Slides MT 1819

MARITIME TRANSPORT
Lectures
25/02/2019 - 31/05/2019
Stefano Ricci
1
Introduction
References
Maritime Transport 2
Waterborne transport in the history: origins
Time: 2000 years ago
Typical commercial ship: Navis onearia
Origin: Phoenicians
Diffusion: beyond 10th century (including Viking period)
Features and performances
- Squat boat
- Width/Length = 1/3÷1/4
- Average Length = 20 m
- Tonnage = 100÷1800 GT
- Bow and stern lifted up to save space for cabins and pantry
- Rectangular sail in the middle
- Speed = 4÷6 knots in favour of wind
Geographical context and constraints
Most populated Mediterranean towns served by large ports capable to
host all ships
- Alessandria (Egypt)
- Caesarea (Israel)
- Leptis Magna (Libya)
- Ostia, Aquileia and Ravenna (Italy)
- Marseille (France)
Less populated towns served by smaller ports
- transhipment of goods on ships capable to navigate in low water
Navigation season in the Mediterranean Sea
- Period: late May - mid September
Routes
- Eastbound easier and faster (prevalent regular wind from NW)
Developments
Parallel development of techniques
- Navigation (compass and other aiding equipment)
- Ships’ construction
Key periods
- Sail propulsion without compass (till 12th century)
- Sail propulsion with compass (till 19th century)
- Mechanical propulsion (from 19th century)
Main advantages
- Carrying capacity
- Reliability
- Safety
Waterborne transport today: peculiarities and
attitudes
Huge quantities of goods and passengers
- Low speed
- Low costs
Suitable for goods not justifying expensive transport modes
- Heavy
- Voluminous
- Low value
Low cost in comparison with other modes
- Low tare/payload rate
- Low incidence of construction/maintenance costs
- Low speed
- Low motion resistance
Expected research achievements
- Improvement of propulsion systems’ efficiency
- Optimization of hulls’ structure to reduce motion resistances
Consolidated trends
Freight transport
Specialisation of ships according to goods typologies
- Solid and liquid bulk
- Fishing and refrigerated
Reduction of loading/unloading times
- LO-LO container ships
- RO-RO vessels with direct boarding of road and rail vehicles
Passengers transport
Reduced role due to development of air transport
Re-acquired relevant role
- Tourism (cruise ships)
- Short-medium distances (RO-PAX ships)
Trend in seaborne trade 1975-2013
Increase 1975-2013 ≈ +350%
World distribution of goods’ mobility
2) Europe–America: 18%
1) Asia–America: 15%+4%=19%
3) Europe–Africa: 4%
4) Asia–Africa: 3%
Main world commercial routes
Main ports for container traffic (2015)
High concentration in the Far East
Europe’s role
3÷5% of the EU GDP generated by industries and services related to sea
- not including raw materials coming from sea: oil, gas and fish
Seaborne
- About 90% of EU foreign trade
- More than 40% of EU domestic trade
In 1200 EU commercial seaports

- 3500 millions of tons
- 350 millions of passengers
More than 40% of Worlds’ fleet possessed by EU countries
Modal split of domestic freight mobility in EU
About 40% with almost stable trend
Short Sea Shipping routes and quantities (2007)
3) Baltic: 450 Mt
1) North Sea: 647 Mt
2) Mediterranean: 598 Mt
Commercial fleets in EU countries (2015)
Sea ships (> 1000 GT)
4.400
4.200
1) Greece: about
4.000
3.800
3.600 4200 ships

2) Germany: about
3.400
3.200
3.000 3600 ships

2.800
2.600
2.400
2.200
2.000
1.800
1.600
1.400
1.200
1.000
800
600
400
200
Netherlands
Croatia
Malta
Finland
Greece
Luxembourg
Austria
France
Poland
Sweden
Cyprus
Slovak Republic
Belgium
Denmark
United Kingdom
Czech Republic
Hungary
Germany
Italy
Romania
Estonia
Ireland
Lithuania
Portugal
Slovenia
Spain
Bulgaria
Latvia
Ships/inhabitant in EU countries (2015)
0,400
0,380
1) Greece: 393 ships / million inhabitants
0,360
0,340
0,320
0,300
0,280
0,260
Ships/1000 inhabitants ]
0,240
2) Cyprus: 203 ships / million inhabitants

0,220
0,200
0,180
3) Denmark: 157 ships / million inhabitants

0,160
0,140
0,120
Average UE: 26 ships / million inhabitants

0,100
0,080
0,060
0,040
0,020
0,000
Luxembourg
Belgium
United Kingdom
Bulgaria
Germany
Denmark
Italy
Latvia
Austria
Estonia
France
Poland
Czech Republic
Slovenia
Sweden
Hungary
Cyprus
Finland
Greece
Ireland
Lithuania
Spain
Croatia
Netherlands
Romania
Slovak Republic
Malta
Portugal
TOTAL UE
16) Italy: 17 ships / million inhabitants
Maritime mobility in EU countries
Freight traffic [t/year/inhabitant] (2012)
1) Netherlands: 32,100
2) Latvia: 26,500
3) Estonia: 24,500
…
17) Italy: 7,400
Average EU: 7,200
Passengers traffic [trips/year/inhabitant] (2012)

1) Malta: 22.2
2) Denmark: 8.6
3) Greece: 8.1
…
7) Italy: 1.6
Average EU: 0.9
Modal split of domestic freight mobility in EU and
Italy
Italy: less than 10% despite of 7,500 km of

coasts (3rd position in EU after Greece and
United Kingdom)
EU and Italian ports ranking (2015)
Whole freight traffic [Mt]
1) Rotterdam (NL): 436.9 13) Trieste (IT): 49.1
2) Antwerpen (BE): 190.1 17) Genova (IT): 43.4
3) Hamburg (DE): 120.2
Container traffic [MTEU]

1) Rotterdam (NL): 11.6 10) Gioia Tauro (IT): 3.0
2) Antwerpen (BE): 9.4 12) Genova: 2.1
3) Hamburg (DE): 8.8 15) La Spezia: 1.6
Passengers traffic [millions]

1) Dover (UK): 13.0 11) Messina: 7.0
2) Helsinki (FI): 11.2 12) Napoli: 6.5
3) Stockholm (SE): 9.9 15) Reggio di Calabria: 6.1
20) Capri: 4.3
Typical distance and speed units
Nautical mile (NM)
- 1/60 of equator circumference = (40*10^6 m) / (360*60) ≈ 1852 m
knot (kn)
- 1 NM/h = 1852 m/h ≈ 0.5 m/s ≈ 1.8 km/h
2
Seaways
References
Basics of oceanography: sea waters on the Earth
Earth surface
70.8% marine water (about 361 billions of km2)
- 80.9% in Southern hemisphere
- 50.7% in Northern hemisphere
29.2% emerging (about 149 billions of km2)
Oceans
- Big, deep and not surrounded by continental masses
Seas
- Marginal, connected to Oceans by wide and deep straits, (e.g. North
Sea, Japan Sea, California Gulf)
- Mediterranean, surrounded by continents, connected to Oceans by
narrow and surface straits (e.g. Mediterranean Sea, Baltic Sea, Persian
Gulf)
Geometric characteristics of oceans and seas
Water-body Area Volume Average depth
[km2 x 106] [km3 x 106] [m]
Atlantic Ocean 82.441 323.613 3926
Pacific Ocean 165.246 707.555 4282
Indian Ocean 73.443 291.030 3963
Total OCEANS 321.130 1.322.198 4117
North Sea 0.575 0.054 94
English Channel 0.075 0.004 54
Ireland Sea 0.103 0.006 60
Saint Lawrebce Gulf 0.238 0.030 127
Andaman Sea 0.798 0.694 870
Bering Sea 2.268 3.259 1437
Okhotsk Sea 1.528 1.279 838
Japan Sea 1.008 1.008 1350
East China Sea 1.249 1.249 188
California Gulf 0.162 0.162 813
Bass Strait 0.075 0.005 70
Total MARGINAL SEAS 8.079 7.059 874
Artic Mediterranean 14.090 16.980 1205
American Mediterranean 4.319 9.573 2216
Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea 2.966 4.283 1416
Asian Mediterranean 8.143 9.873 1212
Baltico Sea 0.422 0.023 55
Hudson Bay 1.232 0.158 128
Read Sea 0.438 0.215 491
Persian Gulf 0.239 0.006 25
Total CONTINENTAL SEAS 31.849 41.066 1289
Sea bottom
Depth < 200 m: Belt interesting for the navigation
Depth > 200 m: Bathymetric surveys by echo sounder
Extensions variable due to geologic features

E.g.: continental shelf in Italy
- Adriatic Sea: over 500 km
- Tyrrhenian Sea: a few km
Sea levels
Not constant in space and time
- Tides
- Streams
- Waves
Periodical and normally balanced around an average level
Exact knowledge purposes
- Low water navigation
- Design and construction of ports
- Coastal management
Long period average level differences (e.g. differences between Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans at the extremities of Panama Channel)
- Differences of salinity and density
- Streams
- Winds
Reference levels
HAT = Highest Astronomical Tide
MHWS = Mean High Water Spring
MHW = Mean High Water
MHWN = Mean High Water Neap
MWL = Mean Water Level
MLWN = Mean Low Water Neap
MLW = Mean Low Water
MLWS = Mean Low Water Spring
LAT = Lowest Astronomical Tide
Navigation maps prudentially referred to MLWS or LAT

In Italy additional reference to difference MWL-MLWS
Tide levels
Spring Tidal Range: MHWS – MLWS;
Normal Tidal Range: MHW – MLW;
Neap Tidal Range: MHWN – MLWN.
Tide regimes
- Macro-tidal: MHWS – MLWS > 1,5 m;
- Balanced: MHWS – MLWS = 0,51,5 m;
- Micro-tidal: MHWS – MLWS < 0,5 m (typically Mediterranean)
Average level slowly variable during the time

- Increasing of volumes of ice caps and glaciers (progressively higher
temperature due to Earth global warming)
Physical and chemical features of water affecting
navigation
Seaways
- Seas: coastal and open sea navigation
- Rivers, lakes, channels: inland navigation.
Features of seaways affecting navigation

- Density, depending upon salinity
- Specific weight
- Hydrostatic pressure
- Surface motion state defined by waves
- Deep water motions generated by tides and streams
Salinity
Quantity of salts in a water volume
Ratio between salts’ mass [g] and water volume [dm3]
Numerical value expressed in [‰]

Normally variable in the range 3035‰
Density vs. salinity
Density = Mass per unit of volume
Effect of salinity
- Density of water without salts: ρ = 1 [kg/dm3]
- Density with a certain salinity degree (mass of salts and water)
d [kg of salts/dm3] = density of salts defining the salinity

s / 1000 = mass [kg] of salts in a dm3 of water
s / (1000 d) = volume occupied by salts in a dm3 of water
1 – s / (1000 d) = volume occupied by water only in a dm3 of water
containing salts
Density vs. temperature and pressure
Effect of temperature
- Density increasing in colder climates
- Low density at low/medium latitudes
Effect of hydrostatic pressure

- Density increasing in deep water
Average relative density of sea water = 1.026 kg/dm3

(Salinity = 34‰)
Specific weight and hydrostatic pressure
Specific weight
Hydrostatic pressure
h [m] (pure water)
p [bar]
+1 bar corresponding approximately to -10 m
Wind waves generation
Short period waves generated by the wind

(wind waves or short waves)
- Periods of oscillation normally < 30 s
- Existing also under local absence of wind (dead sea waves or swell)
- Generated for speed of the wind > 1 m/s
- Initial wavelength: 5÷10 cm
- Initial height: 1÷2 cm
Increasing dimensions and period according to:

- Speed of the wind
- Extension and depth of sea area swept by the wind (fetch)
Wind waves typical dimensions
Mediterranean Sea
- Periods: about 10 s
- Max height: 9 m
(17 m exceptionally recorded nearby Alghero in Sardinia)
Atlantic Ocean
- Periods: about 20 s
- Max height: 10 m
Pacific Ocean
- Max height: 4 m
Waves propagation
Wind waves by getting away from the fetch or after wind’s ceasing
- Propagation with higher regularity
- Natural radial spatial dispersion (higher wavelength and speed)
- Energy distribution on progressively enlarged areas
Waves caused by tides

- Long
- High period (from minutes to hours)
Waves of seaquake (tsunami) caused by submarine earthquakes or

landslides
- Moving huge masses of water for a short transient
- High period (some minutes)
- Low height
- Not affecting significantly the navigation
Waves’ monitoring and measurement
Visual observation of motions of water’s masses
- Only source of data for many years
Instrumental measurements available today

- in situ: submerged equipment
- remote: equipment operated far away from the water surface
Floating equipment
Buoys with mechanical devices or electrical detectors (cables) of moves
and accelerations
Equipment on fixed structures
Submerged pressure transducers, ammeters or sound level reflection
meters
Most diffused technique: active irradiation with electromagnetic energy

of the marine surface and measurement of the corresponding reflection
(radar)
Shapes of wind waves
Height h
vertical distance between crest and
hollow
Wavelength λ
Horizontal distance between two
crests or two hollows
Parameters affecting features

- Intensity and duration of wind
- Involved water’s mass (extension
and depth)
- Other motions of the involved
water’s mass
Waves’ dynamics within the fetch
Small and multidirectional waves
Getting away from the fetch

- Increased period and height
- One direction propagation not necessarily following original wind
- More regular feature and long distance propagation (thousands of
miles from fetch)
Energy progressively dissipated

- Interaction with air
- Turbulences
- Interactions with bottom nearby coasts
h/λ < 1/7: wave’s conservation
h/λ > 1/7: breakers characterized by white foam
Waves’ dynamics outside the fetch
Wave’s breaks
- Depth of water ≈ Height of wave
(interactions starting when depth < the half of the wave’s height)
- Speed of the stream ≈ Speed of the wave in opposite direction (e.g.
along rivers or at their mouth)
Wave motion continuing with regular pendular motion after the cease
of wind (long sea or dead sea)
- Vertical motion of water’s particles along a circular trajectory with
diameter variable from the surface towards the bottom
- Acquisition of a sine wave appearance with typical relationships:
𝒈𝝀
= = 1.25
𝟑/𝟒
𝟐𝝅
Waves’ height and speed vs. wavelength
Direction and height of the waves in a meteo
forecasting map
Effects of waves on the hulls
L << λ: hull following the wave upwards
and downwards with limited accelerations
L >> λ: hull cutting the waves, laying on
various waves like on a flat surface
L ~ λ: possible combinations of rolling and

pitching motions potentially dangerous in
case of resonance
- Ship moving from support at the

extremities to central support
- Alternate shear and bend stresses and
increasing fatigue stress
- Relevant deformations and possible
breaking when the frequency of oscillation
is similar to that of elastic ship’s body
Tides
Effects on the sea water masses
- Gravitational attraction of celestial bodies (moon + sun)
- Centrifugal force caused by rotation and revolution of Earth

- Reflection effects of coasts and continental shelf
- Local resonance effects around the rivers’ mouth
- Coriolis’s deviation
Missing in rivers and lakes due to limited dimensions of involved water

masses
Maximum height: tens of meters

Period: 12h+25min÷24h+50min according to generating forces
Streams
Generated by complex interactions of wind waves, direct effect of
winds, tides, climate, difference of density, motions of the Earth
Transport of masses (on surface or in depth) in a main direction and for

long time (translation waves) unlike wind waves and tides
Surface streams in Oceans (e.g. Gulf Stream)

- clockwise in Northern hemisphere
- counterclockwise in Southern hemisphere
Max speed: 5 knots (generated by wind waves), 0.5 knots (others)

Effect on navigation: relevant for rivers and lakes, negligible for sea
Mediterranean Sea: moderate intensity except at the mouths of Venice’s
lagoon and in the Messina Strait
3
Sustenance and stability of vessels
References
Classification according to sustenance principles
Hydrostatic
- Buoyancy generated by the water’s displacement due
to the immersion of a body, according to the
Archimedes' principles
Hydrodynamic
- Dynamic actions arising from the relative movement
between hull and water, mainly depending upon the
variation of the momentum of water’s particles in their
motion in respect to the hull itself
Air cushion
- Effect of air pressure between vehicle and water’s
surface, restrained in a volume under the hull
Vessels typologies
By sustenance and locomotion
Sustenance Locomotion Denomination
Hydrostatic Without engine Raft
(Floating) Pontoon
Barge
With engine Boat
Ship
Submarine
Hydrodynamic Without engine Aquaplane
(Hydroplane) Water ski By propulsion system
With engine Airboat and Motorboat
Hydrofoil
Idrottero
Air cushion With engine Hovercraft
Hydrostatic vessels: conditions for sustenance
generation
Acting both on partially/totally submerged vessels
1) Difference of specific weights body’s material against water

