PART 4: Wood Construction

According to the American Institute of Architects (AIA) (n.d.), Wood is one of the most typical and
adaptable building materials in building construction. Construction using wood as the main building
material may include rough and finish, carpentry, architectural woodwork, and structural
composites. Wood frame construction is usually finished with interior surfaces for it to be more
resistant to fire.
1. Lumber – pieces of wood that are smaller than 5 inches (127 mm) wide by 5 inches (127 mm)
thick (regardless of length). This type of wood is usually machine-planed and is sawn to
appropriate certain dimensional specifications [e.g. 2x2 (50mmx50mm), 2x4 (50mmx100mm),
2x8 (50mmx200mm),etc.]. These are primarily used in residential building construction.
It is important to realize that the stated size of lumber is not its actual finished size. Nominal
size is the size of lumber when it is cut from the log. After cutting, the lumber is dried and then
planed on all four sides to achieve smoothness. The finished size is therefore smaller.

2. Timber – these are pieces of wood over 5” (127 mm) wide by 5” (127 mm) thick (regardless
of length). Any timber pieces that exceed 8" (200mm) wide by 8" (200mm) thick are referred to
as girder or beam. Timber is often used to building wooden frames of large structures such as
buildings and bridges.

Figure 43. Wood Construction. Adapted from Merriam-Webster, Inc. (2006)

Commercial Sizes of Wood

Length may vary from 6 ft – 1.8m, 8 ft – 2.4m, 10 ft – 3.0m or 12 ft – 3.60 m.

The difference between Nominal and Surface Size

Framing lumber is identified by the height and width of the board. The measurements used,
however, may not be accurate. A 2x4 board is actually only 1 1/2 inches by 3 1/2 inches.
The way this comes about is that when lumber is cut from the logs, it is regard as "rough cut"
or the nominal size. The wood is still green and wet. When the wood dries, it shrinks. After drying, the
wood is planed to smooth the surface and make the wood a uniform size. Once planed, the wood is
considered "finished" or surface-sized.
Thus, the nominal size of the lumber is different from the actual size. Typically, there is 1/2 inch
(12.7mm) difference in measurements over 2 inches (50mm) and 1/4 inch (6.35mm) in
measurements less than 2 inches (50mm).
When the " (inch) symbol is used is lumber measurements it indicates that you are referring to
the actual size. This symbol is omitted when referring to the nominal size.

Measuring the wood

Board Foot – the unit measure in computing wood volume. This unit of volume for wood equals
to 144 cubic inches, hypothetically, twelve (12) inches by twelve (12) inches by one (1) inch.
Formula:
Board Foot = TxWxL
12
Where: T = Thickness – in inches
W = Width – in inches
L = Length – in foot
 Example: Find the Total board foot of 5 pieces of 2 x 2 x 9’
Board Foot = 5 pcs x 2 x 2 x 9
12
Board Foot = 15 bd.f.t.

Woods used in Construction:

Plywood - Plywood is the most common wood composite. It gets its name from its construction: it is
made of several thin plies, or veneers, of wood that have been glued together. Each ply or veneer is
glued so that its grain is at right angles to the grain of the previous ply. It is commonly available in:
 3’ x 6’ (900mm x 1800mm) and
 4’ x 8’ (1220mm x 2440mm) (1.20mx2.40m)

Standard thicknesses are:

 3/16” (4.5mm) for double wall partitions and ceilings
 ¼” (6.0mm) for double wall partitions / interior claddings
 3/8” (10.0mm) for drawers and shelves
 ½” (12.0mm) for drawers and shelves / exterior claddings
 ¾” (19.0mm) for drawers, shelves, cabinet and closet doors
 1” (25.0mm) for cabinet and closet doors, and sub-floors

