Chapter 1

Fundamental Concepts and Reservoir/Fluid Systems

1
  SCF 
1- Rso = Solution Gas-Oil Ratio  STB 

The gas solubility Rs is defined as the number of standard cubic feet of gas that will
dissolve in one stock-tank barrel of crude oil at certain pressure and temperature. The
solubility of a natural gas in a crude oil is a strong function of the pressure, temperature, API
gravity, and gas gravity. For a particular gas and crude oil to exist at a constant temperature,
the solubility increases with pressure until the saturation pressure is reached. At the
saturation pressure (bubble-point pressure) all the available gases are dissolved in the oil and
the gas solubility reaches its maximum value. Rather than measuring the amount of gas that
will dissolve in a given stock-tank crude oil as the pressure is increased, it is customary to
determine the amount of gas that will come out of a sample of reservoir crude oil as pressure
decreases. A typical gas solubility curve, as a function of pressure for an undersaturated
crude oil, is shown in the following figure.

As the pressure is reduced from the initial reservoir pressure pi, to the bubble-point pressure
Pb, no gas evolves from the oil and consequently the gas solubility remains constant at its
maximum value of Rsb. Below the bubble-point pressure, the solution gas is liberated and the
value of Rs decreases with pressure.

2
Standing (1981) proposed a correlation for determining the gas solubility as a function of
pressure, gas specific gravity, API gravity and system temperature. The correlation was
developed from a total of 105 experimentally determined data points on 22 hydrocarbon
mixture from California crude oils and natural gases. The proposed correlation has an
average error of 4.8%.

1.2048
𝑃
𝑅𝑠 = 𝛾𝑔 [( + 1.4) × 10𝑥 ]
18.2

with
x = 0.0125 API - 0.00091(T - 460)
where
T = Temperature, °R
p = Pressure, psia
g = Solution gas specific gravity

3
  STB 
2- Rp = Produced Gas-Oil Ratio  SCF 

When oil is brought to surface conditions it is usual for some natural gas to come out of
solution. The gas/oil ratio (GOR) is the ratio of the volume of gas that comes out of
solution, to the volume of oil at standard conditions. The GOR is a dimensionless ratio in
metric units, but in field units, it is usually measured in cubic feet of gas per barrel of oil or
condensate. If the GOR is greater than 10,000 cf/bbl, then the field is usually described as a
gas well. If less than 10,000, then the field is generally described as an oil well. Moreover, if
Rp equals to Rs then the reservoir is said to be undersaturated oil reservoir (pressure is above
bubble point pressure). If Rp is greater than Rs, then the pressure id below bubble point and
the reservoir is said to be saturated reservoir. The instantaneous produced gas oil ratio is the
current amount of oil produced divided by the current volume of oil produced. The
cumulative produced gas oil ratio is the amount of cumulative gas produced divided by the
cumulative amount of oil produced.

4
  STB 
3- Rv = Volatile Oil-Gas Ratio  SCF 

It measures the amount of liquid in the vapor phase. Rv is relevant only in for gas
condensates and volatile oils reservoirs and determined by Constant Volume Depletion
(CVD) experiments. Typical values of Rv for both volatile oils and gas condensates are
30 to 300 STB/MMSCF.

5
4- Bg = Gas Formation Volume Factor

The gas formation volume factor is used to relate the volume of gas, as measured at
reservoir conditions, to the volume of the gas as measured at standard conditions, i.e., 60°F
and 14.7 psia. This gas property is then defined as the actual volume occupied by a certain
amount of gas at a specified pressure and temperature, divided by the volume occupied by
the same amount of gas at standard conditions. In an equation form, the relationship is
expressed as
𝑉𝑃,𝑇
𝐵𝑔 =
𝑉𝑆𝐶

Where:
Bg = Gas formation volume factor, ft3/scf
Vp,T = Volume of gas at pressure p and temperature, T, ft3
Vsc = Volume of gas at standard conditions, scf

Applying the real gas equation-of-state,(𝑃 × 𝑉 = 𝑍 × 𝑛 × 𝑅 × 𝑇), and substituting for the
volume V, gives:

𝑧𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑃 𝑃𝑆𝐶 𝑧𝑇
𝐵𝑔 = =
𝑍𝑆𝐶 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑆𝐶 𝑇𝑆𝐶 𝑃
𝑃𝑆𝐶
Where:
Zsc = Z-factor at standard conditions = 1.0
Psc = Pressure at standard conditions, psia
Tsc = Temperature at standard conditions, ºR