- Submerged volume lower than total volume of the body due to the
difference between specific weights of body and water
- Resulting force S = V(γm - γa)
2) Hollow shape of the body partially filled in with air

- Volume of water displaced by the hull lower than total volume of the
body, though the specific weight of the material (e.g. steel, light alloys,
polyester) higher than the water’s one
Low speed motion with minimum effort by engine or pushing/pulling

vessel (not motorised, optionally with auxiliary engines for manoeuvres)
Rafts
- Made up by logs
- Sustained due to different specific weights of wood and water
Pontoons
- Case shaped vehicle
- Suitable for heavy and voluminous loads
- Often equipped with cranes
Barges
- Flat bottom to maximise carrying capacity and minimise immersion
- Suitable for solid bulk (ore, consignments, etc.)
- Suitable for navigation in calm waters (e.g. rivers and ports)
Boats
- Small vessels mainly used for passengers on short distances
Ships: functional classification
Typology Load Denomination

Passengers ships Passengers Commuters
Tourism
Cruise
Cargo ships Solid bulk General cargo
Bulk carriers
Ore carriers
Liquid bulk Oil tankers
Lliquid bulk carriers
Special ships Passengers LNG tankers
and goods Ro-Ro and Ro-Pax ships
Conatiner ships
Fishing boats
Ships: classification by propulsion and navigation
Propulsion systems
- Mechanically propelled
- Sailing
- Motorsailers
Navigation typology
- Long course: routes in open sea
- Coastal: routes along the coasts
- Cabotage: routes among ports of same basin or country
Hydrodynamic vessels: mechanisms for sustenance
generation
Combined actions of water and air on the hull’s bottom
Variation of momentum of fluid in contact with hull itself
Airboat
- Propulsion generated by interaction with air
Motorboat
- Propulsion generated by interaction with water
High intensity dynamic actions due to speed and variability of water

surface
Careful study of the bottom’s profile required

- Minimisation of impacts
- Facilitation of relative motion between hull and water’s particles
Shapes of the hull’s bottom
Shape of the bottom variable

in longitudinal direction
- Narrow V at the bow
enlarging towards the stern
Kinematics conditions for sustenance generation
V > Vs = √ k(q/α)
(Stall speed)
q = load on the bottom
α = angle of incidence
k = factor depending upon density of liquid and
hull’s shape
Balance combining weight and boost of the

propeller required
Motion resistance proportional to wet surface

Need to reduce wet surface to navigate at high
speed with acceptable power onboard
Contact surface hull-water
1) Rearward centre of gravity

- Contact in the stern area
2) Forward centre of gravity

- Support located in correspondence to the
centre of gravity
- Step shaped discontinuity on the bottom
3) Very high speed

Three skid shaped contact areas
Contact surface hull-water
Supporting area = vertical projection of wet surface of the bottom
Resisting area = wet surface itself
Flat bottom
(+) Minimising the resistance with constant sustenance
(-) High sensibility to impulses
(-) Low resistance to lateral forces
(-) Relevant trend to skid
(-) Low manoeuvrability
V shaped bottom
(+) Dampening of shocks
(+) Limitation of water’s detachment
(+) Simplification of changes of direction
(-) Higher motion resistance
Longitudinal ribs increase the lift (+) but wet surface too (-)
Hydrofoil
Dynamic regime navigation
- Wings partially submerged
- Lift up over stall speed
- Low wet surface (resistance)
- Max speed: 35÷55 knots
- Reasonable power
Static regime navigation

- Waves brushing the hull
- Waves-hull contact minimisation
- Wings’ fitting regulation equipment
- Relevant increase of wet surface
Hydropter
Hydroplane equipped with multiple wings supporting the hull over the
water
Limited commercial applications
Hovercraft
Air cushion exploiting supporting lift of air under pressure due to the
restraint in a cylindrical volume and acceleration by a fan
Lifted up over the surface at a height h (D/h ≈ 10)

Air cushion not requiring vehicle-surface direct contact
Amphibious vehicle: operation over water and flat surface lands
Propulsion supplied by propeller or jet effect.
Stability: equilibrium of a partially submerged body
G = centre of gravity
C = centre of buoyancy (centre of
gravity of the submerged volume)
Increasing immersion until

equilibrium between weight P and
the hydrostatic force S is reached
No components of S along the

fluctuation plane a-a
Stable equilibrium only if P = S

oriented along the same vertical axis
Floating and sinking conditions
If P < S and i < H (floating body)

Fluctuation plane: detaching a liquid volume with weight equal to the
weight of the body itself
If P > S and i ≥ H (completely submerged body)

Sinking body until:
- hydrostatic pressure (and fluid’s density) restore the equilibrium
- bottom is reached
Translation and rotation around a vertical axis

- Indifferent equilibrium
G under C
- Stable equilibrium in respect to a horizontal axis
Equilibrium of a completely submerged body
G = G' over C: Tilting torque (instability)
G = G’' under C: Stabilising torque
Floating vessels equilibriums
Fluctuation planes (fluctuation surface) defining a constant volume of
the hull
Envelop of buoyance centres = curve within the hull
For any displacement

- Volume globally constant
- Change of the shape of the volume
- Change of the position of the centre of buoyancy
Possible equilibrium for various fluctuating planes

- Stable: Mf over G
- Unstable: Mf under G
- Indifferent: e.g. for a spherical body
Instable equilibrium of a partially submerged
(floating) body
Body rotated of an angle α
- Equivalent rotation of
fluctuating surface from aa' to
bb', with new vertical axis dd'
Arising torque tending to tilt the

body
Instable equilibrium of a partially submerged
(floating) body
Body rotated of an angle α
- Equivalent rotation of
fluctuating surface from aa' to
bb', with new vertical axis dd'
Arising torque tending to bring

back the body to the initial
position (stabilising)
Metacentre of a symmetric and isotropic body
Generalisation of the rolling (transversal) stability of floating body
- Symmetrical in terms of shape
- Isotropic in terms of density
- Centres of gravity and buoyancy along the same transversal cut
- Position of metacentre
I = moment of inertia of the fluctuation plane respect to the centre of

gravity axis
V = volume of the hull
Unchanged weight of the vessel

Emerged volume = Submerged volume
0AB = 0A’B
E.g.: raft more stable than a cylindrical body submerged with

longitudinal axis orthogonal to fluctuating plane
Search of the zero stability angle
Stabilising moment
- M = S GMf senθ
- GMf = OMf - OG
- GMf senθ = transversal stability
Stabilising energy (stability

buffer) = area between curves Mf
(false metacentre positions) and
G (centre of gravity positions)
Similar considerations valid for

longitudinal static stability
(pitching)
4
Architecture and locomotion of ships
References
Ship’s elements and shape
Skeleton
- Main longitudinal beam (keel) and curve transversal beams (ribs)
- Resistance to external (water) and internal (loads) forces
Covering planking
- Resistance to pressure of water only
- Contribution to global rigidity of the body
- Rigid shell resistant and not submersible
Factors affecting hull’s shape

- Reduction of wet surface to limit motion resistances
- Reduction of interactions bottom-water under waves’ motion
- Increase of displacement to increase carrying capacity
Typical resulting shape: double curvature solid (cylindrical)
Hull’s longitudinal and transversal cuts
Horizontal cuts
Vertical transversal cuts

- Derived profiles: ribs
Vertical longitudinal cuts

- Keel: lower profile of the central cut: keel
Profile surrounding transversal cuts

- Skeleton
- External covering
- Decks (horizontal separating planes)
Fi-3_4_1
Masts and equipment on the decks
Sailing vessels
- Vertical, horizontal, inclined masts (bowsprits)
- Other masts (yard arms, sticks, booms)
- Upwind longitudinal beams and transversal forestays (ribs)
Motorised ships
- Small masts supporting antennas, telecommunication devices,
loading equipment (marbles)
- Master bridge and other bridge-houses
Bridge and bridge-houses
Front location (at bow)
- Wide visibility required by the OPEN DECK
PONTE DI COPERTA
manoeuvres in ports PONTE II

OTHER DECKS
PONTE III
Rear location (at stern)

- Empty ship more submerged in MASTER CASTELLO
BRIDGE
the rear part with propeller STERN BRIDGE

CASSERETTO CENTRAL BRIDGE
CASSERO CENTRALE
permanently under water (longer

blades and higher efficiency)
PONTE I
DECKS
PONTE II LOCKER
POZZO
- Shorter propeller’s axle: limited

distance engine-propeller
- Separation between technical MASTER BRIDGE
(engine, gearbox, bridge) and

CASTELLO
commercial (holds and other

loading areas and compartments) ENGINES
MOTORI
parts of the ship

Constructive materials
Wood
- Small ships and recreation boats
- Mainly hand-crafted and very expensive
Steel
- Resistance to corrosion by alloying steel and other metals
- Resilience to absorb deformations due to impacts with waves
- Suitability to electric arc welding
Plastic
- Small/light vessels and superstructures
Reinforced concrete
- Barges, cheap but scarcely resistant to impacts
Light alloys
- Superstructures to reduce global weight of ship
Ships’ volumes and dimensions: tonnage
Units
- 1 Tonne = 100 cubic feet = 2.832 m3 (1 foot = 0.304 m)
Gross Tonnage (GT)

- Volume of all closed rooms
Net Tonnage (NT)

- Volume available for payload (key parameter for commercial ships)
Displacements
Displacement (D) = Water’s volume displaced by the hull depending

upon ship’s loading conditions
Light displacement (Dv ) for empty ships
Gross displacement (Dl ) for full load ships
Gross payload = Dv – Dl
Draught
Weight of ship calculated on the basis of draught on scales reported
[dm] [ft] in correspondence to bow and stern on the ship’s side
Variation of draught due to density of water

Reference on hull: Plimsoll line
http://youtu.be/YpCyP1sM_cA
Brand freeboard referred to various densities (increasing density due to

lower temperature)
- TF (ADT in Italy): tropical fresh water
- F (AD in Italy): fresh water
- T (ET in Italy): tropical seawater
- S (E in Italy): summer temperate seawater
- W (I in Italy): winter temperate seawater
- WNA (INA in Italy): winter North Atlantic
Geometrical features
L l
Hull’s thinness: l / L
Transversal stability index: i / l
Coefficient of fineness: φ = D / Lli
Approximated values
Passengers ships Cargo ships
φ = 0.50÷0.75 l/L = 0.14 i/l = 0.4 φ = 0.8
L [m], γ[t/m3], Q[t]
Geometrical features of some ships
Name Year Typology Motorisation Tonnage Speed L [m] l [m] i [m] D [m3] φ i/l l/L Dcalc
Built [kn] (D/Lli) (6,4 * L3
/ 1000)
Alcedo 1999 Tanker Engine 1,810 11,0 90.0 12.0 6.5 0.54 0.13 4,666
Aurora 1956 Tanker Engine 12,446 14.5 161.0 22.2 9.4 25,760 0.77 0.42 0.14 26,709
Ausonia 1957 Pax Engine 11,878 21.0 140.0 21.2 6.5 11,400 0.59 0.31 0.15 17,562
Boltentor 1998 Cargo Engine 4,620 16.0 116.1 16.6 8.0 0.48 0.14 10,016
Cruise Roma 2008 Ro-Pax Engine 55,000 28.0 225.0 30.4 7.0 0.23 0,13 6,075
Egeria 1960 Tanker Turbine 40,695 17.8 230.0 32.2 18.8 83,760 0.60 0.58 0.14 77,869
E.R.Stralsund 1999 Cargo Engine 12,029 21.6 207.4 29.8 16.4 0.55 0.14 57,096
Excellent 1998 Ro-Pax Engine 39,739 24.0 202.1 28.0 7.0 21,827 0.55 0.25 0.14 52,830
Excelsior 1996 Ro-Pax Engine 39,739 212.0 28.0 8.0 21,110 0.44 0.29 0.13 60,980
Federico C. 1958 Pax Turbine 20,416 21.1 162.6 24.0 8.6 21,900 0.65 0.36 0.15 27,513
Garibaldi 1982 Cargo Engine 5,640 20.4 149.0 21,171
Gemma 1961 Cargo Engine 1,599 13.1 91.7 14.0 5.4 4,650 0.67 0.39 0.15 4,935
Grimaldi L. Cargo 51,925 20.0 209.0 58,428
Iacopo Tintoretto 1966 Ro-Pax Engine 2,712 18.1 88.0 15.0 4.4 3,325 0.57 0.29 0.17 4,361
Maria Costa 1958 Cargo Engine 10,538 14.1 141.7 19.9 9.7 21,277 0.78 0.49 0.14 18,209
Michelangelo 1965 Pax Turbine 45,911 29.2 243,7 31.0 9.3 42,000 0.60 0.30 0.13 92,629
RMS Muhlheim 1999 Cargo Engine 1,846 13.0 89.7 11.6 5.8 0.50 0.13 4,619
Superfast IV 1998 Ro-Pax Engine 29,067 28.5 194.3 25.0 9.1 0.36 0.13 46,946
Motion resistances’ overview
Energy required for the movement of a displacing water vehicle used to
overtake the motion resistances
Friction with water Ra + vortexes Rv
Waves Ro
Additional phenomena: aerodynamics, viscosity, interaction with sea

bottom, unusual hull’s architecture and/or roughness, etc.
Friction and vortexes resistances: generation
Relative speed of water variable according to distance from hull
Practically zero speed in contact with hull
Progressive increases with increasing distance
Constant speed over a certain distance ε
For L<ε speed variation depending upon the viscosity
Friction between water’s layer within ε causing resistance
Additional resistance due to vortexes arising during the navigation
Friction and vortexes resistances: quantification
Global motion resistance (Tideman)
.
- f: coefficient increasing with roughness of material and decreasing with

hull’s length L (reasonable average value = 0.145)
- δ: relative density of water, equal to 1 for the fresh water and 1.026 for
the seawater
- v: speed of the vessel [m/s]
- S: wet surface of the hull [m2]
Approximated formula for wet surface calculation (Denny)
φ
- i = 0.4 l
-l=L/7
- φ = 0.8
Resistance due to waves: generation
Variation of kinetic energy
corresponding to opposite
variation of potential energy
(variation of water’s level)
Variations of water’s level

originating waves
- Highest at bow
- Smallest at stern (part of energy
dissipated in wake)
Divergent (specifically generated

by bow) and transversal waves
interacting with wind waves
Resistance due to waves: quantification
Global resistance (Taylor)
- = relative density of water

- = coefficient of global fineness
- D = displacement [t]
- V = speed of the ship [kn]
- L = length of the hull [m]
Modern ships equipped with an always submerged bulb at bow

(Taylor’s bulb) capable to upgrade hydrodynamic penetration of hull by
attenuating the dissipative effects of divergent bow waves
Additional resistances
Appendixes of the hull (arms of propellers, anti-roll wings, rudder)
Roughness of the hull (vegetation and adhesion of mollusks)
Low water
Aerodynamic resistance of hull’s emerging part 0.003S (V±v cosα)2
- S = surface of transversal cut area projected on plane perpendicular to
direction of motion [m2]
- V = ship’s speed [kn]
- v = wind’s speed [kn]
- α = angle between direction of wind and longitudinal axis of ship
Normally limited in comparison with others, often negligible
Experimental approach
Experiments in a basin for precise calculations of resistance
Friction resistance: predominant action of water’s viscosity

Number of Reynolds: Re = VL/ν = constant
- V = speed
- ν = kinematic viscosity
- L = reference length
Wave’s resistance: predominant action of gravity

Number of Froude: F r = V / gL = constant
- g = acceleration of gravity
Relative speed and global friction factor
Relative speed
k=v/√L
Ra+v = Ak2 (A = fδSL)

