and the right to
administer their affairs without a guardian. Statues were erected in their honour]

Image: Octavia bust

In 40 BCE
- Herod went to Alexandria  Cleo tried to seduce Herod, wanted him to lead her army – she really wanted the
Ptolemaic empire back (including Syria & Judea)
o Herod refused the proposal & went to Rome to meet Antony and senate  they gave him the title: Allied
king of Rome, the new king of Judea.
o Both Cleopatra and Herod were trying to play the role of the pro-roman kings.
- Herod got married to Marianne, a descending of the legitimate king of Judea.
o Josephus said  even Ant wanted to see her beauty but didn’t b/c Cleo would get jealous -- FICTION

Complications in Roman Affairs = 40-37 BCE, Sextus Pompey and the grain supply of Sicily
- Sextus Pompey (son of Gnaeus Pompey) controled Sicily and Sardinia  able to provoke famine in Rome as he
controls the grain imports from Sicily.
- Meeting at Misenum in the Bay of Naples (Octavian, Antony, pirate chief Menodoros, and Sextus)
o Sextus appointed governor of Sicily, Sardinia and Peloponnese for five years.
- 38 BCE, Octavian starts war against Sextus,
o Antony moves to the East  about to launch against Parthia where there was already a Roman General,
Ventidius.
- 36 BCE, Octavian, Agrippa and Antony launched a triple attack against Sextus Pompey.
o Once again, Octavian was near death in the Battle of Taormina, where he was defeated.
o Agrippa defeated Sextus in the Battle of Mylae, and later, on September 3, in the Battle of Naulochus.

Around 37 BCE
- Oct & Ant made peace but isn’t long lasting
- According to Plutarch  Ant was succumbing to Cleo
o In Plutarch there is an aside – taken from another source talking about the civil war
 Is the passage of the deamon of Antony  we all have inside us a deamon,
1. A seer from Egypt went to Ant  said he needed to get away from Oct b/c his deamon of
Antony, who was a successful general, vanished when Octavian was around.

Ancient historians don’t underline importance of children BUT we should

- Ant had 2 kids with Octavia
- Cleo had 2 kids with Ant
- 37 BCE, Ant summoned the rulers of Near East
o Some say “oh he was just trying to see Cleo again”  BUT this was more of a diplomatic event, in prep of
Parthian campaign
o Plutarch, Life of Antony, Donations/Conference of Antioch, 37 BCE 
36 1 But the dire evil which had been slumbering for a long time, namely, his passion for Cleopatra, which men thought had been charmed
away and lulled to rest by better considerations, blazed up again with renewed power as he drew near to Syria. And finally, like the stubborn
and unmanageable beast of the soul, of which Plato speaks, he spurned away all saving and noble counsels and sent Fonteius Capito to bring
Cleopatra to Syria. 2 And when she was come, he made her a present of no slight or insignificant addition to her dominions, namely,  Phoenicia,
Coele Syria, Cyprus, and a large part of Cilicia; and still further, the balsam-producing part of Judaea, and all that part of Arabia Nabataea
which slopes toward the outer sea. These gifts particularly annoyed the Romans. And yet he made presents to many private persons of
tetrarchies and realms of great peoples, and he deprived many monarchs of their kingdoms, as, for instance, Antigonus the Jew, whom he
brought forth and beheaded, though no other king before him had been so punished.
- Passage  depicts a normal diplo. conference, a roman leader giving gifts for their help
o Ant trying to reward supporters, trying to choose most useful allied rulers – of course Cleo was important
& one of the most powerful
- Dorea, Greek for “donations”  a Ptolemaic word, found in lots of papyri
o Romans didn’t like it though
 Thought it was too Eastern & Ant was giving Roman territory, belonging to Romans to Eastern
rulers
- Ant also officially recognized Cleo’s twins
o Even as little babies they were important figures  important names & their sun and moon names were
religiously symbolic
19
 - Probably when Cleo learned about Antony and Octavia’s marriage
o She believed that the triumvir would no longer be part of her life.
o Herod had resolved his civil war, and this meant that he was now a significant threat to Cleopatra’s
ambitions.
 Herod has just secured his throne.
- Over the next several years – Antony enlarged Cleo’s kingdom.
o The list was long, probably the most important was the coast of Phoenician and Palestina (Gaza, Ptolemai
and Byblos). She had Jericho in the south, certain districts on the island of Crete.
Cleo & Ant marriage in Antioch?  Most scholars think NO. He was formally married to Octavia, at least until 35 BCE
- Passage from Suetonius, Life of Cae.  taken as proof that Cleo & Ant were married  BUT probably not
o Cites a letter Ant wrote to Oct. – debated passage
 Both these men had many relations – Cleo was just one of them

Parthian Campaign  overall failure

- Suppose to be 3 years campaign against Parthia
and other areas
- Main supporter was the king of Armenia 
gave Antony lots troops
o in exchange Alexander Helios was
betrothed to his daughter  future
king of Armenia

Map showing area in which Antony was influential:

Several reasons for its failure

- First year, the main war engines were destroyed
by Media
o All the siege weapons, tools, etc.
captured and burned
- Mountains of Armenia = very cold
o Problems with survival
- According to Plutarch  king of Armenia betrayed Antony, caused disaster.
- 36-35 BCE, Antony wintered in Phoenicia, while army was in Capodotia
o Suppose to meet Cleo on coast, in Beyruts  she bring clothes & money
 This was interpreted by “pro-Aug” sources as Cleo responsible for the failures
 He left the army when he shouldn’t have, passions to see her, etc.
 In Plutarch  he was getting drunk when waiting for her & when she came he went to
Alexandria, while the army was still on the mountains
 Cassius Dio (more level headed) said he just did what he had to do b/c Cleo was going to bring
him supplies

Year 2 of Campaign
- Compressed in the sources  want to focus on comparing Octavia and Cleo  causing civil war
- Major event = Octavia went to Greece, wanted to meet Antony  brought money & clothes too
o Apparently sent her back BUT returned from Armenia to meet up with her
o In Plutarch  Oct. let his sister go b/c if she was treated badly, he would have reason to go to war
 Oct was using his sis situation to wage war
- Cleopatra at this point, afraid Antony would go back to Octavia
o In Plutarch  so “she reduced her body to slender diet”, she was so sad and etc.
o Comparison of who Octavia called “wife” & Cleo (even tho she’s an important queen) she was just a
“lover”
- Ant postponed campaign until summer, & went back to Alexandria
o Some think (Cassius Dio, 49.33) he went back to Alex. b/c he heard Octavia was coming
- Don’t know if Oct. tried to win over King of Armenia against Ant  possible
- Impossible that Ant planned war against Oct in 35 BCE
o b/c Ant. was still in Armenia, and his troops stayed there until 33 BCE
- ROLE OF OCTAVIA (in civil war) exaggerated by Augustus OR writers wanting to kiss up to him
o Portrayed as anti-Cleo, refusing to leave her husband or damage his rep
Armenia campaign = more successful.

20
 - The princess of Armenia is taken to Alexandria.
- 34 BCE — ceremony in the Alexandrian gymnasium.  celebrate success of second campaign.
o In Plutarch, Life of Antony, “Donations of Alexandria” 
 Antony assigned territory to Cleopatra, Caesarion, Alexander Helios and a 3 rd son of Antony and
Cleopatra (born 36 BCE) called Philadephus.
• Donation was ultimate reason for war for Oct  didn’t give conquered land to Rome but
to Cleo
• Cleo was “queen of kings”
 Donations, hinted to be an artistic scene that many recreated
Image: Statue of Twins

Speech Octavian gave to senate about waging war against Ant.

- Description about the “Donation of Alexandria”  def. biased
o It wasn’t a shocking thing  ceremony was the kind of ceremony that kings normally do in a gymnasium
 The problem = from a Roman POV that was not acceptable.
- Helios dressed like Armenian king, Philadephus dressed like Macedonian, Cleopatra dressed as Isis
o Distribution of territory to kids
- Oct tried to pretend it wasn’t supposed to be about starting a civil war against Ant
o BUT actually against CLEO, a foreign queen threatening stability of Rome

- System of alliances against Parthians

- Cassius Dio 49.41: Cyrene was given to Cleopatra Selene
o Plutarch: Cyrene was entrusted to Cleopatra VII, who is portrayed as Basilissa Kleopatra Thea Neotera
(Queen Cleopatra Goddess II) on bronze coins at Cyrene in 32/1 BCE
- Canidius Crassus is governor there.
- Military function of ports in North Africa
- Augustan propaganda: Antony = tragikos e misorrhomaios ( anti roman).
o Herod presents himself as philorhomaios ( pro-roman). It seems that it was precisely
o In 36 BCE, Cleo given by Ant the title philopatrice (father land loving)  this epithet is something that
Antony did with king who support him because they loved their own county.
- Cleopatra become the Queen of Kings.