6
Assuming that the standard conditions are represented by Psc =14.7 psia and Tsc = 520 ºR,
the above expression can be reduced to the following relationship:
𝑧𝑇
𝐵𝑔 = 0.02827
𝑃
Where:
Bg = Gas formation volume factor, ft3/scf
z = Gas compressibility factor
T = Temperature, °R

In other field units, the gas formation volume factor can be expressed in bbl/scf, to give:
𝑧𝑇
𝐵𝑔 = 0.005035
𝑃

The reciprocal of the gas formation volume factor is called the gas expansion factor and is
designated by the symbol Xg, or:

𝑃
𝑋𝑔 = 35.37 , 𝑆𝐶𝐹/𝑓𝑡 3
𝑧𝑇

In other units:

𝑃
𝑋𝑔 = 198.6 , 𝑆𝐶𝐹/𝑏𝑏𝑙
𝑧𝑇

7
Example:
A gas well is producing at a rate of 15,000 ft3/day from a gas reservoir at an average
pressure of 2,000 psia and a temperature of 120 ºF. The specific gravity is 0.72 which
corresponds to Tc = 395.5 °R Pc = 668.4 psia. Calculate the gas flow rate in scf/day.

Solution

Step 1. Determine the Z-factor

Calculate the Pr and Tr:

2000
𝑃𝑟 = = 3.0
668.4
120 + 460
𝑇𝑟 = = 1.46
395.5

From Standing correlation figure (See attached figure), Z-factor = 0.74

Step 2. Calculate the gas formation volume factor:

𝑧𝑇 0.74 × 580
𝐵𝑔 = 0.02827 = 0.02827 = 0.006 𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑆𝐶𝐹
𝑃 2000
𝑃 2000
𝑋𝑔 = 35.37 = 35.37 = 164.8 𝑆𝐶𝐹/𝑓𝑡 3
𝑧𝑇 0.74 × 580

Step 3. Calculate the gas flow rate in scf/day

Multiplying the gas flow rate (in ft3/day) by the gas expansion factor Xg as expressed
in scf/ft3: Gas flow rate = (164.8) (15,000)= 2.472 MMscf/day

8
  bbl 
5- Btg = Total Gas Formation Volume Factor  SCF 

For volatile oils and gas condensates reservoirs, the total gas formation volume factor
accounts for the effect of liquid volatility. The total gas formation volume factor is
defined as:

𝐵𝑔 (1 − 𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑣𝑖 ) + (𝑅𝑣𝑖 − 𝑅𝑣 )𝐵𝑜

𝐵𝑡𝑔 = [ ]
1 − 𝑅𝑣 𝑅𝑠

9
6- Bo = Oil Formation Volume Factor

The oil formation volume factor, Bo, is defined as the ratio of the volume of oil (plus the
gas in solution) at the prevailing reservoir temperature and pressure to the volume of oil
at standard conditions. Bo is always greater than or equal to unity. The oil formation
volume factor can be expressed mathematically as:
(𝑉𝑜 )𝑃,𝑇
𝐵𝑜 =
(𝑉𝑜 )𝑆𝐶
where
Bo = Oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
(Vo)p,T = Volume of oil under reservoir pressure p and temperature T, bbl
(Vo)sc = Volume of oil is measured under standard conditions, STB

A typical oil formation factor curve, as a function of pressure for an undersaturated crude
oil (Pi > Pb), is shown in the following figure.

The oil volume increases due to the oil expansion as the pressure is reduced below the
initial reservoir pressure Pi. This behavior results in an increase in the oil formation
volume factor and will continue until the bubble-point pressure is reached. At Pb, the oil
reaches its maximum expansion and consequently attains a maximum value of B ob for the
oil formation volume factor. As the pressure is reduced below Pb, volume of the oil and
Bo are decreased as the solution gas is liberated. When the pressure is reduced to
atmospheric pressure and the temperature to 60°F, the value of Bo is equal to one. Most
of the published empirical Bo correlations utilize the following generalized relationship:
𝐵𝑜 = 𝑓(𝑅𝑠 , 𝛾𝑔 , 𝛾𝑜 , 𝑇)

10
Standing (1981) showed that the oil formation volume factor below the bubble point
pressure can be expressed more conveniently in a mathematical form by the following
equation:
1.2
𝛾𝑔 0.5
𝐵 = 0.9759 + 0.00012 [𝑅𝑠 ( ) + 1.25(𝑇 − 460)]
𝛾𝑜
Where:
T = Temperature, °R
Rs = Solution gas oil ratio, SCF/STB
γo = Specific gravity of the stock-tank oil
γg = Specific gravity of the solution gas

Above the bubble point, the formation volume factor can be determined by:

𝐵𝑜 = 𝐵𝑜𝑏 𝑒 [−𝑐𝑜 (𝑃−𝑃𝐵 )]

Where:
Bo = Oil formation volume factor at the pressure of interest, bbl/STB
Bob = Oil formation volume factor at the bubble-point pressure, bbl/STB
P = Pressure of interest, psia
Pb = Bubble-point pressure, psia
co = Oil isothermal compressibility, psia-1

11
  bbl 
7- Bto = Total Oil Formation Volume Factor  STB 

To describe the pressure-volume relationship of hydrocarbon systems below their bubble-

point pressure, it is convenient to express this relationship in terms of the total formation
volume factor as a function of pressure. This property defines the total volume of a
system regardless of the number of phases present. The total formation volume factor,
denoted Bt, is defined as the ratio of the total volume of the hydrocarbon mixture (i.e., oil
and gas, if present), at the prevailing pressure and temperature per unit volume of the
stock-tank oil. Because naturally occurring hydrocarbon systems usually exist in either
one or two phases, the term “two-phase formation volume factor” has become
synonymous with the total formation volume. Mathematically, Bt is defined by the
following relationship:
(𝑉𝑜 )𝑃,𝑇 + (𝑉𝑔 )
𝑃,𝑇
𝐵𝑡 =
(𝑉𝑜 )𝑆𝐶

where
Bt = Total formation volume factor, bbl/STB
(Vo)P,T = Volume of the oil at P and T, bbl
(Vg)P,T = Volume of the liberated gas at P and T, bbl
(Vo)sc = Volume of the oil at standard conditions, STB

A typical plot of Bt as a function of pressure for an undersaturated crude oil is shown in

the following figure.

12
The oil formation volume factor curve is also included in the illustration. As pointed out
above, Bo and Bt are identical at pressures above or equal to the bubble-point pressure
because only one phase, the oil phase, exists at these pressures. It should also be noted
that at pressures below the bubble-point pressure, the difference in the values of the two
oil properties represents the volume of the evolved solution gas as measured at system
conditions per stock-tank barrel of oil. Consider a crude oil sample placed in a PVT cell
at its bubble-point pressure, Pb, and reservoir temperature. Assume that the volume of the
oil sample is sufficient to yield one stock-tank barrel of oil at standard conditions. Let Rsb
represent the gas solubility at Pb. If the cell pressure is lowered to P, a portion of the
solution gas is evolved and occupies a certain volume of the PVT cell. Let Rs and Bo
represent the corresponding gas solubility and oil formation volume factor at P.
Obviously, the term (Rsb – Rs) represents the volume of the free gas as measured in SCF
per stock-tank barrel of oil. The volume of the free gas at the cell conditions is then:

(𝑉𝑔 ) = (𝑅𝑠𝑏 − 𝑅𝑠 )𝐵𝑔

𝑃,𝑇

where :

(Vg)P,T = Volume of the free gas at P and T, bbl of gas/STB of oil

Bg = Gas formation volume factor, bbl/scf

The volume of the remaining oil at the cell condition is

(𝑉𝑜 )𝑃,𝑇 = 𝐵𝑜

From the definition of the two-phase formation volume factor

𝐵𝑡 = 𝐵𝑜 + (𝑅𝑠𝑏 − 𝑅𝑠 )𝐵𝑔
where:
Rsb = Gas solubility at the bubble-point pressure, scf/STB
Rs = Gas solubility at any pressure, scf/STB
Bo = Oil formation volume factor at any pressure, bbl/STB
Bg = Gas formation volume factor, bbl/scf

13
  bbl 
8- Bw = Water Formation Volume Factor,  STB 

The water formation volume factor can be calculated by the following mathematical
expression:
𝐵𝑤 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝑃 + 𝐴3 𝑃2
where the coefficients A1, A2, and A3 are given by the following expression:

𝐴𝑖 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 (𝑇 − 460) + 𝑎3 (𝑇 − 460)2

with a1–a3 given for gas-free and gas-saturated water:

Gas-Free Water
Ai a1 a2 a3
A1 0.9947 5.8 × 10−6 1.02 × 10−6
A2 −4.228 × 10−6 1.8376 × 10−8 −6.77 × 10−11
A3 1.3 × 10−10 −1.3855 × 10−12 4.285 × 10−15

Gas-Saturated Water
Ai a1 a2 a3
A1 0.9911 6.35 × 10−5 8.5 × 10−7
A2 −1.093 × 10−6 −3.497 × 10−9 4.57 × 10−12
A3 −5.0 × 10−11 6.429 × 10−13 −1.43 × 10−15

The temperature T in the previous equation is in °R.