Ro = Nk4 (N = 7.5δΦD)
Global friction factors

e = R/Q
ea+v = Ra+v /γD = ak2

(a = fδSL/γD)
eo = R0 /γD = nk4
(n = 7.5δΦ/γ)
Typical relative speeds and friction factors values
For commercial ships
a ≈ n ≈ 0.005
e ≈ k3/10
Approximated value by typology of ship
Typology of ships k e
Super tanker 0.5 0.00125
Bulk carrier 0.6 0.00216
General cargo 0.7 0.00343
High Speed passengers 0.9 0.00729
Lowest values for commercial ships
Marine engines: design requisites
Design requisites for commercial ships
- Max ratio reliability / operational costs
1) High reliability to prevent consequences of failures at sea

- Delay and potential risks (rarely) for passengers
- Immobilisation of huge quantities of goods
- Immobilisation of ship itself (key production factor)
2) Low operational cost to compete in a free international market
Design requisites for engines

- Simple operation
- Simple and low cost maintenance
- Low consumption of low cost fuels
Classification of marine engines
Operational Operational Type of Fuel Fuel Weight / Maximum
Principle Mode Consumption Power Power
(*) [g / kWh] [t / kW] [kW]
Power Alternative Steam 400 0,300,40 8000
Generator Internal 220 0,050,10 40000
Combustion
Turbine Steam 300 0,75 48000
Gas
Force Aerojet
Generator Hydrojet
(*) fluid fuel producing about 10,000 Kcal/kg
Construction and maintenance simplicity + minimum volume = 1 engine

+ 1 propellers (direct coupled, ω = 100÷150 rounds/minute)
Alternative steam engines
1771: Watt’s invention

Early 19th Century: installations on ships
Features
- Smoke pipes boilers (like locomotives) fuelled by coal or naphtha
- Up to 4 cylinders in series to maximise steam’s expansions
- Cooling fluid to recover exhaust steam and transform it back to water
- Direct coupling with propeller’s axis
Performances
- High simplicity
Today’s employment: rare, mainly where solid fuels are abundant (e.g.
Russia, Africa, South America)
Diesel alternative engines
1912: installation on ships
Features
- Four or two strokes cycle, with water cooling
- Possible overpower with electric compressors or gas turbines
- Economic fuels (e.g. naphtha)
- Direct coupling with propeller’s axis (slow diesel) or use of gears for
speed reduction and possible multiple coupling
- Compressed air start
- Reverse running by stop + re-start re-phasing distribution gears
Performances
- Reliability
- Low consumption
- Limited maintenance and surveillance
Today’s employment: large majority of commercial ships

Turbines
Features
- Single or multiple units coupled to a single propeller’s axis by a
single speed reduction gear
- Additional specific turbine for reverse running
- Structured in groups to be located in free volumes inside hull
- Gas turbines: adapted to marine use from aeronautics, without
combustion chamber, supplying maximum power in short time
Performances
- High power
- Less vibrations than with diesel
- Possible overpower (up to 50%) without failures risk
- High rotation speed (thousands of rounds/minute)
- High construction costs due to expensive materials
- More volume and weight in comparison with diesel
Today’s employment: large ships

Architecture of combinations of engines and
propellers
a) Slow diesel a)
BEARING SLOW DIESEL

CUSCINETTO
REGGISPINTA MOTORE DIESEL
ELICA LENTO
PROPELLER ENGINE
b) Fast diesel b)
FAST
MOTORIDIESEL
DIESEL
ENGINES
VELOCI
BEARING
CUSCINETTO
REGGISPINTA
ELICA
PROPELLER
SPEED
RIDUTTORE
REDUCTION
GEAR FUEL
COMBUSTIBILE
c) Steam turbine c)
TURBINE COMPRESSOR
TURBINA COMPRESSORE
CUSCINETTO
BEARING
REGGISPINTA COMBUSTION
CAMERA DI
ELICA COMBUSTIONE
PROPELLER CHAMBER
SPEED
RIDUTTORE
REDUCTION
GEAR
DRAIN
SCARICO ASPIRATION
ASPIRAZIONE
HOTSCAMBIATORE
HEAT EXCHANGER
DI CALORE
d) Gas turbine
CALDO
d)
TURBINE COMPRESSOR
TURBINA COMPRESSORE
PROPELLER
SPEED
REDUCTION
GEAR
SCAMBIATORE DI CALORE
COLD HEAT EXCHANGER
FREDDO
Propulsion systems for water vehicles
Mechanical
- Generating force by means of devices interacting with concerned
fluids (water and air)
By Fluid
- Generating force by means of fluid masses (water, air) strongly
accelerated reverse to motion direction
Operational Principle Operational Environment Propulsion system
Mechanical Water Oars and paddles
Bladed wheel
Cycloidal
Propeller
Air Sail
Rotor of Flettner
Propeller
Fluid Aerojet
Hydrojet
Mechanical propulsion systems
First employed systems
- Oars
- Paddles
- Sails
Bladed wheel used in first applications of

steam engines
Bad functioning with waves and variable
immersion
Today’s employment: boats navigating in

calm waters (e.g. lakes and rivers)

Cycloidal propulsion system
Features
- Horizontal plate rotating under the hull
- Four blades/plate (at least)
- Cyclically variable fitting kinematic
controlled
Performances
- Capability to generate forces in any
direction on a horizontal plane
- Capability to move aside and turn
around itself with 2 propellers
- High weight, complexity and costs
Today’s employment: small vessels

requiring vigorous manoeuvres in all
directions (e.g. tug boats)

Hydraulic (Marine) Propeller
Features
- Short and thick blades
- Low rotation speed to limit the peripheral speed
- ≥3 blades
- Fixed or variable fitting
- Construction in bronze or cast iron (less expensive)
Performances
- Small diameter to avoid emersion and limit pressure on blades
- Multiple propellers to produce high power
- Auxiliary propeller for manoeuvres in transversal pipes at bow to let
the ship rotating of almost 360°
Today’s employment: large majority of motorised vessels
Air Propeller
Features
- Long and thin blades
- High rotation speed
- ≤3 blades
- Fixed fitting
- Construction in steel or light alloys
Today’s employment: rare, on airboats, hydrofoils and air cushion

vessels

Fluid propulsion
Features
- Pump (typically centrifugal, sometime a ducted propeller) moved by
any engine, picking up water and accelerating it by a stern nozzle
and generating a reactive force
- Jet in water or air
- Jet deflector acting as rudder
Performances
- Efficiency lower than a propeller
- Suitability for low water boats, where propeller could accidentally
interact with sea bottom or be dangerous for bathers
Today’s employment: hydro-jet used in small vessels, air-jet practically

not used in commercial applications

Electric propulsion
Early ‘900: application on military ships: low noise and vibrations
Features
- Electric engines powered by diesel generators located in a single
engines room
- Direct current electric or asynchronous engines (since ’80s)
Performances
- Easiness of manoeuvre
- High efficiency of electric engine
- Easier management of internal spaces: compact structure not
requiring voluminous gears and wires connections
- Capacity to produce nominal torque for all speeds
- Low emissions of noise and vibrations
- Low maintenance need: a few rotating devices
- Redundancy (reliability): variety of groups
Today’s employment: cruise ships

Utilisation of spaces on an electrically powered cruise
ship

Comparison electrical-mechanical propulsion

Ships’ performances: maximum reachable speed
Needed power due to motion resistances: Pn
Available power supplied by engine and propulsion system: Pd
Pn = R V ≈ A V3 + N V5

Weight vs. length
θ = Deadweight (tare) / Total weight
(much lower than air and land vehicles)
Typical values: 1/3÷1/5 depending upon length of ship (100÷300 m)
Weight of hull: lower for more supports (i.e. for longer hull)
Variability of weights of engine-propulsion and equipment:

negligible
Weights vs. costs
Weight of ship’s parts
- Hull: 4/7
- Equipment: 2/7
- Engine-propulsion system: 1/7
Relative specific costs of ship’s parts

- Hull: 1
- Equipment: 2
- Engine-propulsion system: 4
Global construction cost

- Composed by 3 almost similar parts
Net payload = Total weight – Deadweight – Weight of equipment and

fuel (5÷6%)

Fuel consumption
Low speed allowing keeping consumptions on reasonable values
Friction factor normally ≤ 3‰
Consumption normally ≤ 0.003 kg/tkm

5
Organisation and normative
References

Regulation and liberalization
First regulations (Jaime I of Aragon)
• The customs of the sea (El Llibro del Consolat de Mar): collection of
maritime customs and ordinances published in Barcelona in 1494
• Guidance of the courts of the consuls of the sea: a collection of ancient
customs of the sea and a body of rules for government of cruisers of
war
• Consolat de mar: a quasi-judicial body set up to administer maritime
and commercial
• Similar bodies established in 13th century in Messina and Genoa
• Mercantile Laws established at the same time through Europe
Easy liberalization
• No technical barriers (vehicles, interoperability)
• Separation of infrastructures and operation management

Link in the logistic chain
Optimal integration of maritime transport in logistic chain according to
transport requirements (typology of goods, distance, amount, etc.)
Key aspects: Structure of services + Ports organization

Subjects involved in maritime transport services (1)
Ship-owner
- Owner of commercial ships: Ownership fractioned into a maximum of 24 parts
(carats) according to international agreements
- Usually organized through a company
- Typically hiring a licensed captain (master) and a crew to take care of vessels
Carrier
- Manager of transport service by providing facilities and crew
- Looking for customers, assisting them and taking economic risk
Chartering broker (Shipbroker)
- Specialist intermediary/negotiator between ship-owners and charterers or
ships’ buyers and sellers
Charterer
- Contracting use of the ship (total or partial) with Carrier
- Transporting own freight or renting for transport of third parts’ goods

Subjects involved in maritime transport services (2)
Captain (Master)
- Carrier’s representative
- Chief of the crew
- Responsible for ship, cargo and people on board
Shipper (Forwarder)
- Delivering goods to be embarked, managing services to move goods from
origin to destination, insurance, customs, etc.
- May be the charterer itself or a representative
Ship’s agent (Stevedore)
- Carrier’s port agent receiving goods to embark/disembark
- Delivering goods to receivers (consignee)
- Performance land side operations of maritime transport
Consignee
- Receiving goods at destination port
- Goods owner or representative of third parties
Liner and Tramp contracts and services
Liner
- Regular routes operated according to a schedule
- Ships equipped to deal with causes of potential delay such as bad weather
- More expensive ships: generally higher powered than for tramp services,
with better sea keeping qualities
- Typically, not exclusively, operated for passengers and containers
Tramp
- No fixed routes: leaving wherever and whenever a suitable cargo takes it
- Ship and crew potentially chartered from ship-owner on a case by case basis
- Bulk carriers are typically operating such typology of services
- Brokers intermediation playing a key role
Liner services operated by Grimaldi Group
Motorways of the Sea
- Ro-Ro
Atlantic and Euromed
networks
- Car carrier
- Ro-Ro
- Container
Passengers

Liner services operated by China Shipping Container
Lines Co. (CSCL)
World network
- Container

Market and contracts
Maritime traffic organization crucial due to big expenses generated
when the ship is not in use and/or moored in a port
• Interaction of many subjects (freight stock markets)
Typologies of contracts: referred to the whole or a part of the ship
Bareboat
• Charterer renting armed or unarmed ship and appointing captain and
crew
Time charter
• Hiring the vessel for a specific period of time:
• Ship-owner managing the vessel and paying port charges
• Charterer selecting ports and directing the vessel where to go,
commanding the captain and paying for fuel and crew
Voyage charter
• Similar to Time charter but for port to port trips
• Charterer paying also port charges and commissions
International Maritime Organisation Conventions
International Maritime Organization (IMO)
- Autonomous UNO’s agency devoted to develop principles and
techniques for international marine navigation and foster planning
and development of a safer and more regulated international
maritime transport
Main conventions
- Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGS)
- Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL)
- Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR)
- Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)
- Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers
(STCW)

COLREGS: structure
First issue in 1972, entered in force in 1977, updated in 1981
38 rules divided into five sections

- Part A - General
- Part B - Steering and Sailing
- Part C - Lights and Shapes
- Part D - Sound and Light signals
- Part E - Exemptions
4 Annexes containing technical requirements
- Lights and shapes and their positioning
- Sound signalling appliances
- Additional signals for fishing vessels when operating in close
proximity
- International distress signals

COLREGS: application fields and principles
(a) These Rules shall apply to all vessels upon the high seas and in all
waters connected therewith navigable by seagoing vessels.
(b) Nothing in these Rules shall interfere with the operation of special
rules made by an appropriate authority for roadsteads, harbours, rivers,
lakes or inland waterways connected with the high seas and navigable
by seagoing vessels. Such special rules shall conform as closely as
possible to these Rules.
National differences always in line with COLREGS’ principles

- Deviations allowed for sport competitions only
MARPOL
Main international convention covering prevention of pollution of the
marine environment by ships from operational or accidental causes
Adopted in 1973 at IMO and in 1978 as a Convention in response to a

spate of tanker accidents in 1976-1977
Combined instrument entered into force in 1983
Amendment in 1997 entered into force in 2005
Regulations aimed at preventing and minimizing pollution from ships

- Accidental pollution
- Routine operations
6 technical Annexes
- Special Areas with strict controls on operational discharges

SAR
Adopted in 1979 at Hamburg conference: progressive implementation
Rescue of persons in distress at sea co-ordinated by one or neighbouring
SAR organizations
- Ensuring arrangements for provision of adequate SAR services in
coastal waters
- Agreements with neighbouring SAR organizations to identify
regions with pooled facilities and common procedures
- Expediting entry into territorial waters of SAR units of other parties
Oceans and seas divided into provisional search and rescue areas
Revised Annex (5 chapters) adopted in 1998 entered into force in 2000

clarifying responsibilities of Governments
- Regional approach + co-ordination maritime-aeronautical operations

SOLAS
First version adopted in 1914, in response to the Titanic disaster, last
amendments in 2014
Tacit acceptance procedure: amendments entering into force unless

objections are received from an agreed number of Parties (since 1974)
- Specification of minimum safety standards for construction,
equipment and operation of ships
- Responsibility of Flag States for compliance of ships with standards
and requirements
- Contracting Governments inspecting ships of other Contracting
States: port State control
9 articles setting out general obligations and amendment procedure
Annex divided into 14 Chapters
STCW
Establishment of requirements and minimum Standards for Training,
Certification and Watch-keeping of seafarers
- Countries obliged to meet or exceed
Major revision with 1995 amendments, last edition in 2011
- Technical annex divided into chapters
- Code with mandatory (Part A) and recommended (Part B) technical
regulations
Simplified revision and updating: no need of full conferences
Requirement to provide detailed information to IMO:
- Measures to ensure compliance by flag States and port State control
- Education and training courses, certification procedures and other
implementation factors

Italian context overview
Ministries sharing competence on navigation
- 1) Infrastructure and Transports, 2) Work and social policies, 3) Health,
4) Economic development, 5) Environment and land and sea protection
Specific rules issued by Harbourmasters (sea-side activities) and Port
Authorities (land-side activities)
Navigation Code, approved and entered into force in 1942 (RD 327)
- Enriched and made executive in 1949 (DPR 631) for inland navigation
and in 1952 (DPR 328) for maritime navigation, updated until 2007
(Law 222)
Contents included into corresponding books:
- Administrative organization of the navigation
- Ownership and fitting out of the ship
- Obligations concerning the navigation
- Procedural dispositions

Responsibilities on safety: Classification Societies
Knowledge of ships’ characteristics prerequisite to prevent risks
Safety control under the responsibility of National Authorities often

delegated to specialized bodies: Classification Societies (CS)
First in the history Lloyd’s, today about 50 worldwide, in Italy RINA
Responsibilities of CS Set technical rules for construction

- Confirm that designs and calculations meet these rules
- Surveying and testing ships during construction
- Issue Conformity certificate
- Periodical survey to ensure continuous meeting of rules or to
facilitate adjustments instead: normal 5 years cycle (4 years in Italy)
including yearly, mid term and final checks
Responsibilities on safety: Register
Society for the Registry of Shipping set up in 1760
First Register of Ships issued by Lloyd’s in 1764 to give underwriters and
merchants idea of the conditions of vessels they insured and chartered
http://youtu.be/7gt8WCS3hN8
• Ship hulls graded by a scale (A being the best)
• Ship's fittings (masts, rigging and other equipment) graded by
number (1 being the best).
• Best classification A1 became international recognized expression of
ships’ quality taking into account construction materials, structural
requirements, engines, operation and maintenance of main and
auxiliary machinery, emergency and control systems
• Example: Lloyd's Register load line on hull of Cutty Sark
• Being in class means meeting all minimum requirements of Register