Nov 26
Relation b/w Herod & Cleo (Josephus, Jewish Antiquities Book 15)
- 40 BCE  when Herod went to Rome to get his “allied king” title
o Alexandra, the mom of Herod’s wife, wrote to Cleo  wanted Cleo’s support against Herod as the legit
Hasmonean lineage – so they should rule, not Herod
o Cleo offers her help
 Alexandra also scared Herod will kill off her son, Aristobulus (18yo)  35 BCE, she and her son
wanted to seek refuge in Egypt
 BUT HEROD stopped them and killed Aristobulus  he invited him to dinner then made him
take a bath where servants drowned him – make it look like an accident
o Alexandra wrote more to Cleo – asked her to speak to Ant
 So she did, asked Ant to speak w/ Herod
-  Josephus provides a non-Roman POV of N.E. courts
o People say story of Herod & his relation w/ Egypt & Octavian = one of the best documented & detailed
o Interesting = Joe & Nicolaus report indirectly many speeches from Cleo
 Could’ve come from Herod’s diaries (an eastern trad. to write down chronicals)
 In Joe  Cleo emphasizes to Ant that he should avenge Aristobulus
• Inconceivable that Herod, in his position, which he didn’t deserve should be allowed to
just kill the prince who’s rightfully supposed to be a ruler
• Cleo stresses her nobility and royal blood
- In 35 BCE, when Ant moved to Armenian campaign – summoned Herod to Laodicaea
o BUT Herod’s bribes won  manages to convince Ant he’s innocent & Ant didn’t avenge the prince
o In Joe  Ant specifically tells Cleo to NOT meddle with Judean affairs {BUT CLEARLY, if he said that
he isn’t just someone obsessed and under her control}

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 BUT to make her happy, he gave some of Herod’s territory to her (territory that were formerly
Ptolemies) Jericho & parts of Arabia
-  More in Joe – a dark story
o He still think Cleo had great influence over Ant  “his passion for her”
o Portrays Cleo as a monster – Joe or Nicolaus lists all the murders committed by Cleo
 From her brothers to her sister & she didn’t respect religions & she’s a witch (expert with
poisons / drugs)
 Portrait the benefited Herod & used by Octavian, also some Roman poets
• So HEROD & OCT’s interests at some point were the same  just against women (but
Cleo specifically)
• Herod is loyal to Ant. until the end of the Battle of Actium
o Cleo returning from Antioch, she goes to see Herod
 Wanted to talk to him, he wanted to kill her to save Ant  but people convinced him to not, Ant
wouldn’t like it
- Donations of Alexandria, 34 BCE
o Description in Plutarch, vague  probably taken from speech by Oct, he gave to Roman people, that Ant
was insane for giving all those territories to Eastern kings
 Some others interpret as Ant just reorganizing vassal states and rulers
o The small children participated
 A thing that Oct takes inspo from  frieze on ara pacis show a bunch of kids in “ethnic”
costume, as trojans

Image: Helios as an Armenian

Image: Denarius of Cleo & Ant.

Canidius Crassus
- Important figure, a general of Antony’s
- In Plutarch 
56 1 Antony heard of this while he was tarrying in Armenia; and at once he ordered Canidius to take sixteen legions and go down to the sea.
But he himself took Cleopatra with him and came to Ephesus. It was there that his naval force was coming together from all quarters, eight
hundred ships of war with merchant vessels, of which Cleopatra furnished two hundred, besides twenty thousand talents, and supplies for the
whole army during the war. 2 But Antony, listening to the advice of Domitius and sundry others, ordered Cleopatra to sail to Egypt and there
await the result of the war. Cleopatra, however, fearing that Octavia would again succeed in putting a stop to the war, persuaded Canidius by
large bribes to plead her cause with Antony, and to say that it was neither just to drive away from the war a woman whose contributions to it
were so large,  3  nor was it for the interest of Antony to dispirit the Egyptians, who formed a large part of his naval force; and besides, it was
not easy to see how Cleopatra was inferior in intelligence to anyone of the princes who took part in the expedition, she who for a long time had
governed so large a kingdom by herself, and by long association with Antony had learned to manage large affairs. These arguments (since it
was destined that everything should come into Caesar's hands) prevailed; and with united forces they sailed to Samos and there made
merry. 4  For just as all the kings, dynasts, tetrarchs, nations, and cities between Syria, the Maeotic Lake, Armenia, and Illyria had been ordered
to send or bring their equipment for the war, so all the dramatic artists were compelled to put in an appearance at Samos; and while almost all
the world around was filled with groans and lamentations, a single island for many days resounded with flutes and stringed instruments;
theatres there were filled, and choral bands were competing with one another.
- After Armenia they went to Ephesus, Samos
o It seems that Ant was trying to get rid of Cleo.
 Cleo asked Canidius to speak to Ant and bribed him
• documentary evidence which agree with Plutarch in some ways  a papyrus from
mummy – 33 BCE royal decree, Cleo granting fiscal exemption and privileges to
Canidius
o It seems that they, even if basically they were approaching the civil war, they still perform some dyonistic
rights – parties .

Image: Papyrus from mummy, Cleo’s bribes

In Plutarch  another point Oct makes to wage war against Ant = Ant’s will

Wherefore, among the greatest mistakes of Antony men reckon his postponement of the war. For it gave Caesar time to make preparations and
put an end to the disturbances among the people…Moreover, Titius and Plancus, friends of Antony and men of consular rank, being abused by
Cleopatra…ran away to Caesar [Octavian], and they gave him information about Antony's will, the contents of which they knew. 3 This will
was on deposit with the Vestal Virgins, and when Caesar asked for it, they would not give it to him; but if he wanted to take it, they told him to
come and do so…He (Octavian) assembled the senate and read it aloud to them, although most of them were displeased to hear him do so…For
it directed that Antony's body, even if he should die in Rome, should be borne in state through the forum and then sent away to Cleopatra in
Egypt.
- Various friends / supporters of Antony abandon him  there are lots of anecdotes on it.

22
 - Wage war against Cleo b/c everything is her fault

Triumvirate end, 33 BCE

- January 32 BCE, two Antonian loyalist (Sosius and Domitius Ahenobarbus) entered in consulship  tried to
introduce a legislation against Octavian,
o Oct entered Senate with a guard and made counter-accusation against the two
- Meanwhile, couple were in Ephesos  Cleo provided 200 of the 800 ships for the war.
o Domitius opinion against the utility of Cleo  Canidius pointed out that not only she was essentially
funding the war BUT she was NOT inferior in ability to the male allied kings and had ruled the major
kingdom alone for a long time.
- Cleopatra was the cause for the war 
o Everything Ant did for Cleopatra was perfectly legal= his authority as triumvir
 BUT after the 33 BCE = he was a private citizen, he had lost this privilege.

Battle of Actium - 2 Sept, 31 BCE (appendix 1)

- Battle in the bay of Actium in Greece
o Greece was exploited for war
- Plutarch seems to be well informed on it =
granddad was part of war efforts raising money for
Ant
o Ant’s ships were well manned or equipped
BUT Oct’s were
o Opposition between the giants ships of
Cleopatra and the smaller of Octavian. 
big ship not good for manoeuvre in bay

 2 years after Aug’s victory = built trophy monument,

overlooking the waters where the battle had been waged.
- Also founded a new city, Nikopolis (Victory City)
at the base of the hill.
- Monument formally dedicated to Mars and
Neptune (the hill on which the monument was built
was probably sacred to Apollo).
o The monument has a large stone podium, into the front side of which his masons cut sockets (extending
across the length for about 70m) which hold the bronze ramming prows from Antony and Cleopatra's
ships. The rams were hauled up from the sunken ships and inserted into specially cut sockets uniquely
shaped specifically for each ram.

• The depictions of the battle itself carved on the Arch at

Orange, France (see part of that scene at the left showing
many of the Roman rams; image courtesy of William M.
Murray)
• A sculpture in the Capitoline Museum, Rome, showing a
similar ram (see the lower image at the left; image courtesy
of William M. Murray)
• A fragmentary sculpture showing a ram probably from the
frieze of the monument at Actium
• A small bronze fragment of a ram found at the monument
site
• Depictions of Roman ships with rams from the Temple of
Isis, Pompei
• A relief from Praeneste showing a ram;
• The sockets at the Actium monument

Archaeologists were able to measure the ships of both, Cleopatra’s

ones were monumental.

23
_______________________________________Appendix1___________________________________________
 About the battle:
The Battle of Actium
- Naval battle in the last war of the Roman Republic
- b/w the fleet of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Queen Cleopatra of Egypt. It took place
- On 2 September 31 BCE in the Ionian Sea near the promontory of Actium in Greece.

Results:
- Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its dominions. He
o Adopted the title of Princeps ("first citizen") and
o In 27 BC, awarded the title of Augustus ("revered") by the Roman Senate. This
 Became the name he’s known as in later times.
o As Augustus, he retained the trappings of a restored Republican leader, but historians generally view his
consolidation of power and the adoption of these honorifics as the end of the Roman Republic and the
beginning of the Roman Empire.