Figure 44. Ceiling Detail using plywood

Hardboard – Hardboard is usually in panel size of 4’x8’ (1220mm x 2440mm) (1.20mx2.40m) with
thicknesses of 1/8” (3mm), 3/16” (4.5mm) or ¼” (6mm), and is obtainable either with a plain,
textured, or perforated surface.
Brand names of Hardboard:
1. Lawanit standard and tempered boards
2. Lawanex panel boards
3. Masonite standard, panel and tempered hard board
On Doors and Door Jambs
Figure 45. Door Jamb Details
Figure 46. Door Details
Methods of Wood Construction

There are types of methods in framing wood construction. In wood construction, framing is
defined as fitting together of pieces to give a building structure support and shape. In the broadest
category, wood framing is classified into two (2) types: light-frame construction and heavy-frame
construction.
1. Heavy Framing – vertical supports are limited and heavy (timber framing, pole building
framing, or steel framing);
 2. Light Framing – if the supports are more numerous and smaller (balloon, platform, or light-
steel framing)

Figure 47. Heavy Frame (left) & Light Frame (right)

Figure 48. Balloon Framing

A. Balloon Framing is a light frame structure, the lightest of wood framing, where the studs run
continuously from the sole plate to the rafter plate. The studs are placed 400mm on center to
accommodate the 1200mm increments of the sheathing material. Wall width may vary
depending on building project. The size of the wooden frames is 50mm x 200mm, 50mm x
300mm or 50mm x 400mm. Once the wood framing is complete, the walls are sheathed.

B. Platform framing or Western Framing is the most common framing method for residential
construction where each floor of a conventional building is framed individually by nailing the
horizontal framing member to the top of the wall studs.
Figure 49. Difference of Balloon Framing from Platform Framing
 Sole Plate – the bottom horizontal framing member of the wall section
 Header – the beam placed perpendicular to wall studs above windows and doors to carry
structural loads
 Jack Stud – fits under each end of the header & transfers load to bottom plate
 King Stud – nailed to the jack stud and supports assembly between plates
 Rough Sill – bottom of window opening
 Rim joist – vertical board that caps the ends of the floor joists boxing in sub flooring.
 Floor joist – horizontal framing member that supports the floor load
 Ridge board – upper most horizontal framing member on roof that attaches tops of rafters.
 Rafter – Series of beams that form the slope of a pitched roof (from ridge to eave)
 Eave – the overhanging edge of a roof
 Ridge – beam that is laid along the edge where two sloping sides meet at the top (upper end of
rafters)
Figure 50. Platform Framing / Western Framing

Permanent Wood Foundation

Plywood and lumber walls can substitute concrete for foundation walls for one-story and
multistory houses and other light-frame buildings. Major elements of a wood foundation wall are, 5⁄8
in (15mm) or more thick plywood and wood studs, spaced 12 in (300mm) or more on centers, both
pressure-treated with preservative.
 Plywood for wood foundations must be an exterior type or interior type that has been
attached using exterior glue;
 Wood treatment for the plywood and lumber includes impregnating into the wood under
heat and pressure ammoniacal copper arsenate or chromated copper arsenate;
 Only corrosion-resistant fasteners can be applied in wood foundations;
 In order to make sure that the interior of the foundation walls remains dry, it is essential
to enclose the exterior with a waterproofing membrane (polyethylene film), and to ensure
a good drainage.
Figure 51. Wood Foundation on a Concrete Footing

Figure 52. Typical anchorages of wood column to base: (a) column anchored to concrete base with U
strap; (b) anchorage with steel angles; (c) anchorage with a welded box shoe
Figure 53. Bases for segmented wood arches: (a) and (b) tie rod anchored to arch shoe; (c) hinge
anchorage for large arch; (d) welded arch shoe

Post Frame and Pole Construction

Poles and posts made of wood are employed in various construction projects; this includes
flagpoles, utility poles, and framing for buildings. Wooden posts and poles are set into the
ground as columns. The ground furnishes vertical and horizontal support and prevents rotation at the
base. Post frame construction is used broadly in agricultural buildings and in many commercial and
industrial building projects. A bracing system is usually provided at the top of the poles or posts
to lessen the bending moments at the base and to distribute loads.