• Eventual downgrades preventing the ship from operating highest
classes services (e.g. passengers, dangerous goods, etc.)
Convenience flags
Nationality of ship-owner and carrier not coinciding with ship’s flag and
Register
Flags of Convenience
• Very low taxes
• Crew recruited regardless social security regulation with low salaries
• Absence or partial control of International conventions application
• Low safety guarantee = High accident risks
Second Registries
• Established by 11 European countries in period 1984-1998 in response
to development of convenience flags
• More light on globalization process of maritime industry
• Operators anyway following good practices not suffering commercial
disadvantages
Typology of ports
Landlord port
• Port Authority (PA) regulates port activities, holds decisions related
to use and disposal of infrastructures and space, giving them under
concession to private operators under fee
• Private operators develop superstructure and provide handling
equipment
Tool port
• PA manages infrastructure, heavy superstructures and finance
handling equipment
• Private operators undertake commercial services by PA’s means
Operating port, comprehensive port or service port
• PA manages space and land, owns infrastructure and superstructure
and exploits installations

Italian port system
International maritime jurisprudence
• PA = public body (by State, Region, Town) managing a port and
related fixed installations, directly or by concession to operators
• PA has the right to impose dockage charges, wharfage charges,
disembarking charges, etc.
Function of Italian Port Authorities
1. Land-use planning within port area: Port Master-plan adopted by
Port Committee identifying features, borders and functions of areas,
including industrial areas, boatyards, road and rail infrastructures
(approved by Ministry of Infrastructures and Transport and Region)
2. Promotion, planning, coordination and control of port operations and
development strategies, taking into account safety purposes
3. Ordinary and extraordinary maintenance of common infrastructures,
including sea bottoms
4. Entrustment of general services supply activities
5. Administration of areas and goods of public property

6
Environmental and energetic sustainability
References

Advantages and disadvantages of waterborne transport

• Low tare/load ratio
• Low influence of vessels’ constructions and maintenance costs
• Low value of resistance to motion due to low speed
• Small amount of energy per transported unit
• Low unit costs
• Low investment needs on infrastructure in case of traffic
increases

• Low frequency of services
• Low regularity of non liner services
• Risk of damages during handling and transport operations
• Strong dependence on fossil fuels

Marginal competitiveness of maritime transport sector
Typical values of convenience thresholds

• D1 = 500÷750 km
• D2 = 1200÷1500 km

Inertial trend of vessels’ market
Cyclical nature of shipbuilding

• Several years passing between order and delivery of a new ship
• Ships ordered when the market is perceived as strong often
delivered when the market may have become weaker

Ships’ flexibility vs. specialisation

Evolution of ships’ dimensions

Regulatory framework for SOx and NOx
MARPOL 73/78: Prevention of Pollution from ships
• Progressive limitation of Sulphur content
• NOx limits emissions vs. rotation speed
2005/33/EC: Sulphur content of maritime fuels

Maritime fuel with Sulphur content <0.1% by mass in EU ports

Maritime fuel management
Technologies to ensure compliance with Regulations
• Low Sulphur fuels such as marine gas oil
• Scrubber technology for after-treatment of exhaust gas using

seawater to wash out SOx: very expensive (2÷4 MEuro/vessel)
• Alternative fuels: LNG and, potentially biofuels and methanol
Solution depending on many factors

• Amount of time spent in ECA
• Fuel consumption
• Ships’ age

Emissions of CO2
CO2 Typical efficiency rate for different transport means

Positive effect of dimensions
Container ships: specific emissions of NOx, SOx and PM by class
[kg/day/TEU]
Cruise ships: specific emissions of NOx, SOx and PM by class

[kg/day/person]
Class Maximum Maximum
length [m] width [m]
A 215 25.0
B 294 32.3
C 300 43.0
D 366 49.0
E 400 60.5

Potential energy saving measures: wind energy

Potential energy saving measures: fuel cells

Ports sustainability issues
 Pollution
• Chemical (substances released in the air)
• Physical (noise)
 Congestion
• Traffic disturbances with operational landside and seaside delays
• Passenger flows (from Cruisers and Ro-Pax)
• Freight flows (from Ro-Ro, container, bulk cargo)
• Reduced quality of services
• Energy inefficiency and environmental pressure
 Constraints for a sustainable development

• Economy + Energy + Environment
 Port management models towards sustainable development

• Vision
• Spatial planning and infrastructure management
• Tendering and concessions
• Pricing policy
• Enforcing
Ports environmental priority
 Top
• Noise
• Air quality
 New entries
• Relationship with local community and
• Energy consumption

Development of ports environmental awareness

Best practices: RAILPORT Scandinavia (since 2002)
Rail shuttles operating between the port of Gothenburg (Sweden) and a
large number of freight terminals in Sweden and Norway
• Large volumes of goods reaching port's customers quickly and
efficiently
• 26 daily shuttles linking to 24 towns and cities
• Trebled volume of goods
• Container traffic on shuttles: ≈400,000 TEU/year (50% of port traffic)
• Rail tracks in Gothenburg port became the most densely used tracks
in Sweden
• Traffic reduction: 700 trucks
• Energy need reduction: 70%
• CO2 emissions saving: 50,000 t
• Reduced road congestion and accidents

Best practices: Cold Ironing
Shore connection providing electrical power to ships at berth while
main and auxiliary engines are turned off
• Average fuel consumption per ship: 411 millions t/year
• Average stay in ports: 100 days/year
• Auxiliary diesel generators primary source of air emissions from
ships in ports
• Cold ironing mitigating harmful emissions from diesel engines by
connection to a more environmentally friendly, shore-based source
of electrical power
• Supplied equipment: emergency, refrigeration, cooling, heating,
lighting, loading

Cold Ironing: implementation problems
Lack of standardisation
• Voltage (e.g. 110÷440 V) and frequency (e.g. 50÷60 Hz)
• Connectors and cables
Lack of power
• Variable loads: 200 kW (e.g. car carriers) to 20,000 kW (e.g. cruise
ships)

7
Maritime traffic control and routes management
References

Towards active safety measures
Historical main care in International rules and technical
agreements on maritime traffic
• Definition of passive safety technical standards
Progressively matured concepts (since ’80s)

• Constructive techniques of ships based on safety standards
• Increased professionalism of crews
• Need of further targeted actions
Present guiding idea

• Progressive achievement of higher safety by active measure:
dynamic control of navigation

Control of navigation
Avoidance of collisions
• Between vessels
• Between vessels and other obstacles
Collection and supply of information
• Safe and effective navigation
• Fluidisation of traffic
• Management of assistance and rescue services
External complexity factors
• Direction and speed of wind
• Height and length of waves
Internal complexity factors
• Typology and quantity of payload
• Curvature of Earth surface not allowing optical acquisition of ships’
reciprocal positions beyond terrestrial horizon

Communication systems and Vessel Traffic System
Communication systems during navigation basing on
principle of voluntariness
• Information flow starting from the ship
• Crew member dedicated to stay in touch with the mainland
• Supplied information on ship: identification, position, route, any
other useful for actions from mainland
Reference normative
• IMO resolution A.578 (20/11/1985)
• European COST Action 301 introducing Vessel Traffic System
(VTS) ”any service organised by a competent authority, with the
scope to increase safety and effectiveness of marine traffic control
and to safeguard the environment”
• Amendment to chapter V of SOLAS Convention by new
Regulation 8.2: “contribute to the safeguard of human life at sea, to
the safety and the effectiveness of the navigation and the protection
of marine environment”
International definition of VTS
IMO resolution A.578

- Very generic guidelines
- States free to establish VTS by means of dedicated authority “can be a
maritime governmental organisation, a port authority, a pilots
association or any combination of these services”
- Potential overlap of responsibilities between VTS managers and
ship’s command “it should be controlled that the VTS operation don’t
overlay the captain’s activity, by decreasing his/her responsibilities
about the safety of the ship”
- Passive interaction: by information and alerts
- Active interaction: by instructions and control
- Compulsory generalisation of VTS banned by Montego Bay
Convention (1982) ratifying the principle of navigation’s freedom
- Harbourmaster (by means of Coast Guard) using VTS for
navigation’s assistance, safety, rescue, maritime police, surveillance to
prevent and ban pollution of territorial waters (internal and marine)
Functions performed by VTS
Information supply
Useful for navigation: marine traffic situation and influencing factors
(e.g. meteo conditions, tides situation, possible congestion)
Traffic organisation
Separation schemes and common routes to prevent accidents: VTS areas
differentiated in zones and routes (ship expected to run on them)
Agreement on arrival and departure times
Between captain and authorities (informing about traffic situation)
Navigation assistance
Information on speed and direction of ship, identity and position of
nearby ships, advices on prevention of potential collisions
Integrated hardware-software in a VTS platform
Radar plants operated at short, medium and long distance
• Active communication between coast and ship
• Ideal triangle: ship + departure and arrival ports
• Tracking of ships
• Positions (NE), route and speed reported to traffic controller

Automatic Identification Systems (AIS)
Continuous identification and communication with ships
• Passive GPS transponders providing basic information (similar to
those mounted on planes)
• Activation of colloquium between land based VTS station and ships
navigating within 15 nautical miles covered by VHF radio link (direct
or by bridging on surrounding vessels)

Navigation with GPS: references and mapping
Reference ellipsoid 84 of World Geodetic System (WGS)
• Geographical coordinates supplied by GPS receiver not directly
usable on nautical maps built on different geodetic systems
(displayed corrections to be applied to GPS coordinates)
• Deviation between positions in reference systems: > 200 m
• Possibility to calculate ship’s route and actual speed (respect to sea
bottom)
• Automatic tracing of regression line
• Direction: Course Over Ground (COG)
• Speed: Speed Over Ground (SOG)
• Potential integrations
• Log devices providing with surface speeds and Doppler technology able
to calculate speed respect to bottom
• Round-compass or magnetic compass providing with real coordinates of
bow, able to automatic correction of deviations
• Continuous comparison between COG and SOG and information
deducing the characteristic elements: azimuth (set) and speed (drift)

Electronic nautical maps
Electronic reproduction of data archives
• Geographical coordinates of points useful to reconstruct profiles of
coasts and level and depth curves (isobar or bathymetric)
• Additional information for navigation: ports, lighthouses, buoys,
anchorage areas, commercial and touristic services
• Overlay of information from external sensors of position, speed,
direction and depth
• Integration with navigation equipment: positioning, log devices,
magnetic and round- compasses, radars, echo sounders, autopilots
Need to define an Electronic Chart Display System (ECDIS)
• Video interface showing all supplied information
• IMO A.817: resolution defining standard performances for
components and functions of ECDIS

Integrated navigation system
Planning and monitoring of routes
• Operators inputs coordinates of a series of waypoints
• Routes defined as a sequence of segments (legs) linking waypoints
• Continuous management of information collected from various
sources cooperating to optimal determination of position (route,
speed, other parameters useful for the navigation)
Global performances
• Integration of telecommunication systems
• Calculation of stability, arrangement, loading plans, bunker
• Command, automation and remote control of main engines,
generators and auxiliary equipment
• Integrity of hull, fire and other alarms
• Monitoring of anchors, chains, stern and thrusters
• Monitoring of past navigation
Autopilot
Tasks
• Drift compatible with route deviation, sea conditions and ship’s
arrangement: suitable counter-helm angle
• Avoidance of continuous correction of bow’s oscillations due to waves
• Ability to drive the ship along a fixed route by sensors of direction,
speed and position (Automatic Track Pilot)
• Possible subjection to magnetic or round- compass (round-pilot)
Key performances
• Routes planning: definition of waypoints and modes to run on routes
(speed, width of channel and dead band)
• Route keeping: manoeuvring band depending upon navigation areas
(straits, coast, open sea, oceanic) and precision (1/3 of seaway width ≈
1÷3 nautical miles) increasing with distance from final waypoint
• Keeping of route’s dead band: limited angular route’s variation
without manoeuvring the rudder (normally <1°) to limit wear and
speed reductions (normally about 1% for 1°)
Safety principle and safety distances
Principles of safety
• Ships proceeding along a route within a specific seaway
• Ship-ship distance compatible with stopping manoeuvre
• Sudden stop potentially due to voluntary/accidental causes (lack of
control, engine’s failure, etc.)
Factors affecting distance to stop
• Speed
• Gross tonnage
• Length
• Shape of hull
• Manoeuvrability
PIANC approximate formula
Da = 4 L (v / 2.5) 0.75 + L
Distance to stop Da [m], length L [m], speed v [m/s]

From distance to stop to separation distance
Factors affecting minimum separation distance Ds
• Meteo-marine events (e.g. waves, wind and/or stream in the same
direction of the ship), suggested correction: + 50%
• Errors in measurement of speed, suggested correction: +40%
• Additional safety correction: +20%
Resulting minimum separation distance
Ds = 2.52 Da
Direct calculation of separation distance
(alternative formula, higher values)
Ds = [10.08 (v / 2.5) + 1.8] L

Seaways capacity concept
Difficult calibration of models basing on real data
• Available for channels regulated by traffic separation schemes only
(e.g. Suez Channel, Messina Strait)
Capacity
• Maximum amount of vessels safely running in a generic section in a
defined time without generating congestion
Φ (v) = v / (Ds + τ v + L) [ships / h]
• τ = time interval between starts of deceleration of ship 1 and 2 (about
120 s) including time required by 2 to perceive need to decelerate due
to deceleration of ship 1
• On sight
• By means of equipment (radar or GPS)

Capacity calculated by typology of ship
Class Typology Speed Speed Length Class Typology Φ Φ
[knots] [m/s] [m] [ships/s] [ships/h]
Oil Tanker 15 7,72 200 Oil Tanker 0,0010 3,6
Full Container Feeder 18 9,26 150 Full Container Feeder 0,0012 4,2
A Ro-Ro 18 9,26 150 A Ro-Ro 0,0014 4,9

Lo-Lo 18 9,26 150 Lo-Lo 0,0014 4,9
Ro-Pax 20 10,29 150 Ro-Pax 0,0014 4,9
Ro-Pax 30 15,43 175 Ro-Pax 0,0016 5,9
B Fast Ferry 40 20,58 150 B Fast Ferry 0,0020 7,4
Super Fast Ferry 50 25,72 130 Super Fast Ferry 0,0024 8,7
• Effect of ship’s length > Effect of ship’s speed

• Constraints approaching ports
• Ships arriving and asking for entrance to port traffic control centre:
potential delaying condition for ships
• Random processes of arrival (Poisson distribution) and waiting basin
capable to host entering and exiting ships (circular area with radius
corresponding to stopping distance)

8
Port terminals: typologies and operation
References

Typologies of terminals
Passengers
Vehicles
• Ro-Ro and Ro-Pax without loading equipment
Container
• Lo-Lo with loading equipment
Solid bulk
• Corn, ore, coal, concrete, sulphur, etc.
Liquid bulk
• Liquefied gases, crude oil, refined oil products, edible oil, wine,
water, chemical products
Conventional for various goods
• Multipurpose
Specialised
• Fruit and vegetables, fish, etc.
Nautical recreation
Port and safety services
• Pilots, tugboats, fire brigade, coast guard, etc.

Passengers terminals
History
• Maritime stations
Today
• Mainly dedicated to cruise and Ro-Pax ships
Main functional components

• Services for passengers waiting and commercial activities
• Multiple check-in and security control (where required) stations
• Equipment for supporting boarding and disembarkation (lifts,
mobile fingers, tapis roulant, escalators, etc.)