14
9- Cg = Isothermal Gas Compressibility [psia-1]

It is a measure of the change in volume per unit volume with pressure change under
constant temperature. Mathematically,

1  V 
Cg    
Va  P  T

Where Va is the reference volume.

 Example - 16:
Two gases A and B, with volumes of 3 ft3 and 300 ft3, respectively. A reduction by 1 ft3
in the two volumes is observed when the pressure is increased by 1 psia for both gases.
Which gas is more compressible?

Solution:

Let’s consider the following conditions:

3 ft3 300 ft 3
A B

Since Gas A is compressed by 33% of the original volume compared to 0.33% for
Gas B 300 ft3, then, Gas A is more compressible than Gas B.

15
For ideal gas, the volume can be written as:

nRT
V
P

The change in volume with respect to the change in pressure, under isothermal
conditions, is the first derivative of the previous equation with respect to pressure. Thus:

 V  nRT
   2
 P T P

Substituting into the definition of gas compressibility yields:

1  V  P  nRT  1
Cg       
V  P T nRT  P 2  P

For real gas, the volume can be written as:

ZnRT
V
P

Taking the first derivative with respect to pressure gives:

 V  nRT Z ZnRT
   
 P T P P P2

 V   ZnRT  1 Z ZnRT 1
    
 P T  P  Z P P P

1  V  1 Z 1
   
V  P T Z P P

Therefore:
1 1 Z
Cg  
P Z P

16
  Z   Z 
But from standing correlation,   is only available as   at Tr. Therefore, we can
 P   Pr 
modify the previous equation such that:

1 1  Z 
Cr    
Pr Z  Pr Tr

Where:

Cr  C  Pc

There are two ways to find Cr. The first one is by finding the slope from Standing
 Z 
correlation,   at Tr, and then use the following equation:
 pr 

1 1  Z 
Cr    
pr Z  pr Tr

The second is to use developed charts to find C r  Tr . These charts are shown below. The
first chart for Tr ranges between 1.05 and 1.4 and the second chart for Tr ranges between
1.4 and 3.

17
18
 Example:
Calculate the compressibility of a gas at a temperature of 40°F and a pressure of 665 psia
if Tc = 357 °R and Pc = 674 psia.

Solution:

- Let’s first solve using Standing correlation. From pseudoreduced pressure and
temperature:
T 40  460 P 665
Tr    1.4 Pr    0.986
Tc 357 Pc 674

Z
From Standing correlation, find an approximation of at the point Pr = 0.96 and
Pr
Tr = 1.4. The following table summarizes the finding of the approximation.

P, psia Pr Z
(Pr = 0.986, Tr = 1.4)
Tr = 1.4
615 0.912 0.88 Z

665 0.986 0.87

715 1.06 0.861 Pr

Z
The slope, , can be calculated as:
Pr

Z 0.861  0.88
  0.1284
Pr 1.06  0.912

Then, Cr is calculated as shown:

1 1  Z 
  0.1284  1.162
1 1
Cr      
pr Z  pr Tr 0.986 0.87

And gas compressibility can be calculated as:

Cr 1.162
C   0.00172 psia 1
Pc 674

19
- Using the provided charts, use the chart suitable for Tr = 1.4 (both charts are ok since
1.4 is in both ranges).
From the chart at Pr = 0.986 and Tr = 1.4, Cr  Tr  1.62 . Therefore,

1.62 1.62 C 1.157

Cr    1.157 . Hence, C  r   0.001716 psia 1
Tr 1.4 Pc 674

20
10- Co = Isothermal Oil Compressibility [psia-1]

A measure of the change in volume with the change in pressure under isothermal
conditions pre unit volume.
1  V 
co    
V  P  T

1 V1  V2 
co   
V P1  P2 

For a crude oil system, the isothermal compressibility coefficient of the oil phase co is
defined for pressures above the bubble-point by one of the following equivalent
expressions:
1  V 
co    
V  P  T

1  Bo 
co    
Bo  P  T

1   o 
co    
 o  P  T

where
co = Isothermal compressibility, psi−1
ρo = Oil density lb/ft3
Bo = Oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB

At pressures below the bubble-point pressure, the oil compressibility is defined as:

1  Bo  B g Rs
co     
Bo  P  T Bo P

where
Bg = Gas formation volume factor, bbl/scf

21
There are several correlations that are developed to estimate the oil compressibility at
pressures above and below the bubble-point pressure, i.e., undersaturated and saturated
crude oil systems