Before:
- End of 32 BCE – Antony meant to anticipate an attack by a descent upon Italy , and went as far as Corcyra. Finding
the sea guarded by a squadron of Octavian's ships, he retired to winter at Patrae while his fleet for the most part lay
in the Ambracian Gulf and his land forces encamped near the promontory of Actium, while the opposite side of the
narrow strait into the Ambracian Gulf was protected by a tower and troops.
- Oct proposed a conference with Antony
o Ant rejected & they prepared for the struggle the next year.
- The early months passed without any notable events
o BUT some successful forays by Agrippa along the coasts of Greece  to divert Antony's attention.
o In August, troops landed near Antony's camp on the north side of the strait Antony could not be tempted
out.
o Took some months for his full strength to arrive from the various places in which his allies or his ships had
wintered.
 During these months  Agrippa continued attacks on Greek towns along the coast, while
Octavian's forces engaged in various successful cavalry skirmishes  Antony abandoned the
strait's north side between the Ambracian Gulf and the Ionian Sea and confined his soldiers to the
southern camp.
 Cleo advised that garrisons be put into strong towns & main fleet return to Alexandria.
• Ant agreed
- Octavian tried to stop them from leaving
o 1 Sep – addressed his fleet, preparing them for battle.
During:
- Trumpet signal for the start  Antony's fleet began issuing from the straits and the ships moved into line and
remained quiet.
- Octavian, after a short hesitation, ordered his vessels to steer to the right and pass the enemy's ships.
o For fear of being surrounded, Ant forced to attack.
- The two fleets met outside the Gulf of Actium (today Preveza)
o Antony's fleet numbered 500, of which 230 were large war galleys with towers full of armed men  He
led them through the straits towards the open sea.
 Antony and Lucius Gellius Poplicola commanded the Antonian fleet's right wing, while
Marcus Octavius and Marcus Insteius commanded the centre, with Cleopatra's squadron behind
them. Sosius launched the initial attack from the fleet's left wing while Antony's chief
lieutenant Publius Canidius Crassus commanded the triumvir's land forces.
o Octavian had about 250 warships  His fleet was waiting beyond the straits,
 led by the experienced admiral Agrippa, commanding from the left wing of the fleet, Lucius
Arruntius the centre and Marcus Lurius the right. Titus Statilius Taurus commanded Octavian's
armies, and observed the battle from shore to the north of the straits.
- Pelling notes that the two former consuls on Antony's side commanding the wings indicates that it was there that
the major action was expected to take place. Octavius and Insteius, commanding Antony's center, were lower-
profile figures.
- It is estimated that Antony had around 140 ships, to Octavian's 260.

24
 o What Antony lacked in quantity was made up for in quality  his ships were mainly the standard Roman
warship, quinqueremes with smaller quadriremes, heavier and wider than Octavian's, making them ideal
weapon platforms. Antony's personal flagship, like his admirals', was a "ten". Antony's war galleys were
very difficult to board in close combat and his troops were able to rain missiles onto smaller and lower
ships. The galleys' bows were armoured with bronze plates and square-cut timbers, making a successful
ramming attack with similar equipment difficult. The only way to disable such a ship was to smash its
oars, rendering it immobile and isolated from the rest of its fleet. Antony's ships' main weakness was lack
of manoeuvrability; such a ship, once isolated from its fleet, could be swamped with boarding attacks.
Also, many of his ships were undermanned with rowing crews; there had been a severe malaria outbreak
while they were waiting for Octavian's fleet to arrive.
o Octavian's fleet was largely made up of smaller "Liburnian" vessels. His ships, though smaller, were still
manageable in the heavy surf and could outmanoeuvre Antony's ships, get in close, attack the above-deck
crew with arrows and ballista-launched stones, and retreat. [25] Moreover, his crews were better-trained,
professional, well-fed and rested. A medium ballista could penetrate the sides of most warships at close
range and had an effective range of around 200 yards. Most ballistas were aimed at the marines on the
ships' fighting decks.
- Before the battle one of Antony's generals, Quintus Dellius, defected to Octavian, bringing with him Antony's
battle plans.
- Shortly after midday, Antony forced to extend his line from the protection of the shore and finally engage the
enemy.
o Seeing this, Octavian's fleet put to sea Antony hoped to use his biggest ships to drive back Agrippa's
wing on the north end of his line, BUT Octavian's entire fleet, aware of this strategy, stayed out of range.
o By about noon the fleets were in formation but Octavian refused to be drawn out, so Antony was forced to
attack. The battle raged all afternoon without decisive result.
- Cleopatra's fleet, in the rear, retreated to the open sea without engaging. A breeze sprang up in the right direction
and the Egyptian ships were soon out of sight.
o Lange argues that Antony would have had victory within reach were it not for Cleopatra's retreat.
- Antony had not observed the signal, and believing that it was mere panic and all was lost, followed Cleo. The
contagion spread fast; everywhere sails unfurled and towers and other heavy fighting gear went by the board. Some
fought on, and only long after nightfall, when many a ship was blazing from the firebrands thrown upon them, was
the work done. Making the best of the situation, Antony burned the ships he could no longer man while clustering
the remainder tightly together. With many oarsmen dead or unfit to serve, the powerful, head-on ramming tactic for
which the Octaries had been designed was now impossible. Antony transferred to a smaller vessel with his flag and
managed to escape, taking a few ships with him as an escort to help break through Octavian's lines. Those left
behind were captured or sunk.
J. M. Carter gives a differing account of the battle. He postulates that Antony knew he was surrounded and had nowhere to
run. To turn this to his advantage, he gathered his ships around him in a quasi-horseshoe formation, staying close to the
shore for safety. Then, should Octavian's ships approach his, the sea would push them into the shore. Antony foresaw that
he would not be able to defeat Octavian's forces, so he and Cleopatra stayed in the rear of the formation. Eventually Antony
sent the ships on the northern part of the formation to attack. He had them move out to the north, spreading out Octavian's
ships, which until this point were tightly arranged. He sent Sosius to spread the remaining ships to the south. This left a hole
in the middle of Octavian's formation. Antony seized the opportunity and, with Cleopatra on her ship and him on a different
ship, sped through the gap and escaped, abandoning his entire force.
With the end of the battle, Octavian exerted himself to save the crews of the burning vessels and spent the whole night on
board. The next day, as much of the land army had not escaped to their own lands, submitted, or were followed in their
retreat to Macedonia and forced to surrender, Antony's camp was occupied, bringing an end to the war.
___________________________________________________________________________________________

Nov 30
After of Battle of Actium, 30 BCE
- Canidius (general of Ant) left over night, many troops passed over to Oct
o After battle, Oct sailed to Athens to distribute food to people there
- Ant & Cleo went to Lybia  Cleo goes back to Alex and Ant stays there
o Ant tried to kill himself but his friends stop him
o Cleo had plan to escape, through Arabian Gulf, live in foreign country (in Plutarch)  BUT apparently
Arabs prevented her & burned her ships

25
 Attitude of Arabs against Cleo = in Josephus & Nicolaus  Cleo was exploiting the Arabs (from
the territory she was given) & had ordered Herod to go against Arabs (who failed to pay debts to
her)
• Herod realize her influence w/ Ant so just agreed to fight Arabs INSTEAD of w/ Ant at
Actium
- Ant closed access to Egypt, stayed on Island of Pharos = wanted to be alone ):
o Canidius went to Ant to tell him of the defeat  Ant left his house on Pharos to go to royal palace in Alex.
to meet Cleo
o Despite situation, Cleo hosted a lot of celebrations / banquets for Ant
 In Plutarch, Life of Ant chap 71 = 2 important ceremonies:
• Coming of Age for Caesarion, 14 yo could enter gym as an adult & bestowing the toga
virilis to Antyllus (14 yo son of Ant from Fulvia)
“These are a few things out of many concerning Timon. As for Antony, Canidius in person brought him word of the loss of his forces at Actium,
and he heard that Herod the Jew, with sundry legions and cohorts, had gone over to Caesar, and that the other dynasts in like manner were
deserting him and nothing longer remained of his power outside of Egypt. 2 However, none of these things greatly disturbed him, but, as if he
gladly laid aside his hopes, that so he might lay aside his anxieties also, he forsook that dwelling of his in the sea, which he called Timoneum,
and after he had been received into the palace by Cleopatra, turned the city to the enjoyment of suppers and drinking-bouts and distributions of
gifts, inscribing in the list of ephebi the son of Cleopatra and Caesar, 3 and bestowing upon Antyllus the son of Fulvia the  •toga virilis without
purple hem, in celebration of which, for many days, banquets and revels and feastings occupied Alexandria.”
•
IMPORTANT = they were trying to make their kids able to become kings, in case they
died
• also helps figure out when Caesarion was born = if ceremony was in 30 BCE (or
31) they were born around 45 BCE
• some argue Caesarion was born during Alexandrian war (48 BCE) & these
ceremonial dates could be moved for royalty or rich people
• BUT usually they would move them up, NOT postpone it back sooooo
• Some say Ant was just an insane party person because of the time BUT in reality it was
tragic
- In Plutarch  Cleo & Ant realized there was no way out
o ended association with Inimitable Livers & found a new association Companions of Death
o Plutarch didn’t entirely make this up  there were some secret clubs around their figures
Cleopatra and Antony now dissolved their famous society of Inimitable Livers, and founded another, not at all inferior to that in daintiness and
extravagant outlay, which they called the society of Partners in Death. For their friends enrolled themselves as those who would die together,
and passed the time delightfully in a round of suppers. 4 Moreover, Cleopatra was getting together collections of all sorts of deadly poisons,
and she tested the painless working of each of them by giving them to prisoners under sentence of death. But when she saw that the speedy
poisons enhanced the sharpness of death by the pain they caused, while the milder poisons were not quick, she made trial of venomous animals,
watching with her own eyes as they were set upon another. 5 She did this daily, tried them almost all; and she found that the bite of the asp
alone induced a sleepy torpor and sinking, where there was no spasm or groan, but a gentle perspiration on the face, while the perceptive
faculties were easily relaxed and dimmed, and resisted all attempts to rouse and restore them, as is the case with those who are soundly asleep.
o Cleopatra was experimenting different types of poisons  testing them on prisoners.
 PASSAGE INTERESTING because Cleo is known from other sources to be experimenting on
poisons  famous for knowing about poisons
• We have a poetic work (some verses about Actium) on a papyrus, Carmen de Bello
Actiaco – the author is debated
• Some have argued it’s “pro-Antonian” work  b/c it seems to sympathize w/
Ant & Cleo, & show Oct as being cruel
• BUT recent studies = it’s “pro-Octavian”, a result of Aug. propo
• Augustian propo & maybe Aug’s memoirs spread = Cleo a very cruel
queen, testing poisons on people
• Goes together w/ picture of SCHOOL OF MEDICINE at Alex.
 famous for experimenting on people (prohibited in Rome,
against their religion)
• School of Alexandria = different  b/c shared some
characteristics with Egyptian modus operandi w/ dead bodies
(like dissecting bodies)
• Plutarch says Cleo’s doctor (Polybus) was one of his sources
o Passage can be read in 2 ways:
 Cleo = cruel
 Cleo = just trying to find a painless ways to die (most “humane” one could say)