Cruise ship

Cruise terminal in Barcelona

Ro-Pax terminal (maritime station) in Naples

Finger for boarding and disembarkation of
passengers in Barcelona Ro-Pax terminal

Ro-Ro / Ro-Pax terminals
Boarding of road and rail vehicles
• With passengers
• Without passengers
Functional components
• Limited loading/unloading equipment
• Extended parking area for vehicles to be boarded
• Independent lanes (e.g. different levels) for disembarkation flows
• Boarding ramp: 3.5÷4 m per lane
• Horizontal and vertical signage to discipline traffic and parking
• Peculiarities for rail ferries terminals

Functional section of a Ro-Ro ship

Modern Ro-Pax ship

Ro-Ro / Ro-Pax terminal in Olbia

Parking areas along the quays of Ro-Ro / Ro-Pax
terminal in Palermo

Rail ferries
Main function
• Continuity of railway service across seas, lakes and rivers
Ships equipped with tracks

• Normally 3 or 4 according to ship’s width
• Mainly located on the open deck
• Rarely located on upper decks reachable by lifts
• Fast and stable alignment between land based and ship’s tracks to
ensure safe Ro-Ro boarding and disembarkation
• Fast loading and unloading to ensure competitiveness with
alternative double transfer of passengers and loading units

Rail ferry with 3 Ro-Ro decks

Rail ferries terminals
Operational problems
• Variability of the arrangement (transversal and longitudinal
careering) due to temporary imbalance of loads during boarding and
disembarkation
• Partial compensation by progressive filling and emptying with
seawater of dedicated tanks
Best technical solution

• Slipway shaped quays morphologically symmetrical to ship’s profile
(bow or stern) where boarding and disembarkation is deployed
• Jutting out mobile bridge leaning on the ship

Container terminals
Largest volumes of traffic
• Transfer to/from land based (rail and road) transport systems
• Transhipment between transoceanic and feeder ships
Handled ships (potentially moored simultaneously along a quay)
• Length: 100÷400 m
• Payload:
• MIN: 300÷500 TEU (feeder carriers collecting and distributing in
restricted basins)
• MAX: 12,000÷15,000 TEU (last generation trans-oceanic ships)
Occupied areas increasing with dimensional and functional
development of terminals
• Longitudinal zone along the quay specialised for loading/unloading
and storage (width: 400÷800 m)
• Required average area/ship: 12÷24 ha

Trans-oceanic container ship

Historical development of container terminals
operational schemes

Typical scheme of a quay module for containers
transfer and storage

Gioia Tauro container terminal

Solid bulk terminals
Handled ships
• Equipped with big holds divided in compartments selectively used
Optimal location
• Sea-side factors: meteo exposition and depth of waters
• Land-side factors: accessibility and availability of storage area
Economies of scale for concentration of big quantities of a few products
• Areas and equipment management
• Personnel specialisation
Loading and unloading management
• Land based equipment: grabbers on wheels, lifted, with buckets,
moved by belts, hydraulic, etc. (flow rates: 700÷2,500 t/h)
• On-board equipment: series of cranes mounted on the open deck or
self unloaders (continuous loading/unloading systems)

Solid bulk ship handled by land based equipment

Solid bulk ship equipped with open deck mounted
cranes

Typical operational scheme of a solid bulk terminals
Average productivity: 8,000÷10,000 t/year/m of quays

Ravenna solid bulk terminal
Largest in Mediterranean area

• Quay length: 1000 m, 118 silos, 71 Warehouses
• Own railway yard
• Operational capacity: 400,000 t/year (fast load/unload of ships)
• Additional facilities: grinding, mixing and bagging raw matters for
cattle feed
Liquid bulk terminals
Handled ships
• Tankers
Typical carried products
• Refined oil products and liquefied gases
• Chemical products (ethylene, ammonia, etc.)
• Not dangerous liquids (wine, edible oil, water, etc.)
Oil products and liquefied gases typical operational scheme
• Approach bridge with road lane and pipe track
• Jetty head with loading arms, service area and building, small cranes,
fire towers and boardwalks: typical dimensions 25÷30 x 30÷40 m2
and maximum flow rate about 10,000 m3/h
• Berthing and mooring dolphins

Tanker ship for liquid bulk

Typical scheme of oil products or liquefied gases
terminal

General cargos (multipurpose) terminals
History
• Oldest conception terminals before strong trend to specialisation in
last decades
• Typology most usual in USA
• Piers orthogonal to quay-line
• Loading/unloading mainly with ship’s cranes
• Warehouses open on both sides to allow handling by tyres vehicles
• Typology most usual in Europe
• Cranes on the quays (with electric or steam engines)
• Warehouses along the quays
• Railway tracks nearby on the opposite side of warehouses
• Laying on jutting out embankments or docks with 100÷150 m of
maximum length

Modern multipurpose terminals
Today
• Since 1950 progressive increase of ship’s payload
• Warehouses located on progressively larger quays (25÷50 m)
Improvement of loading/unloading equipment: cranes with increased
capacity (≥3 t)
• Average productivity of 8÷20 t/h (40 t/h for pallets handling)
• Transfer capacity limited by big parts carried by semitrailers
requiring large parking areas and traffic lanes used both by trucks
and internal carriers
• Railway tracks normally located far away from the quay, along its
opposite side or between warehouses and storage areas
• Warehouses dimensioned basing on differentiated storage times of
various typologies of goods (typical average occupation rate: 1.5 t/m2)

General cargo (multipurpose) ship

Typical multipurpose terminal

Multipurpose terminals in the port of Trieste

9
Container terminals: loading units and handling
equipment
References

Containers: standard dimensions
Prismatic boxes to be opened at one end
Dimensions and other features defined by ISO
Typical (not exclusive) dimensions

• Width and height
• 8 feet (2,438 mm)
• Lengths
• 10 feet (2,991 mm) = 0.5 TEU
• 20 feet (6,058 mm) = 1 TEU
• 30 feet (9,125 mm) = 1.5 TEU
• 40 feet (12,192 mm) = 2 TEU
Twenty feet Equivalent Unit (TEU): reference unit for traffic volume
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KGAW6NuKdms

Containers: other standardised features
Multiple overlap
• On-board ships
• In storage areas
Resistance to static and dynamic loads and corresponding maximum
weights
Fastening and hooking/lifting modes
• Fastening to others
• Fastening to surfaces of vehicles
• Twist locks systems
• Hooking by handling equipment
• Spreader
• Piggy back

Dimensions and masses of containers ISO
Series 1 Type Width Height Length Mass
[mm] [mm] [mm] [kg]
1A 2,438 2,438 12,192 (40 feet) 30,480

1AA 2,438 2,591 12,192 (40 feet) 30,480
1B 2,438 2,438 9,125 (30 feet) 25,400
1BB 2,438 2,591 9,125 (30 feet) 25,400
1C 2,438 2,438 6,058 (20 feet) 20,320
1CC 2,438 2,591 6,058 (20 feet) 20,320
1D 2,438 2,438 2,991 (10 feet) 10,160
1E 2,438 2,438 1,968 7,110
1F 2,438 2,438 1,460 5,080
Series 2 Series 3
Type Width Height Length Mass Type Width Height Length Mass
[mm] [mm] [mm] [kg] [mm] [mm] [mm] [kg]
A 2,300 2,100 2,920 7,110 A 2,650 2,400 2,100 5,080
B 2,100 2,100 2,400 7,110 B 1,325 2,400 2,100 5,080
C 2,300 2,100 1,450 7,110 C 1,325 2,400 2,100 2,540
Classification of containers according to transported
goods
Group Goods/Type
I Generic load
II Thermic for isothermic goods
III Tanker for fluid goods
IV Unpackaged matters
V Platform
VI Removable
VII Air transport Type Features
a Closed with end door
b Open top
c Open sides
d Open top and sides
e Open top and sides with end door
f Low height
g Aired

Container closed with end door (Type a)

Container with open top (Type b)

Container with open sides (Type c)

Container with open top and sides (Type d)

Ventilation device for aired containers (Type g)

Main roles of containers
Advantages
• Uniformity, due to standardisation
• High loading capacity
• High manageability, thanks to suitable handling equipment
Consequences
• High attitude of containers to maritime, railway and road transport
• General attitude to the intermodality
• Benefits increasing with the carried quantities

Swap bodies: main features
Decomposable truck bodies
• Transferable to other transport modes with same manoeuvrability of
containers
Structure
• Loading floor conserving its rigidity also without swap body
• Swap body conserving it rigidity for protecting load inside
• Increased weight of structural elements
Standardised dimensions
• Differences swap bodies vs. containers
(-) No overlap requiring larger storage areas
(+) Decomposed, when empty (less volumes on-board vehicles)
Type Width Height Length Mass
[mm] [mm] [mm] [kg]
1 2,500 2,600 6,250 14,300
2 2,500 2,600 7,150 16,500
3 2,500 2,600 8,050 18,700
4 2,500 2,600 12,19214,000 33,000
Swap body

Pallets: main features
Most simple loading unit

• Loading floor with fixed dimensions
• Goods fastened on it
Bi-dimensional standardised dimensions: width x length

Type Dimensions [mm]
A 800 x 1,200
B 1,000 x 1,200
C 1,200 x 1,200
D 1,200 x 1,800
Not standardised
• loading height
• fastening mode

Loaded pallet type A

Semitrailers: main features
Structure containing goods + Rolling equipment and related devices
(brakes, suspensions, etc.)
+ Tractor = Complete vehicle
Dimensions and loads fixed by road traffic rules
Semitrailers vs. Containers

(-) Higher tare and dimensions
(-) Impossibility to overlap
(+) Manageability in Ro-Ro mode
Portainer
Port crane for container
• Moving containers from ship to quay and
back
• Installed along the quay-line
• Moving on rails in parallel to quay-line
• Propelled by electro-hydraulic engines
• High reduction ratios to achieve high
precision positioning
• Electrical supply ensured by big cables
loaded on motorised swifts rolling and
unrolling according to movements
• Containers’ lifting ensured by steel ropes
• Movement on top of ship by a jetty
structure
• Operational speeds and productivities:
12÷20 containers/h

Straddle Carrier
Steering trailer moving on tyres
• Able to lift on and move containers by
spreader
• Legs of portal
• So distant to let a container be carried
in-between them
• So high to allow stocking and taking
away of 2 overlap containers
• Position of container between the wheels
• Simple manoeuvres in restricted storage
areas with containers located along parallel
rows
• High weight and axle loads generating
relevant pressures on pavement
• Speed: 10÷20 km/h.
• Average steering radius: 15 m
Transtainer
Transfer container
• Portal crane covering
• One or more rows of stored
containers
• Parallel tracks
• Road lanes
• Lifting height ensuring to climb over
maximum storage height carrying a
container
• Moving on rails or on tyres
• Moving containers from and to storage
area and rail and road vehicles
• Speed
• Lifting: 8÷10 m/min
• Transversal scrolling: 20 m/min
• Longitudinal scrolling: 90 m/min
Fork lift truck
Two axles carrier
• Moving on steering wheels
with tyres
• Frontal hooking equipment
• Container carried transversally
• Container lifted for multiple
levels storage
• Limited visibility of the driver
• Back positioned centre of
gravity by means of
counterweight masses
• High tare
• Flexible for moving and
storing container

Reach stacker
Moving crane with frontal load
• Fixed arm equipped with a
spreader
• Higher speed and
manoeuvrability
• Reduced transversal
encumbrance during transport
thanks to possibility to run
with container centrally
positioned
• Possibility to manage oblique
manoeuvres thanks to
telescopic rotating spreader
• Average handling time: about
3 minutes

Semitrailer
Loading unit used as a handling equipment
• Moving away containers from quay towards storage areas
• 3 axles vehicle towed by a tractor
• Possibility to be used in multiple units (convoys)

Hooking from the top: normalised devices with
automatic or manual control
Spreader
• Able to handle containers only: forces transferred by structure of
units
• 2 T shaped arms axially extractable
• 4 ends equipped with twistlocks to fasten container during transfer
upon 45°rotation
• Twistlocks used also to ensure stable fastening of overlap containers
on vehicles and in storage areas (without 45°rotation)

Hooking from the bottom: normalised devices with
automatic or manual control
Piggy-back (from the bottom)
• Able to handle also swap bodies and semitrailers (use of external
arms to transfer forces)

Twistlock for container fastening

10
Dimensioning criteria of a maritime container
terminal
References

Container traffic and terminals design process
Transfer and storage facilities
• Relevant construction and management costs
Relevant economies
• Well dimensioned and structured facilities
• Precise operational schemes
Strategic attention to structural analysis
• Large variety of dimensions, equipment and structures
• Large set of terminals under operation
Design process
• Preliminary phase
• Structural and functional parameters of existing facilities to derive
parameters for rough dimensioning
• Definitive phase
• Detailed analyses to quantify dimensions, human resources and
technological equipment

Operation in a maritime container terminal
Key activities
• Container loading and unloading
• Waiting in sea-side and land-side (railways and/or roads) storage
areas
• Traffic control and management
Additional activities
• Custom operation in international traffic
• Filling and emptying of containers
• Technical assistance for maintenance of containers and handling
equipment
• Organisation of last mile services for pick up and final delivery of
container
Groups of design and operational parameters
Dimensional parameters
Length of quays
Storage areas Indoor
Outdoor
Total area
Equipment parameters
Portainer Portal
Non portal
Storage cranes
Other equipment
Ro-Ro ramps
Personnel Workers
Employees
Production parameters
Lo-Lo traffic Containers
TEU
Quantity
Ro-Ro traffic Containers
TEU
Quantity
Global traffic Containers
TEU
Quantity
Phases of preliminary design process
Surveys on operated terminals
• Available database Rilievo
DATA ON
terminal
dati
in
OPERATED
• Enquiries to operators servizio
TERMINALS
• Direct measurements
Sampling criteria to ensure quality of
derived design parameters Correlazioni
CORRELATIONS
• Dimensional and geographical variety

• Randomness of terminals’ selection
• Reliability of acquired data Parametri di
PRODUCTION Parametri
DIMENSIONAL
PARAMETERS
Produzione PARAMETERS
dimensionali
Analysis and correlations to provide
• Design elements: dimensioning and Parametri
EQUIPMENT
equipment parameters from di dotazione
PARAMETERS
production parameters
• Operational elements: production
parameters starting from dimensions DIMENSIONING
Dimensionamento
Capacità
OPERATIONAL
operativa
CAPACITY
and equipment parameters

Surveys and stochastic analyses on collected data
Results of surveys
• 1985: sampling of 40 European terminals (setup of method)
• 2008: sampling of 93 terminals inside 49 European ports (update and
validation of method)
Correlation (Linear regression model) between parameters

• within the same group
• between various groups
Stochastic test (Student)

• Required reliability: 95%
Survey 1985: correlations between pairs of parameters
N = number of observations R = correlation coefficients

A and B = parameters of linear regression for relevant relationships
(according to Students’s test) represented in a graph
Survey 2008: correlations between pairs of parameters
1 LUNGHEZZA BANCHINE —
2 AREA DI STOCCAGGIO TOTALE 0,892 —
3 AREA DI STOCCAGGIO COPERTA 0,518 0,963 —
4 AREA DI STOCCAGGIO SCOPERTA 0,621 0,971 0,921 —
5 GRU A PORTALE 0,745 0,925 0,228 0,032 —
6 GRU NON A PORTALE 0,217 0,410 0,118 0,827 0,000 —
7 GRU DI STOCCAGGIO 0,769 0,805 0,905 0,100 0,809 0,232 —
8 CARICATORI VARI 0,551 0,601 0,551 0,330 0,542 0,212 0,764 —
9 CONTAINER [numero] 0,349 0,925 0,966 0,825 0,935 0,815 0,844 0,777 —
10 CONTAINER [TEU] 0,706 0,910 0,207 0,134 0,770 0,224 0,823 0,559 0,999 —
11 CONTAINER [tonnellate] 0,513 0,945 0,983 0,173 0,947 0,462 0,936 0,738 0,999 0,996 —
Relevant relationships according to amount of reliable data
Dark green = dimensional parameters

Light green = equipment parameters
Red = traffic parameters

Total area vs. length of quays
Very high correlation
• 1985: R = 0.94
• 2008: R = 0.89
Moderate slope of regression line
• Transversal dimension of quay
variable by increase of mooring front:
20 ha/km (1985), 28 ha/km (2008)
Linearity of relationship
• Repetition of elementary modules
according to typical ship dimensions
(most frequent values: 200-400-600 m)

Storage area vs. total area
1985: high correlation

• R = 0.90 (1985)
Relevant incidence of storage areas

• 50÷100% of total area
Smaller areas for units’ transfers

and service lanes
• Used by road vehicles and
carriers

Indoor vs. total storage area
1985: parameters poorly related with other dimensional parameters

