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Dr. Qaiser Iqbal (UET Peshawar)
Example 1:
An 8‐ft tall basement wall retains a soil that has the following properties: φ̕= 35°, γ̕ = 127 lb/ft3
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OCR= 2. The ground surface is horizontal and level with the top of the wall. The groundwater
table is well below the bottom of the wall. Consider the soil to be in the arrest condition and
compute the force that acts between the wall and the soil.
Because the theoretical pressure distribution is triangular, this resultant force acts at the lower
The Active Condition
The at‐rest condition is present only if the wall does not move. Although this may seem to be a
criterion that all walls should meet, even very small movements alter the lateral earth pressure.
Suppose Mohr's circle A in Figure 1 represents the state of stress at a point in the soil behind
the wall in Figure 2, and suppose this soil is in the at‐rest condition. The inclined lines represent
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the Mohr‐Coulomb failure envelope. Because the Mohr's circle does not touch the failure
envelope, the shear stress, T, is less than the shear strength, s.
Now, permit the wall to move outward a short distance. This movement may be either
translational or rotational about the bottom of the wall. It relieves part of the horizontal stress,
causing the Mohr's circle to expand to the left. Continue this process until the circle reaches the
failure envelope and the soil fails in shear (circle B). This shear failure will occur along the
planes shown in Figure 2, which are inclined at an angle of 45 + φ/2 degrees from the
horizontal. A soil that has completed this process is said to be in the active condition. The value
of K in a c = 0 soil in the active condition is known as Ka the coefficient of active earth pressure.
Figure 1: Changes in the stress conditions in a soil as it transitions from the at‐rest condition to
the active condition
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Figure 2: Development of shear failure planes in the soil behind a wall as it transitions from the
at‐rest condition to the active condition
Once the soil attains the active condition, the horizontal stress in the soil (and thus the
pressure acting on the wall) will have reached its lower bound, as shown in Figure 3.
4 Dr. Qaiser Iqbal (UET Peshawar)
Figure 3: Effect of wall movement on lateral earth pressure in sand.
The amount of movement required to reach the active condition depends on the soil type and
the wall height, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1
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For example, in loose sands, the active condition is achieved if the wall moves outward from
the backfill a distance of only 0.004 H (about 12 mm for a 3‐m tall wall). Although basement
walls, being braced at the top, cannot move even that distance, a cantilever wall (one in
which the top is not connected to a building or other structure) could very easily move 12 mm
outward, and such a movement would usually be acceptable. Thus, a basement wall may need
to be designed to resist the at‐rest pressure, whereas the design of a free‐standing cantilever
wall could use the active pressure. Since the active pressure is smaller. The design of free‐
standing walls will be more economical.
The Passive Condition
The passive condition is the opposite of the active condition. In this case, the wall moves into
the backfill. As shown in Figure 4, and the Mohr's circle changes, as shown in Figure 5. Notice
how the vertical stress remains constant whereas the horizontal stress changes in response to
the induced horizontal strains.
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Figure 4: Development of shear failure planes in the soil inclined a wall as it transitions from the
at‐rest condition to the passive condition
Figure 5: Changes in the stress condition in a soil as it transitions from the at‐rest condition to
the passive condition
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In a homogeneous soil, the shear failure planes in the passive case are inclined at an
Angle of 45 ‐ φ/2 degrees from the horizontal. The value of K in cohesion less soil in the passive
condition is known as Kp, the passive coefficient of lateral earth pressure. This is the upper
bound of K and produces the upper bound of pressure that can act on the wall.
Engineers often use the passive pressure that develops along the toe of a retaining Wall footing
to help resist sliding, as shown in Figure 6. In this case, the "wall'' is the side of the footing.
Figure 6: Active and passive pressures acting on a cantilever retaining wall.
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Table 2
More movement must occur to attain the passive condition than for the active condition.
Typical required movements for various soils are shown in Table 2.
Although movements on the order of those listed in Tables 1 and 2 are necessary to reach the
full active and passive states, respectively, much smaller movements also cause significant
changes in the lateral earth pressure. While conducting a series of full‐scale tests on retaining
walls, Terzaghi (1934b) observed:
“With compacted sand backfill, a movement of the wall over an insignificant distance
(equal to one‐ten thousandth of the depth of the backfill) decreases the [coefficient of
lateral earth pressure to 0.20 or increases it up to 1.00”.
This effect is not as dramatic in other soils, but even with those soils only the most rigid and
unyielding structures are truly subjected to at‐rest pressures.