Plutarch on the last days of Ant & Cleo

- Octavian started the war again, went back to Syria.

26
 - Cleo locked herself in the mausoleum  carried all her precious Ptolemy treasures there
o Mausoleum apparently near Temple of Isis – maybe royal tombs also near here (we know it was close to
the sea)
o She collected all that stuff for a good threat that she could destroy it all  asked servants to bring her stuff
to start fire
- Oct promised to be “indulgent” coming to Alex
- Antony managed to win first battle against Oct
o So excited he went to Cleo very happy – gave his best soldier to her & she gave him gifts
 But at night the soldier deserted to Oct, Ant’s fleet abandoned him & joined Oct
 Ant was abandoned by everyone & he went back to the city
75 1 And now Antony once more sent Caesar a challenge to single combat. But Caesar answered that Antony had many
ways of dying. Then Antony, conscious that there was no better death for him than that by battle, determined to attack by
land and sea at once. And at supper, we are told, he bade the slaves pour out for him and feast him more generously; …
During this night, it is said, about the middle of it, while the city was quiet and depressed through fear and expectation of
what was coming, suddenly certain harmonious sounds from all sorts of instruments were heard, and the shouting of a
throng, accompanied by cries of Bacchic revelry and satyric leapings, as if a troop of revellers, making a great tumult,
were going forth from the city; 4 and their course seemed to lie about through the middle of the city toward the outer
gate which faced the enemy, at which point the tumult became loudest and then dashed out. Those who sought the
meaning of the sign were of the opinion that the god to whom Antony always most likened and attached himself was now
deserting him.
o The passage is like an “anti-triumph”
 Lots of anecdotes on last days of Ant, but the truth of it is ehhhh

76 1 At daybreak, Antony in person posted his infantry on the hills in front of the city, and watched his ships as they put
out and attacked those of the enemy; and as he expected to see something great accomplished by them, he remained
quiet. But the crews of his ships, as soon as they were near, saluted Caesar's crews with their oars, and on their
returning the salute changed sides, and so all the ships, now united into one fleet, sailed up towards the city prows
on. 2 No sooner had Antony seen this than he was deserted by his cavalry, which went over to the enemy, and after being
defeated with his infantry he retired into the city, crying out that he had been betrayed by Cleopatra to those with whom
he waged war for her sake. But she, fearing his anger and his madness, fled for refuge into her tomb and let fall the
drop-doors, which were made strong with bolts and bars; then she sent messengers to tell Antony that she was
dead. 3 Antony believed that message, and saying to himself, "Why doest thou longer delay, Antony? Fortune has taken
away thy sole remaining excuse for clinging to life," he went into his chamber. Here, as he unfastened his breastplate
and laid it aside, he said: "O Cleopatra, I am not grieved to be bereft of thee, for I shall straightway join thee; but I am
grieved that such an imperator as I am has been found to be inferior to a woman in courage.

- Now, relation b/w Cleo & Ant = complicated

o Cleo scared Ant would blame her & locked herself in her mausoleum
o She spread a rumour that she killed herself  Ant believed it
- Ant told his servant to kill him
o Servant couldn’t and killed himself  famous line where Ant said “well done Eros, you taught me what I
need to do” & then tried killed himself
o He didn’t die, his friends wouldn’t finish him
- A servant of Cleo came to take Ant’s wounded body to her
o Cleo couldn’t leave mausoleum  only a window at the top & they pulled Ant up through the window
 77 1 Having learned, then, that Cleopatra was alive, Antony eagerly ordered his servants to raise him up, and he was carried in
their arms to the doors of her tomb. Cleopatra, however, would not open the doors, but showed herself at a window, from which
she let down ropes and cords. To these Antony was fastened, and she drew him up herself, with the aid of the two women whom
alone she had admitted with her into the tomb. 2 Never, as those who were present tell us, was there a more piteous sight.
Smeared with blood and struggling with death he was drawn up, stretching out his hands to her even as he dangled in the air. For
the task was not an easy one for the women, and scarcely could Cleopatra, with clinging hands and strained face, pull up the
rope, while those below called out encouragement to her and shared her agony. 3 And when she had thus got him in and laid him
down, she rent her garments over him, beat and tore her breasts with her hands, wiped off some of his blood upon her face, and
called him master, husband, and imperator; indeed, she almost forgot her own ills in her pity for his. But Antony stopped her
lamentations and asked for a drink of wine, either because he was thirsty, or in the hope of a speedier release. 4 When he had
drunk, he advised her to consult her own safety, if she could do it without disgrace, and among all the companions of Caesar to
put most confidence in  Proculeius, and not to lament him for his last reverses, but to count him happy for the good things that
had been his, since he had become most illustrious of men, had won greatest power, and now had been not ignobly conquered, a
Roman by a Roman.
o Ant’s last request = wine  Dionysus
- Octavian probably the main source for all this

27
 o Oct wanted Cleo alive, asked Proculeius to watch over her (common that defeated rulers killed
themeselves than be in Roman procession)
 IMPORTANT = Keeping her alive  She was the mother of Julius Caesar’s only known child /
a major religious figure / mother of three of Ant’s children / Eliminating her also might create
instability in Egypt.
o Cleo tried to negotiate with Proculeius & Cornilius Gallus (becomes first prefect)
 Convince them to let her kids to be rulers
 Proculeius managed to enter maus. and found a bunch of knives  Aug gives stricter orders about
watching her

- Plutarch describes Oct’s triumphant entrance, Aug 1st, 30 BCE

o He pardoned the city
o Octavian buried Antony in regal way  Cleo participated in funeral
 She hurt herself BUT promised to get better b/c Oct promised to spare her kids
 Oct used her kids as a threat

Last Moments of Cleo – Last meeting with Oct

“83 She was lying on a mean pallet-bed, clad only in her tunic, but sprang up as he entered and thew herself at his feet;
her hair and face were in terrible disarray, her voice trembled, and her eyes were sunken. There were also visible many
marks of the cruel blows upon her bosom; in a word, her body seemed to be no better off than her spirit. 2 Nevertheless,
the charm for which she was famous and the boldness of her beauty were not altogether extinguished, but, although she
was in such a sorry plight, they shone forth from within and made themselves manifest in the play of her features. After
Caesar had bidden her to lie down and had seated himself near her, she began a sort of justification of her course,
ascribing it to necessity and fear of Antony; but as Caesar opposed and refuted her on every point, she quickly changed
her tone and sought to move his pity by prayers, as one who above all things clung to life. 3 And finally she gave him a
list which she had of all her treasures; and when Seleucus, one of her stewards, showed conclusively that she was
stealing away and hiding some of them, she sprang up, seized him by the hair, and showered blows upon his face. 4 And
when Caesar, with a smile, stopped her, she said: "But is it not a monstrous thing, O Caesar, that when thou hast
deigned to come to me and speak to me though I am in this wretched plight, my slaves denounce me for reserving some
women's adornments, — not for myself, indeed, unhappy woman that I am, — but that I  may make trifling gifts to
Octavia and thy Livia, and through their intercession find thee merciful and more gentle?" 5 Caesar was pleased with
this speech, being altogether of the opinion that she desired to live. He told her, therefore, that he left these matters for
her to manage, and that in all other ways he would give her more splendid treatment than she could possibly expect.
Then he went off, supposing that he had deceived her, but  rather deceived by her.” Plutarch
- Also in Cassius Dio  but talks about how she tried to seduce Aug the way she seduced Caesear
o Definitely source from a “pro-Aug” view
- Plutarch use various sources, some Greek & even some Alexandrian – some sympathy for her at a point
o Cleo tried to beat him rhetorically  BUT Oct was stronger
o She also tried to bribe him & wanted to give gifts to Octavia & Livia
o Oct thought she wanted to live
 He thought he tricked her – BUT Cleo actually tricked him
- Cleo got word from Oct’s friend, the son of Dolabella = discovered Oct was leaving & she and her kids would
leave for Rome 3 days later
o Cleo got permission to visit Ant’s grave (Aug 9 / 10, 30 BCE)
o In Plutarch  last prayer of Cleo = “I will not be led in triumph” (also quote in Livy)
 Don’t know if she really said it there in the tomb or in a letter she sent before dying
o Asks to be buried w/ Ant in Egypt