• Variable surface occupied by buildings
• Often hosting services unnecessary for the terminal’s operation
• R = 0.92
• Better representativeness of sampling
• Recent trend to standardisation of functions and dimensions

Total personnel (workers + employees) vs. portainers
1985: good correlation

• R = 0.81
Average need
64 persons/portainer
• Strong variability justified by
multitude of possible handling
schemes
Frequent operational scheme

- 2 portainers working on 1 ship
to reduce staying of ships in
port

Workers vs. portainers
1985: very good correlation

• R = 0.89
Frequent employment of
temporary workers
• Complication to
quantify working staff
Dramatic reduction of
maximum number of
workers/portainer
• 100 (1985)
• 10 (2008)

Workers vs. other handling equipment
1985: High correlation
R = 0.95
Average need
4÷16 workers / handling
equipment

Employee vs. workers

• R = 0.94
Typical ratio
• Employees/workers:
0.65÷0.70

Lo-Lo traffic: handled containers vs. TEU

• 1985: R = 0.99
• 2008: R ≈ 1.00
Homogeneous slope
• 1.59 TEU/container

Lo-Lo traffic: weight vs. TEU
• 1985: R = 0.99
• 2008: R ≈ 1.00
Average weight of 1 TEU
• 1985: 8.24 t/TEU
• 2008: 10.36 t/TEU
• Optimisation of containers filling
• Reduction of empty containers flows
Average weight
• 1985: P = 13.00 t/container
• 2008: P = 16.33 t/container
• Average payload (PL) = 11,5 t
• Average tare (T) = 2 t
• P = (PL + T) (100 – V) / 100
Average % of empty containers (V)
• 1985: V = 39.0%
• 2008: V = 23.2%
Ro-Ro traffic: weight vs. TEU
Low significance, mainly due to high heterogeneity of flows (1985)
Horizontal handling (Ro-Ro)

• 1.84 TEU/container (1.59 in Lo-Lo)
• 8.97 t/TEU (8.24 t/TEU in Lo-Lo)
Comparative lower incidence of empty containers in Ro-Ro traffic

Production of quays, total areas, storage areas
Production of quays
• 1985: 1350 t/year/m of quays
Production of total area

• 1985: 60,000 t/year/ha
• 2008: 96,000 t/year/ha
• Handling by portainer only
• Operational capacity drastically increased mainly thanks to space
optimisation
Production of storage area

• 2008: 12,500 TEU/year/ha

Storage capacity and occupation indicators
Yearly storage volume

• H = As x Ns x 2.438 x 365 [m3]
As = storage area [m2] Ns = number of storage levels
2.438 = container’s height [m] 365 = days/year
Yearly storage capacity
• C = H / (Vc + Va)
Vc = volume occupied by a TEU (36 m3)
Va = additional volume required for handling
Yearly occupation rate
• R = (Nc x Pm) / C
Nc = number of handled TEU/year
Pm = storage time of a container [days]
• Nc / Atot = (R x C) / (Pm x Atot ) = 12,500 TEU/ha (2008)

Productivity of personnel (workers + employees)
1985
• Range: 250÷2500 TEU / year / person
• Average value: 740 TEU / year / person

Productivity of handling equipment
Portainer
• 1985: 25,000÷30,000 TEU / year / portainer
• 2008: average value of 106,000 TEU / year / portainer
• Increase mainly due to technological development of cranes,
particularly thanks to handling aiding systems
Tyre tractors: straddle carriers, reach stackers, fork lift trucks

• 1985: Average value of 8,000 TEU / year / carrier

Coverage of quays by portainers
1985: average value of 1 portainer / 200 m of quays

2008: average value of 1 portainer / 86 m of quays
• Evolution depending upon increasing transversal dimensions of
ships and cranes, progressively handling containers on shorter
quay’s sections
• Reduction of longitudinal unnecessary movements
Coverage of total storage area by handling equipment
1985: average value of 1 carrier / 8,700 m2 of storage area

2008: average value: 1 carrier / 19,200 m2 of storage area

Optimal search of derived parameters
1) Input: definition of a single parameter
2) Output: determination in cascade of all other parameters
Indirect relationship between two parameters

• More statistically reliable than a direct one if
Rij x Rjk > Rik
• Incoherent data in relationship between i and k could misrepresent
direct correlation more than i-j and j-k relationships
Search of succession of links (s) maximising the regression coefficients

(Rs = max) in comparison with any other link for each of n potential
input parameter
• To be repeated n(n-1) times

Building of correlation graph
So many nodes as the parameters and so many links as the statistically
valid relationships between parameters
Search of optimal path

• Linking parameters with maximum product among correlation
coefficients: max ∏Rs
Association of a length to each link

• Ls = - log |Rs|
Search of minimum path between two parameters

• Not oriented graph: wide set of algorithms available to tackle it
• ∑ (- log |Rs|) = min (s = set of links along path)
Accessibility index
• Sum of lengths of links of minimum paths from a node to all others
• Ranking of most reliable (minimum accessibility index) parameters
Minimum paths from a traffic parameter

Dimensioning of port container terminals from a
traffic parameter (surveys 1985/2008)

Modular scheme of a port container terminal

Design criteria for a port container terminal
Separated lanes for tractors and trucks
• Prevention of traffic conflicts
Handling equipment in storage area
• Transtainers requiring investments justified by relevant flows
• Other carriers able to lateral and frontal handling
Storage area for empty and filled in containers
• Including lanes and parking for trucks and carriers
Indoor storage and consolidating are dimensioned taking into account
• Amount of containers
• Occupation index (e.g. 36 t/m2 for container filling, 18 t/m2 for
containers emptying)
Railway yard dimensioned taking into account
• Daily entering and exiting traffic
• Modal split of existing traffic
• Performances of transtainers
• Trains timetabling constraints

11
Design of a container transfer area
References

Features of lay-out transfer area
Affecting parameters
• Process to be managed
• Quantity of units to be handled in reference time
Operation along the quay
• Intermediate waiting phases
• Horizontal transfers, sometime long in time and distances
Differences of quantities
• 10÷1000 times on ships than on land based transport systems
• Depending upon traffic typology: distribution in basins (feeders) vs.
inter-continental
• Continuous ship’s loading and unloading over 24 hour
Factors affecting waiting in storage areas
• Different frequency of services
• Custom or commercial operations
• Operation of rail-road transfer not depending upon maritime flows

From container’s movements to transfer area lay-out
1) Vertical lifting up from laying surface

2) Horizontal transfer onto new laying surface
3) Vertical lifting down to new laying surface
Container temporary fixed to handling equipment
Transtainer capable to serve from the top

A) Storage areas
B) Railway tracks
C) Road lanes
Most simple transfer module

• Rectangular
• Divided into parallel areas dedicated to A, B and C

Port container terminals
Leghorn (Italy)
Long beach (USA)

Inland container terminals
Padua (Italy)
Pomezia (Italy)
1 00. 10 CANALETTA
BINARIO 6
BINARIO 5 ROTAIA GRU (10 0. 25)
ROTAIAGRU (100 .2 6) LINEADI DISPLUVIO
220 m BINARIO 4 240 m 260 m 280 m 300 m 320 m 340 m 360 m 360 m (100 .1 6)
1 00 m 120 m 140 m 160 m 180 m 20 0m
10 0.10 (1 00. 16 ) 20m 40m 6 0m 80 m
BINARIO3
BA SA M EN T I DE I CANALETTA
PA RA U RT I O LE OD I NA MIC I
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10 0. 03
10 0. 00 100 .0 0 CANALETTA
10 0.10 LINEA DIDISPL UVIO

IMP IANTO DISOLEAZIONE
E ADEGUAM ENTO IMPIANTO
LIQUIDI A.D.R. 1 00 .0 0 ANTINCENDIO
1 00.
10
1 00 .0 0 BINARIO 2
(P. F.10 0. 00) CANALETTA
(10 0.00 ) (100 .0 0) (1 00.0 2) (99.98 ) (99. 96 ) (10 0. 00) (9 9. 97 ) (99 . 95)
100 m 1 20m
BINARIO1 14 0 m
160 m
180m 200 m 220 m 24 0 m 2 60 m 280 m
100 .0 0 0m 20 m 40 m 60 m 80 m
100
300 m
(1 00.01 .0 0
10 0.10 )
320
BA SA ME NT I DE I m
PA RA U RT I O LE OD I N AMI C I
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3 40
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1 00. 00 (1 00
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CANALETTA
SCAL AM ETALL ICA
DI ADEGUAM ENTO IMPIANTO
AC CESSO ALTE TTO 10 0. 10 LINE A DIDISPLUVIO10 0. 10 ANTINCENDIO 38
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. 10
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ADEG UAM ENTO

QUAD RO ELETTRICO
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DI
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SCAL AMETALL ICA

DI
AC CESSO ALTE TTO
ADEGUAMENTOIM PIANT O
ANTINCE NDIO

Criteria for dimensioning and selection of equipment
Standard input data for transfer area
1) Quantity n of containers to be handled and stored
2) Maximum and average speeds of transtainer and pick-up device
(spreader) in 3 main directions
3) Pick-up and release times by spreader
Search of most effective lay-out capable to handle with minimum cost

requested quantity of units (n) in reference time
• Typical constrained optimisation problem
• Solution basing on functional analysis of process and costs
Kinematics and geometry restricting optimal solution field
• Transtainer width
• Times for transversal movements
• Times for longitudinal movements
• Not usable surface (e.g. area of mobile legs of transtainer)

Operational assumptions
a) Number of tracks under transtainer = Number of rows in storage
area
b) Width of central road lane not variable with the width of
transtainer
c) All arriving containers moved to storage area initially completely
free
d) Operational sequence
1. Start from an extremity of storage area
2. Longitudinal movement Δl for any transversal transfer
3. Movement back to starting point with a single movement once
all containers have been transferred
e) Elements not depending upon width of transtainer not taken into
account for calculations
• Pick-up and release times
• Lift-up and lift-down times
• Various intervals between operations

Input and output parameters
Inputs
Vl and Vt = maximum longitudinal and
transversal speeds
V*l and V*t = average longitudinal and
transversal speeds
Outputs
Tm = time required to transfer n container
lp = width of transtainer
A = surface of rectangular transfer area
M = capacity of containers to be located in
storage area

Calculation scheme
Tracks = Storage rows = 1
tm1 = n (l / Vl* + 2L / Vt*) + n l / Vl

lp1 = 2f + L
A1 = n l lp1
M1 = 2n (on 2 levels)
Tracks = Storage rows = c
tmc = n / c {l / Vl* + [2cL + 2m=1c-1 m (L1+L2)]

/ Vt*]} + n l / c Vl
lpc = lp1 + (c – 1) (L1+L2)
Ac = n / c (l lpc)
Mc = 2n (on 2 levels)

Choice of number of tracks and storage rows
Area/container (more than linear trend)
• From c = 1 to c = 2: -30%
• From c = 2 to c = 3: -8%
• From c = 3 to c = 4: -5%
Width of transtainer (linear trend)
Times of horizontal movements (more than linear

trends) + ≈2 min/container for pick-up, vertical lift and
release
• From c = 1 (1.7+2 min/container = 16.2 containers/h)
• To c = 4 (4.4+2 min/container = 9.4 containers/h)
• > 20 containers/h not compatible with maximum
working intensity of crane’s operator
Best solutions: 2÷3 tracks and rows

Representation of operational sequences
Values fluctuating according to
market trends and logistics
Trend to linearity due to

filtering effects
• Natural trend of operators to
slow down working rhythm
in case of reduced flows
• Need to perform parallel
administrative actions
• Regularity of scheduled
activities (e.g. train arrivals
and departures)

Check of operational conditions
Operational capacity of transtainer
• Period t3–t0: W  [(a0–a3) + (p3–p0)] / (t3–t0)
• Period t4–t3: W  [(a4–a3) + (uc4–uc3)] / (t4–t3)
• Period t7–t4: W  [(a4–a7) + (p6–p3)] / (t7–t4)
• Period t10–t7:W  [a7 + (p6–p10)] / (t10–t7)
• Possible additional traffic handled by integrative equipment (e.g.
tyre carriers) capable to manage quantities between W and 2W
Transferred containers
• CM = (a0–a3) + (a4–a3) + (a4–a8) + (p6–p0) + (p6–p10)
Storage area
• A  (a + p)max s1c in the period t11–t0
Parking area for trucks

• P  [(ec+ev) - (uc+uv)]max s1a

Quantification of personnel
Workers (nadp)
• Crane operator
• 2 train’s checkers
• Operators for additional handling equipment
• Surveillance at gate
• Maintenance
• Working time: tpp = nadp (t11–t0)
Administrative personnel (Employees) (nada)
• Working time proportional to number of handled containers and
average time td required to process accompanying documents
tpa = td [(p3–p0) + (p6–p10) + (a0–a3) + (a4–a3) + a4]
Total Personnel
Nad = (tpp+tpa) k1 k2 / Taa
• Taa = average yearly working time per personnel unit
• k1 and k2 = additional factors for absences and management personnel
Flexibility ensured by extra working times

Quantification of energy consumption
Handling of containers
• Depending upon the product n s r
• s = average length of container’s displacement
• r = unit motion resistance
Internal and external lighting

• Minimum lighting level in external areas = 40 lux
Summer and winter air conditioning in offices and other buildings

12
Maritime transport in intermodal chains
References

Intermodal chain
Involving movement of goods, documents and money
• Responsibility of various entities or organizations
• International jurisdiction
• Public-private sectors integration
• Possible figures
• 20+ handoffs
• 25+ documents
• 200+ data elements

Problems of single modes
Road
• Relevant externalities
• Noise, congestion, pollution, accidents
• External costs: 24 € / t x km
Rail
• Operational constraints
• Capacity (shared lines), low commercial speed (low priority),
timetabling (slots), gauge restrictions
• External costs: 12 € t x km
Sea
• Land side accessibility
• Low speed
• External costs: 4 € t x km
Air
• Expensive
• Weight and size restrictions
• Cargo typologies restrictions
Concept of intermodality
Characteristic of a transport system whereby at least two different modes
are used in an integrated manner in order to complete a door-to-door
transport sequence
• Global approach enabling to use rationally transport capacity
• Better use of railways, inland waterways and sea transport not able to
provide individually a door-to-door service
• Load of goods in standard loading units
• Transfer of loading units among various modes
• Separate negotiation with each company
• Need of coordination among companies not aware of the delays of
other companies

Concept of multimodality
Movement of cargo from origin to destination by several modes where
each of these modes have a different transport provider or entity
responsible, but under a single contract
• Single set of documents from origin to destination

• Individual contract responsibility of movements for each transport
mode
• Shipping company handling possible delays in all modal legs
• Carrier liable for door to door transport possibly managed by
various modes

Problems of intermodal transport
Friction costs
• Change of mode involving change of system rather than just
technical transshipment
Potential inefficiencies
• High prices
• Long journeys increasing delays and decreasing reliability
• Low quality service
• Limitations of goods typologies
• Risk of cargo damages
• Complex administrative procedures
• Different management cultures
• Technical incompatibilities: signalling, gauges, etc.
Policy and planning instruments for intermodal
transport
Combined transport
• Intermodal transport with major part of journey by rail, inland
waterways or sea
• Initial and/or final legs carried out by road as short as possible
• Accompanied transport known as rolling road
• Unaccompanied transport changing from one mode to another one
using a purpose-built terminals
Comodality
• Notion introduced by EU in 2006
• Use of different modes on their own and in combination to obtain
optimal and sustainable use of resources

European policy and planning instruments for
intermodal transport
1997
• EC communication concerning general strategy and specific actions
for intermodality
2001
• EC White Book
2006
• Mid term review of EC White Book
2007
• Action plan on freight and logistics
2009
• Communication 279/4 on loading unit standardisation and
investments planning

Typical cycle in intermodal transport
Terminal
• Essential physical and functional connection between 2 modes
From origin to Terminal 1
• Filling and delivery of loading unit
• Pick up of loading unit and positioning on road vehicle
• Transfer to Terminal 1
From Terminal 1 to Terminal 2
• Transfer of units from road to main section mode (railway/waterway)
• Running of main section and transfer to Terminal 2
From Terminal 2 to destination
• Pick up of loading unit from Terminal 2 to road mode
• Transfer to destination (storage, production, commercialisation
location)
Typical operations in intermodal transport
Stocking
• Departing/arriving unpackaged goods
• Full loading units
• Empty loading units
Handling of loading units

• From/to road, railway and waterway vehicles
• Between stocking and/or production areas
Various operations on loading units

• Initial filling and final emptying
• Intermediate handling
• Control of physical features (weight, temperature, etc.)