1- The Vasquez-Beggs Correlation for Undersaturated Reservoirs

From a total of 4,036 experimental data points, Vasquez and Beggs (1980) correlated
the isothermal oil compressibility coefficients with Rs, T, °API, γg, and P. They
proposed the following expression:

−1433 + 5 × 𝑅𝑠𝑏 + 17.2 × (𝑇 − 460) − 1180 × 𝛾𝑔𝑠 + 12.61 ° 𝐴𝑃𝐼

𝐶𝑜 =
1 × 105 × 𝑃

where
T = Temperature, °R
P = Pressure above the bubble-point pressure, psia
Rsb = Gas solubility at the bubble-point pressure
γgs = Corrected gas gravity as defined by the following equation

𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑝
𝛾𝑔𝑠 = 𝛾𝑔 × [1 + 5.912 × 10−5 × 𝛾𝑜 × (𝑇 − 460)𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )]
114.7

where
γgs = Gas gravity at the reference separator pressure
γg = Gas gravity at the actual separator conditions of Psep and Tsep
Psep = Actual separator pressure, psia
Tsep = Actual separator temperature, °R

22
Example

The following experimental PVT data on six different crude oil systems are available.
Estimate the undersaturated oil compressibility coefficient by using the Vasquez-Beggs. Also
calculate the absolute average error (AAE).
Rs, ρo,
Oil # T, F P, psia Pb, psia co, psia-1 Psep Tsep ϒg
SCF/STB lbm/ft3
2.214E-
1 250 2689 2377 751 38.13 150 60 0.851
05
1.875E-
2 220 2810 2620 768 40.95 100 75 0.855
05
2.269E-
3 260 2526 2051 693 37.37 100 72 0.911
05
2.151E-
4 237 2942 2884 968 38.92 60 120 0.898
05
2.416E-
5 218 3273 3065 943 37.7 200 60 0.781
05
1.165E-
6 180 4370 4239 807 46.79 85 173 0.848
05

Solution:

1- First we need to calculate oil specific gravity, ϒo, and corrected gas gravity, ϒgs using the
following equations:

𝜌𝑜
𝛾𝑜 =
62.4

𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑝
𝛾𝑔𝑠 = 𝛾𝑔 × [1 + 5.912 × 10−5 × 𝛾𝑜 × (𝑇 − 460)𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )]
114.7

Oil # ϒo ϒgs
1 0.6111 0.8512
2 0.6563 0.8549
3 0.5989 0.9109
4 0.6237 0.8969
5 0.6042 0.7814
6 0.7498 0.8472

23
2- Then applying Vasquez-Beggs results in:

−1433 + 5 × 𝑅𝑠𝑏 + 17.2 × (𝑇 − 460) − 1180 × 𝛾𝑔𝑠 + 12.61 ° 𝐴𝑃𝐼

𝐶𝑜 =
1 × 105 × 𝑃

co, psia-1 co, psia-1

Oil # (Measured) (Calculated)
1 2.21E-05 2.09E-05
2 1.88E-05 1.85E-05
3 2.27E-05 2.15E-05
4 2.15E-05 2.19E-05
5 2.42E-05 1.87E-05
6 1.17E-05 1.08E-05

3- Calculate the absolute Average Error (AAE) using the following equation:

∑𝑛𝑖=1|𝑐𝑜−𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 − 𝑐𝑜−𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 |
𝐴𝐴𝐸 =
𝑛

Applying the previous equation results in AAE = 7.3%

24
 2- McCain Correlation for Saturated Reservoirs
Below the bubble-point pressure, McCain and coauthors (1988) correlated the oil
compressibility with pressure ρ, the oil API gravity, gas solubility at the bubble-point
Rsb, and the temperature T in °R. Their proposed relationship has the following form:
𝑐𝑜 = 𝑒 𝐴

where the correlating parameter A is given by the following expression:

𝐴 = −7.633 − 1.497𝑙𝑛(𝑃) + 1.115𝑙𝑛(𝑇) + 0.533 ln(𝐴𝑃𝐼) + 0.184ln(𝑅𝑠𝑝 )

Example

A crude oil system exists at 1650 psi and a temperature of 250°F. The system has the following
PVT properties:
API = 47.1 Rsb = 751 scf/STB

Estimate the oil compressibility by using McCain’s correlation

Solution:

 Calculate the correlating parameter A by applying Equation 2-102

A= −7.633 − 1.497 ln (1650) + 1.115 ln (710)+ 0.533 ln (47.1)+0.184ln(751) = −8.13

• Solve for co
co = exp (−8.1445) = 294.1 × 10−6 psi−1

25
11- Cw = Isothermal Water Compressibility [psia-1]

It is a measure of the change in volume with pressure under isothermal conditions

1
cw 
7.033  p  0.5415  S  537.0  T  403,300

where:

p = Pressure of interest, psia

S = Salinity, % by weight solids

T = Temperature, °F

Example:
Calculate water compressibility at 170 °F and 2000 psia with 5% salinity.