 Oct tried to justify his actions in these days = he needed to be detailed about Cleo’s death
o Many then thought Cleo’s death was destined to Oct & he killed her

“After such lamentations, she wreathed and kissed the urn, and then ordered a bath to be prepared for herself. After her
bath, she reclined at table and was making a sumptuous meal. And there came a man from the country carrying a basket;
and when the guards asked him what he was bringing there, he opened the basket, took away the leaves, and showed them
that the dish inside was full of figs.  2  The guards were amazed at the great size and beauty of the figs, whereupon the man
smiled and asked them to take some; so they felt no mistrust and bade him take them in. After her meal, however, Cleopatra
took a tablet which was already written upon and sealed, and sent it to Caesar, and then, sending away all the rest of the
company except her two faithful women, she closed the doors. 3 But Caesar opened the tablet, and when he found there
lamentations and supplications of one who begged that he would bury her with Antony, he quickly knew what had
happened. At first he was minded to go himself and give aid; then he ordered messengers to go with all speed and
investigate.”
28
Triple suicide – (in Plutarch) Cleo & her servants
- He reports 3 different deaths for Cleo:
o No signs on her body, expect 2 small holes (snake bite?)
 The asp that was brought in the fig basket (according to Cassius Dio) used it to bit her
 Some debate where she was bitten
• (Horosius, from Livy) bitten on left arm & then escaped through window
• (Cassius Dio) she had a poisonous hairpin that she used
• Her eunuch commited suicide w/ her
- Lot of debate on how she died
o Strabo has 2 versions = asp & mortal anointment
o Galen talks about this issue  said Cleo cut herself then poured the asp poison in & the servants commited
suicide before her
 Said asp bite was an Egyptian execution method
o Cicero (died before Cleo) BUT reported Demetrius of Phalerum (first librarian at Library) committed
suicide exactly the same way
- 29 BCE, how Oct showed her death in the triumph
o Oct chose the image of the asp & made a tableau = Cleo on a couch w/ an asp
 He popularized this version of her death
o Asp also sacred animal of Isis = dying this way solidified her symbol & was faithful to Egyptian traditions
NOTE :
- Narratological exam of Plutarch text = less common.
o He interprets the last scene of Cleo’s life as a dramatic mimesis of the Isis-Osiris myth
o The final act played out in three scenes = the death of Antonio / encounter with Oct / death of Cleo
 Most classical authors don’t specify where the asp bit Cleo
• Few Greek narratives do it and mention the arm explicitly.
• Orosius says the left one
• Christian era = bite switch from the arm to the breast = like reverse brestfeeding

- Octavian annexed Egypt as a province = 1st august 30 BC 

o Ptolemaic empire = dismembered, territories divided b/w Rome & allied kings.
o Antony statues were destroyed, BUT Cleo’s allowed to stand.
 b/c of the religious importance Cleo had
o 3 years later = Oct become the emperor Augustus, he would survive till 14 AD.
o Octavia never remarried, and she lived in her dome on the Palatine next to her brother.
o Antony’s family would continue to be prominent.
 His grand-daughter would rule in Pontos & her descendants would be significant members of the
royalty in Asia Minor.
o Kings who supported Cleopatra had mixed fates,
 Malchos and Herod could not both survive and bring any hope of stability to the southern levant.
 Herod deceived back the territories that he had lost to Cleopatra.
 Archelaos of Cappadocia was the longest survivor.
 3 of the Cleo’s children survived & leave Alexandria.
• They were sent in Rome under the care of Octavia.
• Cleopatra Selene was the only living descended in 20 BCE. She created her own
entourage in Caesar, she imported a large amount of statues from Alexandria, including
portrait of her mother.  married with Juba. She essentially evanished from the record
with the birth of her son Ptolemy.

- Oct made sure to portray himself as very pious & very sad about Cleo’s suicide
o Tried to save her
- Cleo died at 39 yo, Ant was ~53 yo (40 when he met Cleo)

Image: Fresco from Pompeii

Image: Sleeping Ariadne Statues

Dec 2 – After Cleo’s death & her kids

**comparing how Plutarch & Cassius Dio talk about events**
*** Oct very detailed about these events***

29
After Cleo’s death
- Kingdom passed to Caesarion (P15)  ruled for 18 days BUT is fiction
o Caesarion in fact had been sent away, with ample funding, perhaps with Ethiopia or India as an ultimate
destination.
- 30 BCE, Oct deliever speech in gym of Alexandria in Greek
o To spare the city in honour of Alex the great & for his friend, an Alexandrian philosopher & his Greek lit.
teacher

About Ant & Cleo’s kids and what happened to them

In Plutarch, 81, Life of Ant
1 As for the children of Antony, Antyllus, his son by Fulvia, was betrayed by Theodorus his tutor and put to death; and
after the soldiers had cut off his head, his tutor took away the exceeding precious stone which the boy wore about his
neck and sewed it into his own girdle; and though he denied the deed, he was convicted of it and crucified.
2 Cleopatra's children, together with their attendants, were kept under guard and had generous treatment. But
Caesarion, who was said to be Cleopatra's son by Julius Caesar, was sent by his mother, with much treasure, into India,
by way of Ethiopia. There Rhodon, another tutor like Theodorus, persuaded him to go back, on the ground that Caesar
invited him to take the kingdom. But while Caesar was deliberating on the matter, we are told that Areius said:—”Not a
good thing were a Caesar too many” (ouk ekton polukaisarie)
o Caesarion was killed
o Passage sounds like from an insider
 His source knew the tutors of these kids well  like Nicolaus of Damascus, tutor of Ant & Cleo’s
kids
 Talks negatively about other tutors  Theodorus who betrayed Antyllus, killed on tomb of
Antony
 And negative about Caesarion’s naivety – b/c he was still pretty young & is killed
• “Areius said ‘it is not good thing were a Caesar too many’”
o Murder of Caesarion = a double betrayal by 2 Alexandrians

In Cassius Dio, 51.15.5-6, Roman History

Such were these two and such was their end. Of their children, Antyllus was slain immediately, though he was betrothed to the
daughter of Caesar and had taken refuge in his father's shrine*, which Cleopatra had built; and Caesarion while fleeing to
Ethiopia was overtaken on the road and murdered. 6 Cleopatra was married to Juba, the son of Juba; for to this man who had
been brought up in Italy and had been with him on campaigns, Caesar gave both the maid and the kingdom of his fathers, and as
a favour to them spared the lives of Alexander and Ptolemy. 7 To his nieces, the daughters whom Octavia had had by Antony and
had reared, he assigned money from their father's estate. He also ordered Antony's freedmen to give at once to Iullus, the son of
Antony and Fulvia, everything which by law they would have been required to bequeath him at their death.
o Antyllus killed *what it means? = maybe Kasarion of Alexandria OR mausoleum of Mark & Cleo – debate
where exactly = the mausoleum of Ptolemies, in a temple of Isis??
o Selene apparently could’ve been married off to prince Juba as soon as Oct. came to Alex (30 BCE)
 Don’t know exactly when they were married  but they were sent to Mauritania in 25 BCE as
King & Queen
 But she could’ve been promised before hand
o As a favour to Selene & Juba  Oct spared Helios & Philadelphus (her bros)
 Not much is known about them after
 Scholars think they were either murdered or died young

Cleopatra Selene & Juba

- Selene became queen of very important kingdom
o Oct. allowed Cleo’s female kid to rule on as an important queen  means Juba was very loyal to Oct. OR
Oct. wanted to be seen as kind & pious
Juba’s Career 
• 46 BCE = from Caesar’s African campaign after defeating Pompey  defeated Juba I, Kind of
• Numidia was annexed to Rome as a province & Caesar brought baby Juba II to Rome in the triumph  not
killed because he was only an infant.
• Plutarch in the life of J. Caesar describe is as a baby, maximum aged 2yo or even younger than
that.
• Grows up in Rome at Octavia’s with her own son M. Claudius Marcellus (42-23 BCE) who was a little younger 
don’t know a lot about his childhood.
• 33 BCE= Death of king Bocchus of Mauretania and annexation of his kingdom as Roman province by Octavian 
this does not implied that a province could not returned to a kingdom.
• 34-33 BCE, = Perhaps Juba and Cleopatra Selene were already betrothed at Donations of Alexandria?
30
 • 26/25 BCE = Juba accompanies Augustus in military campaigns in Hispania and Lusitania 
• Campaign led to the foundation to Augusta Emerita
• Caesar, to thank him  assigned to him the territory of his father Numibia, & also Mauretania
• ~ 25 BCE = Juba marries Cleopatra Selene and receives kingdom of Mauretania.
• 25 BCE = Marcellus marries Julia, Augustus’ daughter.

Sel & Juba founded Caesarea, in honour to Octavian.