Infrastructures for intermodal transport
Auto-port
• Pick up, stocking and delivery of road loads
• Absence of added value logistic services
General warehouse
• Stocking and handling of food products
• Filling, emptying, packaging and control of loads
Logistic platform
• Filling, emptying, groupage and other services by typology of goods
Freight centre
• Handling, stocking and forwarding of wagons for block trains
Intermodal terminal
• Transfer of loads from railway to road and back
• Vehicle parking and facilities for loads handling
• Absence of added value logistic services

Services for intermodal transport
Transport services
• Railway stations
• Terminal containers
• Parking
• Handling, maintenance and assistance to vehicles and loading units
Loading services
• Stocking
• Custom
• Condition of load and related activities
Services to people
• Commercial activities and public services
• Banks
• Restauration
General services
• Direction
• Cleaning
• Control
Actors and key roles in intermodal transport

Factors increasing competitiveness of intermodal
transport
Reduction of costs of main section
- Economies of scale
Reduction of transfer costs
• Standardisation of the loading units
Increase of costs of secondary sections
Upgrade of infrastructural system
• Intermodal terminals
• Dedicated railway lines and time slots
Adoption of specific normative
• Financial or regulatory incentives

Historical development of intermodal transport
Origin Maturity
Early ’60 Late ‘90
• Ideal-X (1956)

Dimensions and trends of world containers flows
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F-ZskaqBshs

Trends of European rail-road intermodal traffic

Generalised costs formalisation
Defined quantity of goods from an origin to a destination
• Reference to a single transport unit (e.g. a container)
• At least one maritime section
• Land based sections
• Required intermodal transfers
Generalised costs perceived by the customers
C g   (aTi wTi )   (bMj wMj )   (dUk wUk )

i j k
• a, b, d: costs to use the single transport services: land based (T),
maritime (M) and intermodal (U)
• w terms representing cost coefficients related to reliability of single
transport services

Maritime section
GMj LMj
bMj   Mj LMj 
VMj
• βMj [Euro/km]: unit cost of transport on maritime section j
• LMj [km]: distance along maritime section j
• GMj [Euro/h] = g r / tMj: cost due to immobilisation of capital g
corresponding to transported goods; before trade of goods
(approximately the duration of transport) such capital generates a
cost, to be financed, depending on discount rate r (approximately
a credit transfer according to simple interest law) by
immobilisation time tMj
• tMj = LMj / VMj [h]: capital immobilisation time corresponding to
value of goods
• VMj [km/h]: commercial speed corresponding to maritime section j

Relevance and potential applications
Cost coefficients
• Costs due to level of service supplied by each transport mode
corresponding to perceived reduction of value of transported
goods due to low quality of transport service itself
• Quantification influenced by subjective perception factors
• Possible dependence upon objective parameters (e.g. delays, pick-
up and delivery times, damages during transport and transfers)
Generalised cost use

• Estimation of modal shares of maritime services for specific
typologies of freight and transport units
• Society’s viewpoint: basis of a rational planning of infrastructural
and technological projects
• Customer’s viewpoint: choice of cheapest logistics (transport +
additional services) among market alternatives
Case study DHL: introduction
Actors involved
• Shipper: company located in Southern Italy
• Forwarder: DHL Express - Freight Division
• Operators: various
Route
• From customer site (Bari hinterland)
• to London hinterland
• By Road – Rail – Short Sea Shipping - Road
• Type of goods: general cargo

Case study DHL: needs and solutions
Customer
• Company located on South Italy producing assets in part delivered
to the UK market
• Need of a complete cargo service to deliver goods to England
Difficulty using traditional road transport modality
• Road operators usually not offering domestic and international
transport together
• Unbalanced traffic North - South - North
Solution proposed by intermodal operator
• Use of same load unit managing domestic and international
shipments and minimizing empty transport
• Avoidance of accompanied transport (driver not on board)
• Optimization of time and resources

Case study DHL: economic aspects
Main drivers making intermodal solution cheaper than all-road one
• Cost of rail traction lower than road traction for distances > 900 km
• Better level of service in terms of safety (accidents) and security
(thefts) in comparison with road transport
• Door-to-door transport via efficient ports

• Reliability and punctuality
• Environmental friendliness

Case study: DHL Freight
Commercial agreement basing on following steps
• Pick-up (customer site) and road trip to rail terminal in Bari (IT)
• Handling and transfer to rail unit
• Main haulage by rail: Bari – Zeebrugge (BE)
• Ro-Ro transfer
• Haulage by ship: Zeebrugge (BE) – Hull (UK)
• Unloading in Hull (UK) (port close to final destination area)
• Delivery by road from port
• Return of empty containers to port for potential reuse to different
destinations

13
Dimensioning criteria of passengers, Ro-Ro and
bulk terminals
References

Passenger terminals features
Layout
• Consisting of individual berths working in parallel possibly
differentiated according to the various types of ships
• Berths architectural features affecting organization of passenger
flows

Passenger terminals performances
Indicators
• Length of queues at passenger’s services
• Waiting time for passengers
• Tracking of passenger flows
• Practical capacity of terminal
• Effectiveness of passengers’ services
• Total time of passengers’ service processes
• Identification of congested areas
Calculation methods
• Analytical methods (e.g. queuing theory)
• Asynchronous event based simulation
• Synchronous microsimulation

Flow diagrams
Stepwise functional flows
• Services and operation
• Mutual influence of individual services in passenger processing
chain
• Blocks/vectors diagram

Queuing theory
Calculated indicators according to arrival rates

Asynchronous event-based simulation
Asynchronous event-based simulation: operation and waiting phases
Layout and microsimulation results

Waiting areas
Pedestrian Levels Of Services (LOS) sizing areas and corridors
(by Fruin J. Pedestrian Planning and Design)
• LOS = A (most commodious): larger, more comfortable, more
expensive facilities
• LOS = F (crowded to breakdown): smaller, less comfortable and
less expensive facilities
• Normal design LOS = C
• Balancing passenger comfort and capital expenditure
• Appropriate design objective for peak sailing conditions
• Seating (without tables): 13 ft2/ passenger
• Standing and queuing:
• Walking:

Fluctuating flows and passengers arrival patterns
Design event methodology
• 85th percentile busiest day in design year
• 55th busiest day in design year: 365 – (0.85 x 365) = 55
Commuter routes
• Busy year-round with minimal increases in flows during peaks
• Passengers riding on a regular basis, familiar with terminals
• Arriving close to scheduled departure time resulting in short waiting time
Recreational routes
• Large increases in flows peaks
• Passengers riding occasionally, unfamiliar with terminals
• Arriving prior to scheduled departure time resulting in long waiting time
Typical arrival patterns
Turnstile performances

Ro-Ro terminals features
Main requirements and trends
• Integration of Ro-Ro traffic into logistical transport chains
• Fixed departure times and appropriate sailing frequencies
• Growing dimensions and speed of vessels
• Adaptation of shipborne and dock side ramp systems to high
performances loading and unloading processes
• Mix of accompanied and unaccompanied traffic
• Sea-side and land-side external factors playing a relevant role in
design criteria
• Need of systematic design approach basing on analysis of relevant
internal and relevant factors

Ro-Ro terminals design elements
Main functional and influencing factors

Layout design
From functional elements to layout design
• Optimal compromise between minimum consumption of areas
and minimum mutual obstacles of vehicles cargo handling systems
• Roads and lanes mostly arranged to separate internal traffic and
delivery/pick-up traffic
• Need of effective traffic management
• Good practice criteria

1. Functional fields with handling facilities near Ro-Ro berth
2. Short distance between terminal and Ro-Ro garages
3. Possibility to operate from bow, stern and sides for multi-door ships
4. Possibility to reload wagons of combined traffic nearby garages
5. Central intermodal station for combined traffic and pre-storage area
6. Warehouses equipped to form and strip units in border position
7. Transfer sheds of long term distribution in border position
8. Facilities not belonging to cargo handling processes in border position
9. Area between ship berth and Ro-Ro garages free of any stationary
installation
Example of modular layout
Extension
• 9.5 ha
Operational capacity
• 1.1 Mt/year

Design of new Ro-Ro terminal in Civitavecchia
Upper level
• + 9.50
Lower level
• + 2.50

Solid bulk terminal design process
Analysis of operating terminals by collection of key parameters
• 49 terminals Worldwide handling coal and/or iron ore
• Variety of functions (input/output) and dimensions (size, traffic)

• Collection of data (2008)
• Traffic [Mt/year]: from websites, reports, interviews, port authorities
• Equipment: machine types and capacities from terminal websites,
brochures, interviews or manufacturers
• Dimensions: quay length and stockyard areas measured using Google
Earth

Quay length vs. annual traffic
Emerging results
• Length factor (fql) = traffic /
quay length
• Considerable variability
• Import terminals
• Length factor mostly
under proposed limits
• Quays longer than
expected
• Undersized quays using
suggested values
• Export terminals
• Higher quay length factor
within proposed limits

Seaside equipment vs. annual traffic
Stochastic ships arrival process
• Seaside machines not able
to operate continuously
• Seaside equipment
installation factor (fs) =
installed capacity / needed
capacity to handle annual
traffic with machines
operating (365 x 24 h/year)
• Same method applied for
landside equipment,
stacking and reclaiming
equipment
• fs measuring over-
dimensioning of installed
equipment

Landside equipment vs. annual traffic
Process and indicators
similar to seaside
equipment

Storage factors vs. annual traffic
Stockyard sizing essential to realize a buffer compensating input and
output flows
• Insufficient storage capacity causing either bulk ships or industrial
clients waiting for cargo
• Storage factor (s) = annual traffic / stockyard area
• Different s values suggested due to different density

• Coal: 15÷25 t/m2/year
• Iron ore: 30÷40 t/m2/year
Stacking and reclaiming equipment vs. annual
traffic
Process and indicators similar to seaside equipment
Stacking equipment Reclaiming equipment

Resulting average equipment installation factors

Equipment availability
Essential role conditioning operation and design process
• Only approximately known due to operation in hostile ambient
• Lack of skilled maintenance personnel
• Need to start design process with expert estimation of each piece of
equipment
• Examples in a real case

Application of design process: requirements
Design requirements for an import terminal
Parameters to determine
• Number of berths: 2 (utilisation rate = 0.34)
• Crane unloading capacity: 3,300 t/h (ship efficiency factor = 0.5)
• Train loading machine capacity: 2,900 t/h
• Stockyard area: 40 ha (storage time: 0,2 years)

Application of design process: resulting scheme
Import
terminal

14
Ports’ morphology and design criteria
References

Port’s basin
Protected sea area
• Providing suitable and safe hospitality to vessels = Sea-side of port’s
infrastructure
• Integrated with Land-side facilities (terminals) for goods and
passengers
Position respect to coastline
• Natural
• Semi-natural
• Artificial
Morphology
• Channel ports
• Round ports
• Comb ports
Functions
• Commercial
• Military
• Navigation only (Refuge)
Channel port
Gioia Tauro (Italy – South Tyrrhenian Coast)

Round port
Ancona (Italy – Middle Adriatic Coast)

Comb port (1)
Brindisi (Italy – South Adriatic Coast)

Comb port (2)
Livorno (Italy – North Tyrrhenian Coast)

Functional scheme of port’s facilities

Movements of ships in ports
Phases
1) Approach (entering) or moving away (exiting) to/from the mouth
normally deployed between roadstead and port’s basin
2) Navigation along the channel
3) Evolution
4) Approach (entering) or moving away (exiting) to/from the quay
5) Mooring (entering) or unmooring (exiting)

Approaching/moving away to/from the mouth
Max speed: 20 kn ≈ 10 m/s

Navigation along the channel

Evolution
Max speed: 0.5÷1.0 degree/s

Approaching/moving away to/from the quay

Mooring/unmooring
Time: 10÷12 min

Mouth design
Protection by direct wave motion
• Located on most protected side from wind and waves motion
• Protection by barbicans, dams, breakwater
Dimensions
• As small as possible for limited internal waves propagation
(maximum height depending upon dimensions of ships, traffic
intensity, depth of water, speed of streams < 3 kn)
• As large as possible for safe entering and exiting of design ship
• Width = 0.7÷1.0 L (L = length of design ship)

Evolution basin design
Purpose
• Turning area for approaching quays direction
Location
• Central areas of port’s basin
• Protected by winds and waves
Extension
• Dimensions and manoeuvrability of design ship
• Speed and required assistance (tugboats, etc.) of manoeuvre
Minimum diameter (D)
• Manoeuvres without use of bow thrusters or tugboats: D = 4L (3L in
optimal conditions of protection by winds and waves)
• Manoeuvres supported by tugboats: D = 2L (1.6L in optimal
conditions of protection by winds and waves)
• Manoeuvres supported by bow thrusters: D = 1.5L
• Rotation manoeuvres around fixed points (bollards) supported by
tugboats: D = 1.2L

Quays design
Area to be dredged up around the Minimum dimensions of multiple
quay side by side mooring quays
Separation between two ships Minimum width of multiple linear

moored along a quay mooring quays
Minimum width of lateral quays

15
Sea-side port capacity calculation
References

Relevance of sea-side ports’ capacity and
performances of assessment methods
Planning of infrastructural investments
Measurement of quality of services
Identification of possible bottlenecks
• Effects in terms of delays and economic consequences of congestion
Capacity methods and models requirements
1. Reproduction of port’s operation
2. Relationship between amount of movements and traffic
perturbations (delays generated by conflicts)
3. Quantification of occupation rate and relationship with quality of
service

Combinatorial method: procedural approach
Assessment of shared resources (internal routes)
• Potential conflicts to be managed to ensure quality of service
Schematisation of ships routes
• From port mouth to quays and back, partially or totally independent
• Separation rules along routes
• Port’s basin morphology
Main factors affecting capacity
• Time distribution of entering and exiting movements
• Assignment of ships to quays and mouth location
• Availability of pilots
• Availability of tugboats
Methodological steps
• Schematisation of port’s basin
• Identification of entering and exiting routes
• Definition of compatibility/incompatibility conditions
• Calculation of running times along routes
• Calculation of port’s capacity
Combinatorial method: hypotheses
Constant probability of arrivals
• Traffic defined in terms of number of movements/route (Array P) in
reference time T
Port’s basin morphology
• Routes and reciprocal compatibility/incompatibility represented in
matrix C = P x P
• Compatibility between routes without common sections, allowed to be
run simultaneously
• Incompatibility between routes due to: a) common final/initial sections,
b) common middle sections, c) same path but opposite versus
• Allowance of simultaneous movements depending upon prevention
of risks during manoeuvres, increasing with ships’ dimensions and
decreasing with manoeuvrability

Intermediate indicators
Average number of possible simultaneous movements
n = N2 / Σijmij
• ni = number of ships on route i
• nj = number of ships on route j
• mij = ni x nj (if i and j are incompatible)
• mij = 0 (if i and j are compatible)
• N = total number of movements during T
Average port’s utilisation time

t = Σijmijtij / Σijmij
• tij = time during which the route j may not be run because a ship is
moving on the route i (interdiction time)

Synthetic indicators
Delay rij = mijtij2 / 2T
• Caused by ni movements on nj movements due to conflicts with
interdiction time tij
Total occupation time B=Nt/n
Total delay R = Σijrij / n
Regular Utilisation Rate UR = B / T

• Regular running on routes only
Total Utilisation Rate UT = (B + R) / T

• Regular running + delays due to conflicts

Application of the combinatorial method
Graph of routes
7
6 8
9
1
3 4  1 0
5 E
2
D  1 1
C

1 2
B  B A N C H IN A
N O D O E B A C IN 0
A D I E V O L U Z IO N E
0 1 3
0 200
m
N
Civitavecchia (2004)
Barcelona (2015)

Utilisation of routes
Distribution of movements on routes
27
28
29
7
20 30
26 8
6
23 9 31
21
19 24 25 32
1 22 5
3 4
E 33
10
2
 11 34
B 35
 D
14  12 BANCHINA
A C
NODO E BACIN0
DI EVOLUZIONE
0 13
0 200
m
N
Civitavecchia (2004)