Solution

26
12- Cf = Isothermal Formation Compressibility [psia-1]

A reservoir thousands of feet underground is subjected to an overburden pressure caused

by the weight of the overlying formations. Overburden pressures vary from area to area
depending on factors such as depth, nature of the structure, consolidation of the formation,
and possibly the geologic age and history of the rocks. Depth of the formation is the most
important consideration, and a typical value of overburden pressure is approximately one
psi per foot of depth. The weight of the overburden simply applies a compressive force to
the reservoir. The pressure in the rock pore spaces does not normally approach the
overburden pressure. A typical pore pressure, commonly referred to as the reservoir
pressure, is approximately 0.5 psi per foot of depth, assuming that the reservoir is
sufficiently consolidated so the overburden pressure is not transmitted to the fluids in the
pore spaces. The pressure difference between overburden and internal pore pressure is
referred to as the effective overburden pressure. During pressure depletion operations, the
internal pore pressure decreases and, therefore, the effective overburden pressure increases.
This increase causes the following effects:
• The bulk volume of the reservoir rock is reduced.
• Sand grains within the pore spaces expand.

These two volume changes tend to reduce the pore space and, therefore, the porosity of the
rock. Often these data exhibit relationships with both porosity and the effective overburden
pressure. Compressibility typically decreases with increasing porosity and effective
overburden pressure.
For most petroleum reservoirs, the rock and bulk compressibility are considered small in
comparison with the pore compressibility cp. The formation compressibility cf is the term
commonly used to describe the total compressibility of the formation and is set equal to cp,
i.e.:

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Typical values for the formation compressibility range from 3 × 10−6 to 25 × 10−6 psi−1.
The previous equation can be rewritten as:

Where:
Po = Original pressure, psi
φo = Original porosity
P = Current pressure, psi
φ = Porosity at pressure P

In general, the formation compressibility cf is the same order of magnitude as the

compressibility of the oil and water and, therefore, cannot be regulated.
Several authors have attempted to correlate the pore compressibility with various
parameters including the formation porosity.
 Hall Correlation (1953):
Hall correlated the pore compressibility with porosity as given by the
following relationship:

Where:
cf = Formation compressibility, psi−1
φ = Porosity, fraction

 Newman Correlation (1973):

Newman used 79 samples for consolidated sandstones and limestones to
develop a correlation between the formation compressibility and porosity. The
proposed generalized hyperbolic form of the equation is:

28
Where:

For consolidated sandstones

For limestones

29
13- Ct = Isothermal Total Compressibility [psia-1]

The total reservoir compressibility ct is extensively used in the transient flow equation
and the material balance equation as defined by the following expression:

Where:
So, Sw, Sg = Oil, water, and gas saturations
co = Oil compressibility, psi−1
cw = Water compressibility, psi−1
cg = Gas compressibility, psi−1
ct = Total reservoir compressibility

For undersaturated oil reservoirs, the reservoir pressure is above the bubble point
pressure, i.e., no initial gas cap, which reduces the previous equation to:

30
31
32
 TYPE OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS:
Reservoirs are classified with respect to the status of Hydrocarbon under reservoir and
surface conditions (Pressure and Temperature).

1- Black Oil Reservoir 2- Volatile Oil Reservoir

3- Retrograde Gas Reservoir 4- Wet Gas Reservoir

5- Dry Gas Reservoir

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 PRIMARY RECOVERY MECHANISMS:
Primary recovery mechanisms are the natural reservoir energy responsible for displacing
oil toward production wells:

1- Fluid expansion
2- Fluid displacement
3- Gravitational drainage
4- Capillary expulsion
5- Or combination of above

 Generally, reservoirs are classified into five different types according to the principal sources
of production energy.

Range of Recovery Average Recovery

No Natural Drive Mechanism
(% of OOIP) (% of OOIP)

1 Liquid & Rock Expansion 2-5 3

2 Solution Gas Drive 10-25 18

3 Gas Cap Expansion Drive 25 – 40 35

4 Water Drive 25 – 65 45 (Edge), 35 (Bottom)

5 Gravity Drainage 40-70 60

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1- Liquid and Rock Expansion
Where there is no aquifer, the hydrocarbon recovery is brought about mainly by fluid
expansion. As production starts, pressure drops in the oil adjacent to the wellbore. This
pressure drop drains oil from out in the reservoir toward the point of withdrawal. Oil, connate
water and the rock itself are under compression and occupy less space at high pressure than
they do at low pressure. With oil withdrawal, pressure drops in the reservoir and the oil,
water and rock expand.