Bracing
Wooden structural elements should be placed to give lateral restraint and vertical support, to
guarantee that the whole assembly will form a stable structure. This bracing may extend
longitudinally and transversely. It may encompass sway, cross, vertical, diagonal, and like members
that resist wind, earthquake, erection, acceleration, braking, and other forces. The assemblage may
consist of knee braces, cables, rods, struts, ties, shores, diaphragms, rigid frames, and other
similar components in combinations.
Wooden structural members should be stiff, strong and durable. They must also be properly
guyed or laterally braced, both during erection and permanently in the completed structure.

Wood Floor Construction

Floor framing construction is made up of sills, girders, floor joists or trusses, bridging and sub-
flooring that renders lateral support to the exterior walls and supports the floor loads.
The wood flooring system is generally composed of the following:
 Beams or Girders – these could be either solid or built-up. It is the main horizontal support
of a wood floor framing structure, extending wall to wall, which could supports smaller
beams and holds the floor joists. In traditional timber construction framing, a girder maybe
referred to as girt. A wood girder could be solid or made of a number of pieces of 50mm x
200mm, 50mm x 250mm or 50mm X 300mm lumber nailed together. Solid Girder sizes may
range from 0.30m x 0.30m, 0.30m x 0.40m, and above.

Figure 54. Solid Girder (left) and Built-up Girder (right)

 Floor Joists – placed on top of a girder, these support the floorboards. They are fastened
on the girders at a distance of 0.30m to 0.40m rigidly secured by means of joist bridging, which
prevents the joist from turning sideways. Joists are usually attached to the sills using toenails or
by metal framing anchors. Joist sizes generally range in size from no smaller than 2x4 inches
(50mm x 100mm) to no larger than 2x12 inches (50mm x 300mm).

Figure 55. Floor System showing the Floor Joists

Figure 56. Securing Floor Joists
 Header – is a short transverse joist that supports the end of the cut-off joist at the stair well hole.
The headers must be made heavier than the ordinary joists.
 Trimmer – is a supporting joist, which carries an end portion of a header. They may be made by
simply doubling up the floor joists on each side of the opening, or, if needed, providing heavy
wood girders may be used. Trimmers may be built up by spiking together two (2) or three (3)
joists, and the header may be made in the same way.

Figure 57. Headers and Trimmers

 Joist Bridging – it is critical to the structural strength of a floor as it distributes the load on the
floor to other joists and eventually prevents floors from sagging and squeaking do to floor joists
twisting and warping.
Figure 58. Floor Joist Bridging

Quantity of Joist Bridging versus Floor Joist Span

Span in Feet / Meters Rows of Bridging (at the center of span)
Less than 8’ – 2.40m 0
8’ to 12’ – 2.40m to 3.60m 1
12’ to 18’ – 3.60m to 5.40m 2
18’ to 24’ – 5.40m to 7.30m 3
24’ to 32’ – 7.30m to 9.80m 4

 Sill Plate or Wood Plate – the sill plates are often called sills or sill beams. They are heavy
timbers that are notched to receive the vertical wall posts as well as the floor beams or joists.

Figure 59. Sill Plates

 Tail Beam or Tail Joist – it is relatively short beam or joist supported in a wall on one end and
by a header at the other.
 Tongue and Groove Flooring – it is a simple technique seams two boards—customarily, but
not always, floorboards—in a way that holds them together while allowing for some flexibility.
 Tongue and groove means that each piece has a protruding tongue side and a receiving groove
side.

Figure 60. Tongue and Groove Flooring and Section

 Ledger Strip / Plate – a narrow strip of lumber nailed to the side of a girder and flush with its
bottom edge to help support floor or ceiling joists notched to accommodate it.