- Imperial women are very important, especially in client rulers
o the women of the Imperial family we can find the most monarchical aspect.
16  1  As for the rest who had been connected with Antony's cause up to this time, he punished some and pardoned others,
either from personal motives or to oblige his friends. And since there were found at the court many children of princes and
kings who were being kept there, some as hostages and others out of a spirit of arrogance, he sent some back to their
homes, joined others in marriage with one another, and retained still others. 
2  I shall omit most of these cases and mention only two. Of his own accord he restored Iotape to the Median king, who had
found an asylum with him after his defeat; but he refused the request of Artaxes that his brothers be sent to him, because
this prince had put to death the Romans left behind in Armenia. (Cassius Dio 51.16.1-3)
o Oct couldn’t let Armenia & Media to be left to Cleo & Ant’s kids
 In 20 BCE = Iotape married Mithrodates III = founding mother of Commagene dynasty
 In 34 BCE = she was supposed to be married to Helios.
• So some have taken this to say that by 20 BCE, Helios was dead.  no sources talk about
him after 25 BCE = was he already dead???
o 31 BCE = possible Cyrenaica was assigned to Cleopatra Selene (from donations of Alex)
 the region was important from a military point of view
 Cleopatra Selene appears in later sculptures in a dress & symbols reminiscent of Africa, like
panther, elephant hair-dress.
3 This was the disposition he made of such captives; and in the case of the Egyptians and the Alexandrians, he spared them
all, so that none perished. The truth was that he did not see fit to inflict any irreparable injury upon a people so numerous,
who might prove very useful to the Romans in many ways; 
4  nevertheless, he offered as a pretext for his kindness their god Serapis, their founder Alexander, and, in the third place,
their fellow-citizen Areius, of whose learning and companionship he availed himself. The speech in which he proclaimed to
them his pardon he delivered in Greek, so that they might understand him. 
5  After this he viewed the body of Alexander and actually touched it, whereupon, it is said, a piece of the nose was broken
off. But he declined  to view the remains of the Ptolemies, though the Alexandrians were extremely eager to show them,
remarking, "I  wished to see a king, not corpses." For this same reason he would not enter the presence of Apis, either,
declaring that he was accustomed to worship gods, not cattle. 
17  1  Afterwards he made Egypt tributary and gave it in charge of Cornelius Gallus (Cassius Dio – continued).

- Oct could’ve been in the temple of Serapis  like the other Ptol. kings used Serapis to legitimize rule
o High priest of Memphis died mysteriously few days before Oct’s arrival  replaced in 27 BCE
- Areius is an important figure  but we don’t know who he is.
- He visits Alexanders bodies BUT DOESN’T see the Ptolemaic kings

Crinagora of Mytilene  Celebrated the marriage of Juba and Cleopatra as union of Lybia and Egypt
- Compose an epigram = praised Egypt & Lybia as related countries, divided only by the Nile = their common
“father” & a god originating from Ethiopia.
o Common for mythic past like this to be made up to join peoples
- Juba very learned man = studied the Nile & the mythical sources = Juba argued that Lybians and Egyptians were
related nations
o Passionate about Geography led expedition to Canary Islands – his work cited by Pliny
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 - Crinagoras sent to Rome in 45 and 26 BCE = he could have composed this text for his second visit, when he also
wrote an epigram for Marcellus on his return from the campaign against the Cantabrians.

The kingdom of Cleopatra Selene and Juba

- Full of Egyptian symbols  Selene proud of her Egyptian descent
o Juba II researched the source of the Nile
o Crocodile appears on several coins, also image of Isis.
o They presented themselves as the descends of Ptolemy  Son of Juba & Selene called Ptolemy
 Description of child = “the son of King Jubas and descendant of King Ptolemy” in OGIS 197 =
EJ 164, inscription from Athens.
Ptolmey & Drusilla
- 19-14 BCE (Alföldi) OR 13-8 BCE (Roller): birth of Ptolemy, son of Juba and Cleopatra
o he is documented in portraits
 similar (hairstyle imitate the imperial family) to portraits of Gaius and Lucius Caesar, children of
Julia (Aug’s grandkids).
• Sel & Juba had a daughter = Drusilla  in honour of Livia.
o Hairstyle similar to that of Agrippina. Portrait in basement of Cherchell Museum
• Possible that Cleopatra and Livia talked
• Cleopatra Selene died before 5 BCE, when Juba left for the East along with the entourage of Gaius Caesar against
Armenia.
o Crinagoras of Mytilene wrote another epigram  compared the death of Selene to the lunar eclipse (a
lunar eclipse took place on 23rd March 5 BCE).
• In Strabo  know Ptolemy takes over after dad dies in 19/20 CE
o He imitates Drusus Minor  in 19 BCE was named successor of Tiberius
o He reigned from 20-40 CE
• Killed by Caligula
• He may have be a part of Gaetulicus’ conspiracy – to overthrow Caligula
o He wanted to restore the kingdoms of Egypt & Mauretania
• 41 CE = Claudius takes over Mauretania  roman province
o After only 65 years  territories were divided again and made into Roman provinces (Mauretania
Caesariensis & Mauretania Tingitana)

- The importance of Cleo legacy

o How not everything after 30 BCE, becomes bad and negative
o Oct spent a lot of time justifying his actions  he used symbols of Cleo & Selene to benefit himself

Dec 3 – Augustan Egypt

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Debated Question: Continuity OR Change?
(Ptolemaic  Roman Egypt)
- Old consensus (x-70s) = Egypt was special
province
o Set apart from rest of empire
o Governed by emperor  as personal
possession
o Idea that Egypt didn’t change for
millennium
- After 70s = questioned previous idea
o Augustus changed Egypt BUT into a
imperial province
- Typical Imperial Province = ruled by
equestrian governor (or could be a Senator)
o Places with unstable sit. – given to
governors who could lead an army
- Augustus (27 BCE)  all imperial provinces
under his direct control.
o A little different BUT he introduced
some changes in Egypt to bring it
back to former idea of province:
 Roman taxation
 Roman census
- Lewis & Bowman idea  no such thing as
typical roman province = b/c every place had
its own history (own culture, religion, etc.) –
all very different
o Egypt looks different to us
 b/c of all the written sources / papyri – lots produced in Greek telling how the place was ran as
province (from P1 to Arab conquest), less on Alexandria
 Other kingdoms – docs didn’t survive, so we know more about Egypt (b/c they dry)

After Octavian got Egypt

- 30 BCE = Went to Alex  delivered speech & pardoned, founded Nicopolis
o Stayed in Egypt for some months
o Offered Arius prefect (refused) – Cornelius Gallus (also a poet) first prefect of Egypt
- From 29 BCE = docs clearly dated in Augustus time
o First doc dated  from Oxyrhynchus – priest of temple in charge of lighting lamps writes with the new
dates = “Year 1 of the dominion of Caesar, the son of god”
o Augustus = Divi filius  brought him on the level of Pharaohs

Debate: Province OR not province?

- Yes = b/c there was a prefect  Corenlius = “prefect of Alexandria & Egypt”
o In trilingual inscription (April 15, 29 BCE) – says defeated rebellion in Thebaid

33
34
  Interesting Inscription
• Documents presence of Prefect
• Shows after Roman conquest  province not peaceful = revolts in Thebaid, and later
Ethiopia
• 20 BCE = Augustus tried to conquer Ethiopia  wanted to continue conquest into Arabia
(Caesar’s grand plan)
o In Augustus’ Res geastae = “I added Egypt to the imperium of the Roman people.”  doesn’t mention Ant
or Cleo
o Strabo (Historian & Geographer) = best source on Alexandria, went during Tiberius’ reign
 Think Egypt is Roman province  he had pro-Aug POV
 “Egypt now a province… pays considerable tribute… governed by wise men, the prefects… who
takes place of kings”
• Prefects = equites (ROMAN KNIGHTS)”  so NOT senators & personal friends of
Augustus

In Suetonius (biographer of Augustus)

- (like in Strabo) Conquest of Egypt = attempt by Aug to resolve / promote economic renaissance of country
o Augustan idea = “Egypt under Cleopatra was in decline, and now thanks to the roman rule the Egyptian
economy will become good.”
 Scholars question this idea  Cleo did all she could for her country & not in decline
- Says = Augustus organized grain export, put soldiers to dig canals for irrigation
o All could be Aug propo