 Example:
A black oil reservoir, with an initial pressure of 5,000 psia, has a bubble point pressure of 3,000
psia. Knowing that the total compressibility is 15E-6 psia-1, calculate the expected recovery
factor at bubble point pressure.

Solution:

P = Pi = 5,000 psia P = Pb = 3,000 psia

N N-Np

Initially Remaining

Np

Produced

Np  N p Ct 

Np
R  100  p Ct   100
N

 100  5,000  3,00015  10 6  100  3%

Np
R
N

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 Controlling Factors:
1. Compressibility of oil, water and rock
2. Pressure difference above bubble point pressure = (Pi-Pb)

The following Figure shows the relationship between Recovery factor and Total Compressibility
under different pressure differences above bubble point.

36
2- Solution Gas Drive
Oil is produced from undersaturated reservoirs by expansion of the reservoir fluids.
Down to the bubble point pressure, the production is due to liquid expansion and to rock
compressibility. Below the bubble point the expansion of the connate water and the rock
compressibility are negligible and the production due to expansion of the gas phase. The gas
is liberated from solution as oil is produced and reservoir pressure drops, forming a gas phase
as contrasted to the liquid phase in which the rest of the hydrocarbon material remain. When
the gas saturation reaches the critical value, gas phase becomes continuous and free gas
begins to flow.

Gas flow more easily than oil because it is lighter and less viscous and does not cling
to the surface of the pore spaces in the rock. Once gas commences to flow, a chain reaction
seems to take place; pressure drops faster and lets greater amounts of gas be formed from
light hydrocarbons in the liquid. With small additional amounts of oil produced from the
reservoir, small additional gas increases in gas phase are created. Gas thus flows much more
easily while oil flows with greatly increasing difficulty. The following figure shows a
schematic of a solution gas drive reservoir at initial conditions and at 50% depletion.

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  Performance Trends:
The following figure shows a typical trend of a solution gas drive reservoir.

Characteristic Trend

Reservoir Pressure Decline rapidly and continuously

gas-oil-ratio First low then rises to maximum and then drops

Water Production None

Expected Oil Recovery 10-25% OOIP

 Controlling Factors:
1. Gas-Oil Ratio (GOR): higher GOR  higher recovery

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3- Gas Cap Drive
On many occasions pressure was not large enough to retain all the light materials in
the liquid form. When this occurred, the light materials with some intermediate and heavy
components formed a free gas phase. This free gas accumulates at the top of the deposit
where it becomes trapped and forms a gas cap over the oil. This excess gas in its compressed
state then becomes a source of energy to move oil to the wellbore and lift it to the surface.
The following figure shows schematic (cross section and top) views of a typical Gas Cap
Reservoir.

39
  Performance Trends:
The following figure shows a typical trend of a gas cap drive reservoir.

Characteristic Trend

Reservoir Pressure Falls slowly and continuously

Gas-oil-ratio (GOR) Rises continuously

Water Production Absent or negligible

Expected Oil Recovery 25-40% of original oil in place

 Controlling Factors:
1. Relative size of gas cap (m). higher m  higher recovery
2. Depletion rate (manner of gas cap advance). Uniform advance versus coning/channeling.

40
4- Water Drive
Water drive is the greatest natural source of energy available to produce oil.
Although water is considered incompressible, the total compressed volume is quite large
when such great quantities of total water volume are involved. Two types of water drive are
identified: Edge water drive and Bottom water drive. The following schematic shows a
drawing of water drive reservoirs.

41
  Performance Trends:
The following figure shows a typical trend of a water drive reservoir.

Characteristic Trend

Reservoir Pressure Remain high

Surface gas-oil-ratio Remain low

Water Production Start early and increase rapidly

Expected Oil Recovery 25–65% of original oil in place

 Controlling Factors:
1. Areal heterogeneity of the reservoir
2. Vertical heterogeneity of the reservoir
3. Depletion rate (manner of water advance) uniform versus coning/fingering
4. oil viscosity, higher viscosity  lower recovery
5. Well production rate (For bottom water drive only)

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5- Gravity Drainage Drive
The gravitational forces may be utilized to increase the oil recovery. The following
figure shows a schematic of a gravity drainage reservoir.