Figure 61. Ledger Strip

Figure 62. Floor Framing Plan (Wood Construction)

Ceiling Framing Construction

Ceiling framing using wood is not that different from floor framing construction. Listed are
Considerations for ceiling framing are as follows:
 Ceiling joists must be securely nailed to the exterior wall plates, to ends of rafters and where
joists join over interior partitions;
 Ceiling joists at a right angle should be avoided;
 The ridge member is 1 (25mm) or 2 (50mm) inch thick lumber and is 2 inches (50mm) deeper
than the depth of the rafters to permit full bearing at the angles rafter ends
 Rafters are placed directly opposite each other across the ridge and are notched at the lower
end to fit the exterior wall top plate;
 Rafters must be secure to the wall plate by toenailing or usage of special metal plate fastenings,

Collar Beams – nominally using 1x6 (25mmx150mm) or 2x4 (50x100mm) are installed in the upper
one one-third (1/3) of the attic space to every third (3rd) pair of rafters to secure the ridge framing.
Figure 63. Roof Framing Ceiling Joists Parallel to Rafters

Figure 64. Roof Framing, Ceiling Joists Perpendicular to Rafters

Roof Framing Construction

Roof Construction must be strong and adequate to resist wind loads and typhoons. Framing
members must be securely fastened to each other, to sheathing and to exterior walls to serve as a
structural unit.
There are three (3) types of Roof frames used in Wood Construction. These are:
 Rafter type
 Truss type
 Laminated
Figure 65. Rafter type construction applied on Gable roofing
 Girts - structural support that carries the rafters or trusses; also referred as roof beams

Rafter Type Roof Construction – a type of construction utilizing rafter as the main framing element of
the roof system.
 Rafters – identified as one of a series of sloped structural members such that extend
from the ridge or hip to the wall plate, downslope perimeter or eave, and that are
designed to reinforce the roof deck and its associated loads
1. Common Rafters – they are extended a right angle from the plate or girts to the
ridge;
2. Hip Rafters – laid diagonally from the corner of a plate or girts to the ridge;
3. Valley Rafters – rafters that do not extend from the plates or girts to the ridge;
4. Jack Rafters – the frame between the hip rafters and the girt; they are further
classified as:
 Hip jack – frame between the hip and girts;
 Valley jack – frame between the ridge and the valley;
 Cripple jack – frame between hip and valley rafters

Figure 66. Types of Rafters

Figure 67. Hip and Valley of Rafters
Figure 68. Details for Rafter Construction

Figure 69. Gable Dormer Framing

Spacing of Rafters

Rafter Spacing, Center to

Nominal Size
Maximum Span Center
(inches / mm)
(ft.-in / meters) (inches / mm)
16' - 4'' / 5.00 12 / 300
2 x 6 / 50 x 150 14' - 11'' / 4.50 16 / 400
13' / 4.00 24 / 600
21' - 7'' / 6.50 12 / 300
2 x 8 / 50 x 200
19' - 7'' / 6.00 16 / 400
 Rafter Spacing, Center to
Nominal Size
Maximum Span Center
(inches / mm)
(ft.-in / meters) (inches / mm)
17' / 5.18 24 / 600
27' - 6'' / 8.30 12 / 300
2 x 10 / 50 x 250 25' / 7.6 16 / 400
20' - 9'' / 6.3 24 / 600
33' - 6'' / 10.20 12 / 300
2 x 12 / 50 x 300 29' - 5'' / 9 16 / 400
24' / 7.3 24 / 600

Truss Type Roof Framing – utilization of truss as the main structural element in the roof system.
 Truss – a built-up frame employed on a long span roof unsupported by intermediate
columns or partitions. Truss is a design of a series of triangles used to distribute loads
and stiffen the structure spacing offering flexibility for the interior as well as strength and
rigidity.