20s BCE
- Gallus (30-26 BCE) – struggle against Thebaid
o In trilingual inscription at Philae  said he subdued 5 cities in 15 days
o Had diplomatic relations with Nubia
o 26 BCE = disgraced & forced committed suicide
 Suicide may have to do w/ “new settlement” of emp. that Aug started in 27 BCE
 Senate didn’t like him = thought he was getting cocky
 Cassius Dio = said he set up images of himself all over Egypt  NO EVIDENCE – epigraphic
evidence shows how loyal Gallus was to Augustus
o Interesting find = LATIN papyri of elegiac (depressed) verses by Gallus – found in Qasr Ibrim
 Vatican obelisk = inscription by Gallus, originally in Forum Iulium at Alexandria  repurposed
by Caligula and in Rome
• Inscription = said he was prefect & loyal to Augustus
- Aelius Gallus & Publius Petronius (next 2 prefects) = Tried to conquer Nubia
o Nubia ruled by one-eyed queen, Kandake (name from Strabo, but maybe misunderstood  Kandake in
Nubian = “queen”) = was friend of Cleo
o Both tries = failures  forced Augustus into defensive policies in 22/21 BCE
 22/21 BCE = Ethiopia delegates ask Aug that Ethiopia cancel paying them tribue – Aug agrees
 So Ethiopia & Nubia = stop paying & independent again
• Strabo tell this, in almost embarrassed tone
• No further attempt to conquest after
- 22 BCE = Aug goes from Sicily to East
o Maybe went to Egypt  BUT NO EVIDENCE FOR IT
- 24/22 BCE = Reforms of Petronius (Augustus)
o Pretty significant & important NOTE:
 Good methodology to compare Egypt to other
o Seem to be unchanged for next 200/300 years
provinces. (Egypt isn’t this weird special place)
 End of 3rd cent.  Diocletian made radical
 When we compare  can find some parallels to
change in institutions of Egypt
help us better understand a place in a large
 Also Constantine
Mediterranean context.
Importance of Egypt
- Main reason Augustus took Egypt = super wealthy & land
o Help pay for all soldiers that fought for him
 In res gaestae = he paid million sesterces to veterans
o Industries on estates  textile, papyrus, grain, olive oil, wine

35
 xx

36
37
38
39
 - What Aug did with Temples:
o Continued what Cleopatra was doing  removed some powers from Egyptian traditional temples
o Cleopatra supported the family of high priest of Memphis  Aug suppressed the high priest after 23 BCE
 He replaced the priest in 27 BCE, but did not after the priest’s death
 Sign that Augustus didn’t want to have a powerful Egyptian priest who could start a revolt
o Traditional Egyptian temples = continued to survive
 Some received land and pay some taxes  BUT lost their important and prestigious role
 Temple were schools = NOW (documents must be all in Greek) people went to the Grapheion
(local office of strategos), & dictated the document to a bilingual person.
40
THE THINGS IN AUGUSTAN EGYPT
- Changes to land ownership:
o Former royal land 
 Turned into Public land OR he kept the best (for him & fam) and became = Imperial Lands
• So he still had some behaviour like the Ptlomeies  even tho he criticized Cleo so much
 A boom of these Imperial estates (ousiai) = they were like the Ptolemys’ doreai land (gifted land,
when owners died  emperor’s again)
• It was a strategy of Augustus to not be criticized as a hypocrite???????? What?
o Private land increase in Rom. per.
- Long-distance trade
o Before = dangers of pirates and bandits  BUT now Aug brought peace
 In Strabo  said “up to 120 ships… from Myos Hormos to India”
• Maybe an exaggeration
- Hellenization more than romanization  continuation of Greek language & Ptolemaic bureaucratic terms
o No imposition of Latin or roman money
o Created overlap of old & new
 A little hard to differentiate what Augustus introduced and what was kept (or pretended to
continue)
o In Strabo  talks about admin of Egypt

 Idios logos = a position also in Ptol era  BUT gives position to his friends or other Romans
NOT Alexandrians
• Many freed slaves worked for Aug

 Not all Alexandrians were punished  some had privileges

• Aug = created a new ruling class among the Alexandrian  favoured the “Greek”
element of pop
• BUT its difficult to put a hard line b/w “Greek” and “Egyptian”

41
 • In general, looking at documental papyris = less important posts were left to Alexandrians
& the higher are given to roman citizens.

- Changes to Temples:
o Temple archives & scriptoria = replaced by Grapheion
- 3 systems of Justice:
o Egyptian customs, Greek tribunals & Roman laws
 Roman citizens in Egypt = small minority  Aug did NOT promote immigration
• He actually forbade senators and knights from going to Egypt  he didn’t trust them
because Egypt was so powerful they could rebel against him
- Prefect’s conventus = one of the Roman institutions found in Egypt
o Travelled around Egypt yearly  hear petitions, checked on the economy
o Supported by the new iuridicus
o New archives were created in Alexandria.
o Gnomon of the idios logos  reflect Aug legistation relevant to Egypt (preserved in some copies of
Antonine period)
 On matters of private love, marriage etc.
 More strict distinction b/w Alexandrians, Greeks & Egyptians
- Ethnic & Social classes
o Egyptians = not like natives from other provinces
 They were NOT integrated into admin of empire OR into army (except the lowest division = the
fleet)
o Greeks = only privileged class  paid less tax & could receive Alexandrian citizenship
 Had to bring docs to prove
 Greek = all 4 grandparents had to be Greek
- Poll tax = laographia, “registration of the people”  tributum capitis in other provinces
o The “gym class” / Greek aristocracy = granted fiscal & legal privileges
 One privilege  exemption from the poll tax  all adult males had to pay
o Didn’t exist before
- Roman census (laographia)  house-to-house census
o Important for the poll tax & other taxes = associated b/c they had a fiscal purpose for the census – you’re
counted to pay tax
o Every 14 years under Tiberius / maybe every 7, under Aug
o Give us a lot of info about demography
o Under Ptol. there was partial census  registration of priests / soldiers / 14yo boys
- Compulsory service  liturgies
o Ptol per = had diff taxes
 Greek class = diff land & diff tax
• Had farmers and then they pay the state tax = grain & money
o Rom. per = had to pay the land tax AND additional just as symbol that it was Roman rule
 Rome made lot of money
 Farmers usually heavily burdened
• Anachoresis = strike by abandoning home  became fugitives
- Jewish community / multiculturalism
o Under Ptol = very multicultural & multilingual
 Jews = most populus foreign community (over 1 mill)
• Diff b/w Alex. Jews & Egypt Jews
o Under Rom = could keep traditions BUT had to pay poll tax like Egyptians
- Abolishment of Boule = the main council of city (gave autonomy to a city)
o A way to punish Alexandria

 modern “citizenship” very different from what they thought of citizenship back then
 civitas = city & citizenship = “right of residence”, linked to an address in a city
- If farmer in countryside  could NOT be Alexandrian citizen
- Riots in times of Caligula  show problem around citizenship

42
Augustan System (everything above)
- Remained same until 3rd cent

Dec 9 – Augustan Egypt: Cultural aspect Alex’s mummy = major tourist

attraction in Rom per.
 looking at cultural aspect of life, under Aug – what he recycled from Cleo & what he - Alexander’s symbol =
brought from Rome leadership over West
& East
- In 30 BCE, in Alexandria - Caesar id himself as
o Aug had ambivalent attitude Alex  Ant did same
o In Suetonius  he didn’t want to visit the royal tomb of Ptolemys – BUT - DEBATE over who
he saw Alexander’s mummy, “wanted to see a king NOT corpses” melted Alex’s golden
Div.Aug. 18 “About this time he had the sarcophagus and body of Alexander the Great sarcophagus
brought forth from its shrine, and after gazing on it, showed his respect by placing upon it a
golden crown and strewing it with flowers; and being then asked whether he wished to see the tomb of the Ptolemies as
well, he replied, ‘My wish was to see a king, not corpses.’”
o In Cassius Dio  refused to see Apis Bull – not be in presences of Apis, “accustomed to worshiping gods
NOT cattle”
51.16.5. After this he viewed the body of Alexander and actually touched it, whereupon, it is said, a piece of the nose was
broken off. But he declined to view the remains of the Ptolemies, though the Alexandrians were extremely eager to show
them, remarking, "I  wished to see a king, not corpses." For this same reason he would not enter the presence of Apis,
either, declaring that he was accustomed to worship gods, not cattle.
 Sounds very Roman  maybe from Aug himself, b/c he hated Egyptian religion
- Aug was considered a “Pharaoh”  BUT he didn’t accept Egyptian religion & custom
o And NO PROOF of his coronation
- Aug use iconography of Alexander
o Created his own portrait type/style  he used all over empire
o His hairstyle recognizable
Image: Portrait head of Augustus

East vs. West = was there a clear cut divide?

- Ant  portrayed as the example of Eastern & Egyptian way of life
o His way of speak = “Asian” (opposite = “attic”, the old Greek way)
- Oct tried to make diff not “East vs. West”
o But difference = Athens & Rome vs. the Asian (Egypt, Persia, etc.)
 Tried to replicate the old idea of “Greek vs. Persia”
- Modern scholars  impossible to define “Greek culture” as “west”
o b/c Greek was rooted in Ionia (Near East)
o BUT Aug still tried to rewrite that & write in his own idea (purge Greek of all its “Asian” aspects)
- In Livy 
o 38.17 “The Macedonians who occupy Alexandria, Seleucia, Babylonia and their other colonies throughout
the world, have degenerated into Syrians and Parthians and Egyptians.”
o Even the Macedonians living in Alexandria = just as bad as the Egyptians, the Asians
- In Tacitus (under Trajan, saw one of the most devesting revolts, Diaspora Revolt), view on Egypt  is the voice of
average Roman aristocrat
o Hist. 1.11. “a province which is difficult to access, productive of great harvests, but given to civil strife
and sudden disturbances because of the fanaticism and superstition of its inhabitants, ignorant as they are
of laws and unacquainted with civil magistrates.”
o Obv. portrait isn’t fair  they were NOT ignorant
 So he may be meaning that they didn’t have ROMAN laws and magistrates
o These insults sound like Aug’s idea of not letting Roman officials into Egypt
 Afraid they would get too powerful
 HAPPENS THO  several generals would become emperor in Alexandria (like Vespasian)