 Controlling Factors:
1. Formation Dip Angle, θ
2. vertical to horizontal permeability ratio, kv/kh
3. Depletion rate
4. oil viscosity, higher viscosity  lower recovery

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6- Others:
a. Compaction Drive
The withdrawal of liquid or gas from a reservoir results in a reduction in the fluid
pressure and consequently an increase in the effective or grain pressure. Compaction drive is
the expulsion of reservoir fluids due to the dynamic reduction of the pore volume and will
only be significant as a drive mechanism if the pore compressibility is large.

b. Combination Drive
The following figures show a series of combination drives where two or more
drive mechanisms are responsible for oil production.

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c. Others
 Artesian Water Drive

45
 Summary of Primary Mechanism Drives – Recovery Factor Trends

 Classification of Recovery mechanisms

o After/Before the depletion of the primary recovery mechanism, Improved Oil
Recovery Techniques (IOR) methods are introduced to the reservoir to increase
oil recovery.
o Improved oil recovery (IOR) is defined as any method used to recover more oil
from a reservoir than would be produced by primary recovery mechanisms.
o The following flow chart shows the classification of oil recovery methods.

46
 Liquid and Rock Expansion

Solution Gas Drive

Gas Cap Drive

Natural
Primary
Oil Water Drive
Recovery
Gravity Drainage
Sucker Rod
Others
ESP

Pumping Hydraulic
Artificial
Gas lift Jet
Method of Others
Oil
Recovery Polymer
Waterflooding
Secondary Surfactant
Gas
Injection Alkaline

Foam

Solvent
Improved Chemical
Oil Natural Gas
Recovery
(IOR) Nitrogen
Miscible
Tertiary CO2

(EOR) Steam
Thermal
In-Situ Combustion

Microwaves
Bacteria
Electric

Miscellaneous Combined EOR

Mining

Other

47
 Common Ranges of Rock/Fluids Properties in Reservoirs
Property Symbol Unit Range* [Not Restricted]
Reservoir Pressure Pr psia 50 - 20,000
Reservoir Temperature T °F 60 - 250
Porosity θ Fraction 0.05 – 0.4
Permeability K md 0.1 - 3000
Initial Oil Saturation So Fraction 0.25 – 0.90
Residual Oil Saturation Sor Fraction 0.35 – 0.03
Initial Water Saturation Swi Fraction 0.1 – 0.45
Irreducible Water Saturation Swirr Fraction 0.1 – 0.4
Gas Saturation Sg Fraction 0 – 0.9
Oil Viscosity µo cp 0.5 > 1,000,000
Water Viscosity µw cp 0.65 – 1.2
Gas Viscosity µg cp 0.005 – 0.015
Oil Density ρo lbm/ft3 42 – 59
Water Density ρw lbm/ft3 60 – 65
Gas Density ρg lbm/ft3 4 - 20
Oil Compressibility Co psi-1 15 × 10 − 25 × 10−6
−6

Water Compressibility Cw psi-1 3 × 10−6 − 25 × 10−6

Gas Compressibility Cg psi-1 400 × 10−6 − 600 × 10−6
Formation Compressibility Cf psi-1 3 × 10−6 − 25 × 10−6
Total Compressibility Ct psi-1 1 × 10−6 − 25 × 10−6
Oil Formation Volume Factor Bo bbl/STB 1.05 – 1.30
Water Formation Volume Factor Bw bbl/STB 1.001 – 1.08
Gas Formation Volume Factor Bg bbl/SCF 0.002 – 0.02
Total Oil Formation Volume Factor Bto bbl/STB 1.5 - 15
Solution Gas-Oil Ratio Rso SCF/STB Depends on amount of
Solution Gas-Water Ratio Rsw SCF/STB gas presented in the
Produced Gas-Oil Ratio Rp SCF/STB reservoir
Gas Supercompressibility Factor Z Fraction 0.56 – 0.92
Interfacial Tension Between Oil and Water IFT Dynes/cm 15 - 35
Water Relative Permeability Krw Fraction Depends on fluid
Oil Relative Permeability Kro Fraction Saturation [Not less than 0 -
Relative Permeability of Oil in Oil-Gas System Krog Fraction Not greater than 1]
Oil Flow Rate qo STB/day
Water Flow Rate qw STB/day
Depends on Reservoir
Gas Flow Rate qg SCF/day
Size
Initial Oil In Place N STB
Initial Gas In Place G SCF
Depth D ft 100 – 25,000
Water Salinity S ppm 5,000 – 250,000

*THIS RANGE IS NOT RESTRICTED AND IT IS ONLY SHOW SOME COMMON RANGES.

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