Figure 70. Parts of Truss

 Simple truss - a single triangle such as might be found in a framed roof consisting of
rafters and a ceiling joist.
 Planar truss – all the members lie in a two-dimensional plane. This type of truss is
typically used in series, with the trusses laid out in a parallel arrangement to form roofs,
bridges, and so on.
 Space frame truss – in contrast to a planar truss, which lies in a two-dimensional plane,
a space frame truss is a three-dimensional framework of connected triangles.
Figure 71. Pratt vs. Howe Truss
 Pratt truss – also known as an ‘N’ truss, this form is often used in long-span buildings,
with spans ranging from twenty (20) – one hundred (100) m, where uplift loads may be
predominant, such as in aircraft hangers. A Pratt truss uses vertical members for
compression and horizontal members for tension. The configuration of the members
means that longer diagonal members are only in tension for gravity load effects, which
allows them to be used more efficiently.
 Howe Truss – this is a type of bridge, which was introduced by an American architect
William Howe. It utilizes similar design such as Pratt truss, but with a strong difference.
Here the diagonal structural beams slope toward the bridge center, while Pratt
truss utilizes diagonal beams that slope outward from the center of the bridge.
This approach makes diagonal members of Howe truss bridge in compression, while
vertical web members are in tension.
 Warren Truss – has fewer members than a Pratt truss and has diagonal members,
which are alternatively in tension and compression. The truss members form a series of
equilateral triangles, alternating up and down.

Figure 72. Warren Truss

  King post truss – typically made from timber, and spanning up to eight (8) meters, king
post trusses are commonly used in the construction of domestic roofs. They take the
form of a simple triangle, with a vertical member between the apex and the bottom
chord.

Figure 73. King Post Truss (left) and Queen Post Truss (right)
 Queen Post Truss – Similar to the king post truss, but with diagonal members between
the center of the bottom chord and each of the inclined top chords, queen post trusses
can span ten (10) meters.
Other variations include:
 Scissor roof truss.
 Hip truss.
 Bowstring truss.
 Fan truss.
 Fink Truss.

Figure 74. Truss Gussets

Gusset Plates – is a plate for connecting trusses (truss gusset) , beams and girders to columns. A
gusset plate can be fastened to a permanent member by bolts, rivets, welding, or a combination of the
three (3).
Figure 75. Types of Trusses

Figure 76. Truss Details

Figure 77. Schedule of Truss

Figure 78. Hip and Valley Roof Framing System

Other Parts of the Roof Framing System
 Roof Battens or Roofing Lath – these are used to provide the fixing point for roofing
materials such as shingles or tiles. The spacing of the battens on the trusses or rafters
depends on the type of roofing material and are applied horizontally like purlin. Batten
sizes could range from 1x4 (25mmx100mm), 2x2 (50mmx50mm) or 4x1
(100mmx25mm).

Figure 79. Roof Framing System Showing the Battens

A Ridge Beam and a Ridge Board are both located at the ridge but they serve very different purposes
for very different applications. A ridge beam is a structural member used to support the ends of the
rafters at the ridge, transferring its loads to posts or gable end walls.

Figure 80. Ridge board and beam

Partition Framing
 Wall framing in house construction contains the vertical and horizontal members of exterior
walls and interior partitions, both of bearing walls and non-bearing walls. These stick members,
referred to as studs, wall plates and lintels (sometimes called headers), serve as a nailing base for
all covering material and support the upper floor platforms, which provide the lateral strength along a
wall.
 Studs – this is a vertical framing member in a building's wall of smaller cross section
than a post. They are a fundamental element in frame building. Studs form walls and
may carry vertical structural loads or be non-load bearing such as in partition walls,
which only separate spaces. They hold in place the windows, doors, interior finish,
exterior sheathing or siding, insulation and utilities and help give shape to a building.
Studs run from sill plate to wall plate. Traditional sizing of wood stud is 2x4
(50mmx100mm) or 2x6 (50mmx150mm) spaced at 400mm or 600mm.
 Cripple – this is a type of studs that is non-structural but provide a nailing base for siding
or interior wall coverings. Spaced 16 (400mm) or 24 (600mm) inches on center, they
carry the regular wall stud layout across the framed opening.
 Top Plate – this is the top horizontal member of a frame wall supporting ceiling joists,
rafters, or other members. The top plate can be either single or double. Double plating is
most common on load-bearing walls unless the roof rafters or trusses and floor joists
stack directly over the studs in the wall, then a single top plate can be used.
 Window Header – Large openings in the wall are made for windows and doors. When
the opening is greater in width than the stud spacing — and most windows are wider
than 24 in. (600mm) — then a header must be inserted to carry the load of the
interrupted stud(s). A header is a simple beam sized to support the load above the
opening it spans.