43
Strabo’s Alexandria  one of the few depictions of Alexandria under Aug (v pro-Aug)
- 7.1.11-12 ‘The August emperor destroyed both (Antony and Cleopatra) and stopped the drunken violence in Egypt.
It is now a province paying considerable tax and governed by wise men.’
- Necropolis, Serapeion and ‘other ancient enclosures, now almost deserted because of the new buildings at
Nicopolis’.
• Strange  b/c arch. excavations show Nicopolis NOT that important actually
• Serapeum was the most important in Alex
- He concentrates on the Gymnasium = ‘the most beautiful building of the city’
• DOESN’T talk about the palace much  just says they’re decadent
- How does Strabo select the buildings described in his narrative?
• He shows this picture of late Ptol. period as failure in terms of buildings
• Doesn’t even mention the Kaisareion, doesn’t talk of the Jews
Phylo’s Alexandria  one of the main sources of the Kaisareion
Legatio 150-1: And we have evidence of this in the temples, and porticoes, and sacred precincts, and groves, and
colonnades which have been erected, so that all the cities put together, ancient and modern, which exhibit magnificent
works, are surpassed, by the beauty and magnitude of the buildings erected in honour of Caesar, and especially by those
raised in our city of Alexandria. (151) For there is no sacred precinct of such magnitude as that which is called the Grove
of Augustus, and the temple erected in honour of the disembarkation of Caesar, which is raised to a great height, of great
size, and of the most conspicuous beauty, opposite the best harbour; being such an one as is not to be seen in any other city,
and full of offerings, in pictures, and statues; and decorated all around with silver and gold; being a very extensive space,
ornamented in the most magnificent and sumptuous manner with porticoes, and libraries, and men's chambers, and groves,
and propylaea, and wide, open terraces, and court-yards in the open air, and with everything that could contribute to use
or beauty; being a hope and beacon of safety to all who set sail, or who came into harbour.
- He lived under Caligula  there was major persecution of Jews b/c they didn’t worship imperial cult
- Seems weird a Jew praises a temple of the Imperial cult
• So maybe he wrote this to be safe or to apologize

Research questions:
• Can the ancient sources on Roman Egypt between knowledge and power be equated with those of modern imperial
powers?
• Was the Egyptian ‘other’ merely an object to be incorporated in the ‘Western’ Greco-Roman culture imposed ‘from
above’ by the emperors? (cf. Spawforth 2012).

Role of Egypt in Roman Imperial period  debated

- Idea: Alexandria / Egypt in Ptol. per. had the museum/library & wonders & power  in Aug. per. reduced to just a
provincial province
• TRUE = under Cleo  there was the boule & under Aug  it was abolished
• BUT = even in Rom per. the library continue to grow and was very important
- Role of the Museum
o Lit. & scholar pursuit = best & most direct was to be in imperial favour
o (in Milllar) Aug used Museum as a recruiting pool to choose his admin people
 Some modern scholars think  later, museum wasn’t the scholarly place anymore = it was only
about the politics w/ generals & diplomats
 BUT others  antiquity didn’t have distinction where military and lit/scholarly life was separate =
you could be a soldier and a scholar or poet

Augustan Cultural Revolution  not easy to understand what place Egypt has in it
- Technically = Aug should REJECT everything Egyptian  BUT not true
o YES, he didn’t visit Apis Bull – BUT he paid homage to Serapis during his Greek speech in Gym
- Roman interest in Egyptian cults
o Serapis = was the thing Ptols created to legitimize themselves  SO, Aug doing that could’ve been useful
o Serapis was an ORACULAR cult = very useful for politicians
o All Emps showed as devoted to Serapis
 In 69 CE  Vespasian was just a commander & not even Roman – BUT he sought refuge in the
temple & accept by the Serapis clergy as emperor (then he became emperor)
• Then he performs some miracles as if he was Serapis
• He didn’t even like religion = BUT CLEARLY knew the importance of this cult to take it
serious
• Domitian & Caracalla also did

44
Role of Egypt in Aug’s ideology & propaganda
- Aug’s titles
o From the very first years = “son of Caesar, son of god”, (Kaisaros kratesis theou hyiou).
- Aug instituted cult of himself into the Kaisareion  changed name to Sebasteion (sebastos Greek = Augustus)
- Aug only wanted to be worshiped as god after death
o True in Rome / Italy
o BUT in provinces (like Egypt) where ruler cults was a thing  it wasn’t so true
 All temples in Egypt, whether Greek or traditional Egyptian, were obliged to offer daily sacrifices
to the emperor
 He could’ve had a high priest in his cult too
- Some argue  Aug = invented Greek culture that EXCLUDED eastern things & ADDED roman to it
o Everything Asian = marginalized or placed lower / Old Greece = perfect
- Alexandria wasn’t completely excluded
o There were some completely Egyptian things he
took = Sun cult - 12 BCE: the Prefect Rubrius Barbarus brought
o Around 10 BCE = celebration for 20th anniversary two obelisks from the temple of the sun god
of conquest  Aug took some obelisks back to Helios-Re at Heliopolis to the Kaisareion of
Rome Alexandria.
 Set them up as part of his building - 10 BCE = Augustus brought first obelisks to
program Rome (Strabo, Geography, XVII.27; Ammianus
 They were definitely solar symbols Marcellinus, XVII.4.12),
dedicated to the sun o set up as monuments to the conquest of
 One in Circus Max. & Campus Martius Egypt (twenty years before) & dedicated
 NOW  Rome has more obelisks than to the Sun.
other Egyptian cities b/c of Augustus -
Image: Obelisk Augustus took to Rome
 Hieroglyphs on obelisk
• Aug = choosing to id himself w/ some of the qualities of pharaohs  chosen by Apollo
• Rule was written in the stars  appropriation of Egyptian astrology
• Even from before = Caesar’s comet when he died
• BUT EVEN MORE under Aug  Emp crazy about astrology

Role of Egypt in the Roman imperial period :

• Glen Bowersock (Augustus and the Greek World, 1965) marginal role played by Alexandria.
• Fergus Millar (The Emperor in the Roman World, 1992, esp. 493, 504-6) argues for a tighter connection between
Museum membership and service at the imperial court.
• A.J. Spawforth, Greece and the Augustan Cultural Revolution, 2012: marginalization of Egypt and Alexandria.

- Egyptian intellectuals played an important role in Augustus’ reinvention.

I  have read the following story in the books of Asclepiades of Mendes entitled Theologumena. When Atia had come
in the middle of the night to the solemn service of Apollo, she had her litter set down in the temple and fell asleep,
while the rest of the matrons also slept. On a sudden a serpent glided up to her and shortly went away. When she
awoke, she purified herself, as if after the embraces of her husband, and at once there appeared on her body a
mark in colours like a serpent, and she could never get rid of it; so that presently she ceased ever to go to the
public baths. In the tenth month after that Augustus was born and was therefore regarded as the son of Apollo. Atia
too, before she gave him birth, dreamed that her vitals were borne up to the stars and spread over the whole extent
of land and sea, while Octavius dreamed that the sun rose from Atia's womb. (LCL translation)
Svetonio  Atia’s dream told by the Egyptian Asclepiades of Mendes (an Egyptian priest)

o Story = copy/adaptation of story of Olympias (Alexander’s mom)  Octavian was the son of the God
Apollo.
o Asclepiades = Egyptian priest, an intellectual who helped ruler become acceptable to the people
- Aug published his horoscope  Capricorn (when he was concived) = symbol of dominion of land & sea
o On his famous statues
o Also other symbols  Eros = ancestor of Julian family
o “POWER OF STAR” more trendy in Augustus time
- 9 CE  (near end of his life) Battle of Teutoburg Forest, in germany (Battle of Varus)  Roman defeat
o Jeopardize stability of empire

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 o Aug passes edict = bans astrology & horoscope about peoples death
 Opponents paid astrologers to ask when emperors would die or something

 IN ROMAN PERIOD = there was space for Egypt

 not just from admin, money, economy side
 important in religion (outside Egypt, esp in Naples & Pompeii)
 Isis was still important – BUT emperors liked to worship Serapis more
 older gen of scholars = think Museum degenerated to just decadence and politics – BUT NOT TRUE
 problem is just evidence for Museum in Roman period is sparse & scattered

Dec 10 – Papyrology
Alexandria 
Architect  Dinocrates of Rohdes  original plan will certainly have been based on a rectilinear grid of intersecting streets
and the inner city was gridled by an encircling wall on three sides. Little is known about the domestic architecture.

Five neighbourhoods called by the first five letters of Greek alphabet: Alpha, Bēta, Gamma, Delta, Epsilon.
• Beta: royal quarter, royal palaces.
• Bēta and above all Delta: Jewish quarters
Native egyptians were concentrated in the west around the site of the old village of Rgakotis.
The island of Pharos (submerged) a bridge called heptastadion linked island of Pahros to the mainlend. . Here there was a
lighthouse built in the III c. BCE by Sostratus of Cnidus for Ptolemy I or II.

X descrizione approfondita di Alessandria d’Egitto dare una lettura all’ultimo capitolo di bowman (molto discorsivo)

**** Jews****

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