A typical wall section in platform framing

1. Cripple
2. Window header
3. Top plate / upper wall plate
4. Window sill
5. Stud
6. Sill plate / sole plate / bottom plate

Figure 81. Parts of a Wall section

 Sill or Saddle – a saddle (also called a sill) forms the bottom of a window opening. It is
a piece of lumber stock laid flat and nailed between the jacks.
  Sill Plate – a sole plate is the bottom horizontal member of a wall or building to which
vertical members are attached.
Platform framing often forms wall sections horizontally on the sub-floor prior to erection, easing
positioning of studs and increasing accuracy while cutting the necessary labor. The top and bottom
plates are end-nailed to each stud with two nails at least 3.25 in (83 mm) in length (16d or 16 penny
nails). Studs are at least doubled (creating posts) at openings, the jack stud being cut to receive the
lintels (headers) that are placed and end-nailed through the outer studs.
Wall sheathing, usually a plywood or other laminate, is usually applied to the framing prior to
erection, thus eliminating the need to scaffold, and again increasing speed and cutting manpower
needs and expenses. Some types of exterior sheathing, such as asphalt-impregnated fiber cement
board, plywood, oriented strand board and wafer board, will provide adequate bracing to resist
lateral loads and keep the wall square.
Exterior wall studs are the vertical members to which the wall sheathing and cladding are
attached. They are supported on a bottom plate or foundation sill and in turn support the top plate.
Studs usually consist of (nominal – 2x4) 1.5 by 3.5 inches (38 mm × 89 mm) or (nominal – 2x6)
1.5 in × 5.5 in (38 mm × 140 mm) lumber and are commonly spaced at 16 in (410 mm) on center. This
spacing may be changed to 12 or 24 in (300 or 600 mm) on center depending on the load and the
limitations imposed by the type and thickness of the wall covering used. Wider 1.5 in × 5.5 in (38 mm ×
140 mm) studs may be used to provide space for more insulation. Insulation beyond that which can be
accommodated within a 3.5 in (89 mm) stud space can also be provided by other means, such as rigid
or semi-rigid insulation or batts between (nominal – 2x2) 1.5 in × 1.5 in (38 mm × 38 mm) horizontal
furring strips, or rigid or semi-rigid insulation sheathing to the outside of the studs. The studs are
attached to horizontal top and bottom wall plates of 1.5 in (38 mm) lumber that are the same width as
the studs
Interior partitions supporting floor, ceiling or roof loads are called loadbearing walls; others are
called non-loadbearing or simply partitions. Interior loadbearing walls are framed in the same way as
exterior walls. Studs are usually (nominal – 2x4) 1.5 in × 3.5 in (38 mm × 89 mm) lumber spaced at
16 in (400 mm) on center. This spacing may be changed to 12 or 24 in (300 or 600 mm) depending on
the loads supported and the type and thickness of the wall finish used. Partitions can be built with
(nominal – 2x3) 1.5 in × 2.5 in (38 mm × 64 mm) or (nominal – 2x4) 1.5 in × 3.5 in (38 mm × 89
mm) studs spaced at 16 or 24 in (400 or 600 mm) on center depending on the type and thickness of
the wall finish used. Where a partition does not contain a swinging door, (nominal – 2x4) 1.5 in × 3.5
in (38 mm × 89 mm) studs at 16 in (400 mm) on center are sometimes used with the wide face of the
stud parallel to the wall. This is usually done only for partitions enclosing clothes closets or cupboards
to save space. Since there is no vertical load to be supported by partitions, single studs may be used at
door openings. The top of the opening may be bridged with a single piece of 1.5 in (38 mm) lumber the
same width as the studs. These members provide a nailing support for wall finish, door frames and trim.
Figure 82. Wall Framing Samples