Results: utilisation rates vs. reference times
Daily and partial values of utilisation rates
[h]

Utilisation rates vs. traffic density
Values of utilisation rates according to traffic increase

Utilisation rates and residual capacity in Med ports
Present total utilisation
Trieste Trieste
Savona Savona
Salerno Salerno
rate (Ut) Ravenna
Piombino
Ravenna
Piombino
• 56% of Med ports:

Palermo Palermo
Napoli Napoli
Ut<0.50
Livorno Livorno
La Spezia La Spezia
Gioia Tauro Gioia Tauro
• 21% of Med ports:

Genova Genova
Civitavecchia Civitavecchia
0.50<Ut<0.75
Catania Catania
Cagliari P. Canale Cagliari P. Canale
Cagliari P. Vecchio Cagliari P. Vecchio
• 23% of Med ports: Brindisi
Bari
Brindisi
Bari
Ut>0.75 (serious Ancona
Limassol
Ancona
Limassol
congestion) Marsaxlokk
Capodistria
Marsaxlokk
Capodistria
Potential traffic
Fiume Fiume
Spalato Spalato
Salonicco Salonicco
increase (no change in Smirne
Mersin
Smirne
Mersin
fleet composition and

Beirut Beirut
Ashdod Ashdod
Haifa
routes utilisation) to get

Haifa
El Dekheila El Dekheila
Alessandria Alessandria
higher Ut La Goulette - Rades La Goulette - Rades
Algeri Algeri
Tangeri Med II Tangeri Med II
• 0.75 (green segments) Tangeri Med I
Valencia
Tangeri Med I
Valencia
• 1.00 (additional yellow

Barcellona Barcellona
Fos Fos
segments)
Marsiglia Marsiglia
0 0,25 0,5 0,75 1 0% 100%

PROJECT WORK 1 – 04/03/2019
Effect of waves’ motion on the hulls
Assignment
Calculate the effects of wave motion on the hull of a vessel of fixed dimensions, when the wavelength is of the same
order of magnitude of vessel’s length.
The vessel is alternatively in conditions of central support and of support at both ends.
In both cases the critical section is the central one.
Parameters to be calculated for both conditions:
a) Moment of inertia of central resistant section, hypothesizing the vessel such as a tubular steel beam with constant
rectangular section;
b) Minimum required thickness for the critical section;
c) Coefficient of elasticity K (ratio between load and maximum drop);
d) Resonant frequency f = 1/2π(√K/m), where m is the mass of the vessel.
For the vessels the following data can be assumed:
Ship 1
• Length L = 200 m
• Width b = 30 m
• Height h = 20 m
• Mass m = 100,000 t
Ship 2
• Length L = 100 m
• Width b = 20 m
• Height h = 16 m
• Mass m = 70,000 t
Common data
• Steel acceptable strength σ = 100 N/mm2
• Steel elasticity modulus E = 210,000 N/mm2

Extreme cases

Calculation scheme

Moment of inertia

Minimum required thickness

Coefficient of elasticity

Resonant frequency

Planning of a maritime service
Assignment
For 3 different routes between two ports P1 and P2 calculate, for an assigned container ship, the following parameters:
A) Length of possible sea routes (shortest and alternative in case of bad weather conditions) in nautical miles;
B) Carrying capacity of the ship [TEU];
C) Time required for a round trip made up of:

• t1 = ship loading time in port P1 by means of 2 portainers (20 containers/h/crane) (hypothesis: initially empty ship)
• t2 = manoeuvring time from quays to port mouth (length L1 = 1000 m; manoeuvring speed v1 = 3 kn),
• t3 = travel time from port mouth to roadstead (length L2 = 3000 m; manoeuvring speed v2 = 6 kn),
• t4 = travel time from roadstead of port P1 to roadstead of P2 (speed v3 = cruising speed of ship),
• t5 = total ship unloading time in port P2 by means of 2 portainers (20 containers/h/crane)(hypothesis: finally empty ship)
• t6 = ship loading time in port P2 by means of 2 portainers (20 containers/h/crane),
• t7 = manoeuvring time from quay to port mouth (length L1 = 1000 m; manoeuvring speed v1 = 3 kn),
• t8 = travel time from port mouth to roadstead (length L2 = 3000 m; manoeuvring speed v2 = 6 kn),
• t9 = travel time from roadstead of port P2 to roadstead of port P1 (speed v3 = cruising speed of ship),
• t10 = ship unloading time in port P1 by means of 2 portainers (20 containers/hour/portainer);
D) Fuel consumption for the round trip by assuming defined distributions between full and empty containers for both
trips: the used power may be assumed proportional to the total payload (maximum power for 100% full containers);
E) Maximum week frequency of service;
F) Annual carrying capacity of the service [t] taking into account the maximum container and the inactivity periods due to
ship’s maintenance.

Routes and Ship
Assigned routes
R1) Valencia (Spain) – Piraeus (Greece)
R2) Algeciras (Spain) – Trieste (Italy)
R3) Barcelona (Spain) – Civitavecchia (Italy)
Ship data
Length: 208.816 m
Gross tonnage: 51,925
Net tonnage: 15,577
Power: 17,780 kW at 113 rounds/min
Speed: 20 kn
Container loading capacity:
• Deck 1: 135 TEU
• Deck 2: 95 TEU
• Deck 3: 315 TEU
• Deck 3/4: 137 TEU
• Deck 4: 238 TEU
• Deck 7: 125 TEU
• Deck 9: 62 TEU (empty)

Assumptions
Average consumption: 0.003 [kg/tkm]
𝟑
Total ship’s weight: 𝑳 [kg]
𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟑 𝒙 𝟔, 𝟒 𝒙
𝟏𝟎
Empty container rate: 0.3
Container tare: 3630 [kg]
Container max weight: 26740 [kg]
Max container load: N. of cont.(Decks 1 to 7) x 26740 + N. of cont.(Deck 9) x 3630 [kg]
Actual container load: N. of cont.(All decks) x (26740 x 0.7 + 3630 x 0.3) [kg]
Ship’s deadweight: Q – Max container load [kg]
Actual ship’s weight: Ships’ deadweight + Actual container load [kg]
Ship’s activity: 340 [days/year]

Dimensional parameters + motion resistance of ships
Assignment
With reference to two ships selected from the table below:
a) Calculate the characteristic parameters: φ = D/(Lli), i/l , l/L;
b) Calculate the surface of the hull (wet surface) S and the displacement D by approximated formulas in
function of the length L;
c) Calculate the coefficients a and n of the global friction factor e = ak2 + nk4 , with:
a = fδSL/γD (f = 0.145),
n = 7.5 δφ/γ,
γ = specific weight of water,
k = v/√L = relative speed, with v [m/s] and L [m];
d) Calculate the global friction factor at the maximum speed;
e) Represent the graph of a, n and e as a function of the speed;
f) Calculate the resistant power at the maximum speed;
g) Represent the graph of the resistant power as a function of the speed.

Dimensional parameters + motion resistance of ships
Calculations
a) Coefficient of fineness:
a) Hull’s thinness:
a) Transversal stability index: e)
b) Wet surface [m2]
b) Displacement [m3]
c) Coefficient a of global friction factor: [s2/m]
c) Coefficient n of global friction factor: [kg]
d) Global friction factor: [s4/m2] g)
f) Resistant power at the maximum speed: [kW]

Capacity of a maritime route
Assignment
For an example of ship per each typology included in the table below:
• Tanker;
• Cargo;
• Ro-Pax;
• Pax.
Calculate by means of formulas:
A) Ds = 2.52 [4 L (v / 2.5)0.75 + L]
B) Ds = [10.08 (v / 2.5) + 1.8] L
1) The stop distance itself;
2) The capacity of a maritime route navigated by 100% ships of the concerned typology;
3) A traffic mix including all the considered typologies of ships;
4) The capacity of a maritime route navigated by this traffic mix.

Capacity of a maritime route
Calculations
Distance to stop formula A: Ds = 2.52 [4 L (v / 2.5)0.75 + L] [m]
Distance to stop formula B: Ds = [10.08 (v / 2.5) + 1.8] L [m]
Headway: Dt = (Ds + L) / v [s]
Capacity: C = 1 / 3600 Dt [ships / h]
Mix class ratios: a1, a2, a3, a4
Average mix speed v = (v1 a1 + v2 a2 + v3 a3 + v4 a4) / (a1 + a2 + a3 + a4) [m/s]
Average mix length L = (L1 a1 + L2 a2 + L3 a3 + L4 a4) / (a1 + a2 + a3 + a4) [m]

Dimensioning of a maritime container terminal
Assignment
For 3 maritime container terminals interested by the following yearly traffic:
A. Number of TEU: 500,000;
B. Number of containers: 500,000;
C. Weight of handled containers: 5,000,000 t.
1) Estimate, basing on the results of Survey 2008 (see previous slides) the following dimensional and equipment
parameters:
 Total area;
 Quantity of portainers;
 Length of quays.
2) Calculate the number of transfer area modules under transtainers (1 road lane + 1 track + 1 stocking line)
required to manage the total traffic by using the following expression (see previous slides):
∆𝒍 𝟐𝒄∆𝑳 𝒏∆𝒍
𝒕𝒎𝟏 = 𝒏 × + +
𝒗∗𝒍 𝒗∗𝒕 𝒗𝒍
Where is:
 c=1
 n=1
 ∆l = 7 m
 ∆L = 10,8 m
 vl = 120 m/min
 vl* = vt* = 60 m/min

Dimensioning of a maritime container terminal
Calculations
Number of TEU = Number of containers x 1.59 = Tonnes / 10.36 [Survey 2008]
Total area [ha] = Tonnes / 96,000 [Survey 2008]

Number of Portainers = Number of TEU / 106,000 [Survey 2008]
Length of quays [m] = Number of Portainers x 86 [Survey 2008]
∆𝒍 𝟐𝒄∆𝑳 𝒏∆𝒍
Time required for horizontal transfers of 1 container [min] = 𝒕𝒎 = 𝒏 × + +
𝒗∗𝒍 𝒗∗𝒕 𝒗𝒍
Time required for total handling of 1 container (including vertical movements) [min] = 𝒕𝒎 𝒕𝒐𝒕 = 𝒕𝒎 + 2.5
Time for handling total yearly traffic [min] = 𝑻𝒎 𝒕𝒐𝒕 = 𝒕𝒎 𝒕𝒐𝒕 x Number of containers
Reference time (1 year) [min] = T = 60 x 24 x 365 = 525,600
Number of transfer area modules under transtainers = 𝑻𝒎 𝒕𝒐𝒕 / T

Calculation of sea-side port capacity
Assignment
For the port lay-out below (scale factor: 1 square = 100 m) calculate the maximum daily (T = 24 h) number of
entering/exiting ships under the following hypothesis:
1. Routes extended from port’s mouth to quays and vice-versa;
2. Ships’ movements composed by:
• Movements in port channel (V = 3 kn),
• Evolution (ω = 1°/s),
• Approach to the quay (V = 1 kn),
• Mooring time (t = 5 min).
3. Routes’ length and operational rules assumed taking into account the features of port’s layout;
4. Movements assigned to quays according to the following proportion:
• Quay 1: 20%
• Quay 2: 30%
• Quay 3: 50%
5. Maximum total utilisation rate: (B+R) / T = 0.75

Calculation of sea-side port capacity
Calculations
[-] [m] [min] [°] [min] [m] [min] [min] [min]
Routes n Lch tch Alfa tev Lap tap tmo ttotal e
0-1 2 700 7,63 90 1,50 200 6,54 5 20,66
0-2 3 1300 14,16 180 3,00 400 13,07 5 35,23
0-3 5 1400 15,25 90 1,50 150 4,90 5 26,65
1-0 2 700 7,63 90 1,50 200 6,54 5 20,66
2-0 3 1300 14,16 180 3,00 400 13,07 5 35,23
3-0 5 1400 15,25 90 1,50 150 4,90 5 26,65
TOT 20
Compatibility Matrix Matrix ninj*tij

0-1 0-2 0-3 1-0 2-0 3-0 0-1 0-2 0-3 1-0 2-0 3-0
0-1 0-1 82,64 123,97 206,61 82,64 123,97 206,61
0-2 inc. 0-2 211,40 317,10 528,50 211,40 317,10 528,50
0-3 inc. inc. 0-3 266,53 399,79 666,31 266,53 399,79 666,31
1-0 inc. inc. inc. 1-0 82,64 123,97 206,61 82,64 123,97 206,61
2-0 inc. inc. inc. inc. 2-0 211,40 317,10 528,50 211,40 317,10 528,50
3-0 inc. inc. inc. inc. inc. 3-0 266,53 399,79 666,31 266,53 399,79 666,31
Matrix ninj Matrix rij

0-1 0-2 0-3 1-0 2-0 3-0 0-1 0-2 0-3 1-0 2-0 3-0
0-1 4 6 10 4 6 10 0-1 0,59 0,89 1,48 0,59 0,89 1,48
Indicators
0-2 6 9 15 6 9 15 0-2 2,59 3,88 6,47 2,59 3,88 6,47
0-3 10 15 25 10 15 25 0-3 2,47 3,70 6,17 2,47 3,70 6,17 T 1440 [min]
1-0 4 6 10 4 6 10 1-0 0,59 0,89 1,48 0,59 0,89 1,48 N 20 [-]
2-0 6 9 15 6 9 15 2-0 2,59 3,88 6,47 2,59 3,88 6,47
3-0 10 15 25 10 15 25 3-0 2,47 3,70 6,17 2,47 3,70 6,17
nmedio 1,00 [-]
Matrix tij [min]
tmedio 28,03 [min]
0-1 0-2 0-3 1-0 2-0 3-0 B 560,57 [min]
0-1 20,66 20,66 20,66 20,66 20,66 20,66 R 112,91 [min]
0-2 35,23 35,23 35,23 35,23 35,23 35,23
0-3 26,65 26,65 26,65 26,65 26,65 26,65 B/T 0,389 [-]
1-0 20,66 20,66 20,66 20,66 20,66 20,66 (B+R)/T 0,468 [-]
2-0 35,23 35,23 35,23 35,23 35,23 35,23
3-0 26,65 26,65 26,65 26,65 26,65 26,65

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MARITIME TRANSPORT

Increase 1975-2013 ≈ +350%

High concentration in the Far East

In 1200 EU commercial seaports

More than 40% of Worlds’ fleet possessed by EU countries

About 40% with almost stable trend

1) North Sea: 647 Mt

3.600 4200 ships

3.000 3600 ships

2) Cyprus: 203 ships / million inhabitants

3) Denmark: 157 ships / million inhabitants

Average UE: 26 ships / million inhabitants

Passengers traffic [trips/year/inhabitant] (2012)

Italy: less than 10% despite of 7,500 km of

Container traffic [MTEU]

Passengers traffic [millions]

Extensions variable due to geologic features

Navigation maps prudentially referred to MLWS or LAT

Average level slowly variable during the time

Features of seaways affecting navigation

Numerical value expressed in [‰]

d [kg of salts/dm3] = density of salts defining the salinity

Effect of hydrostatic pressure

Average relative density of sea water = 1.026 kg/dm3

h [m] (pure water)

+1 bar corresponding approximately to -10 m

Short period waves generated by the wind

Increasing dimensions and period according to:

Waves caused by tides

Waves of seaquake (tsunami) caused by submarine earthquakes or

Instrumental measurements available today

Most diffused technique: active irradiation with electromagnetic energy

Parameters affecting features

Getting away from the fetch

Energy progressively dissipated

L ~ λ: possible combinations of rolling and

- Ship moving from support at the

- Centrifugal force caused by rotation and revolution of Earth

Missing in rivers and lakes due to limited dimensions of involved water

Maximum height: tens of meters

Transport of masses (on surface or in depth) in a main direction and for

Surface streams in Oceans (e.g. Gulf Stream)

Max speed: 5 knots (generated by wind waves), 0.5 knots (others)

Acting both on partially/totally submerged vessels

1) Difference of specific weights body’s material against water

2) Hollow shape of the body partially filled in with air

Low speed motion with minimum effort by engine or pushing/pulling

Typology Load Denomination

High intensity dynamic actions due to speed and variability of water

Careful study of the bottom’s profile required

Shape of the bottom variable

Balance combining weight and boost of the

Motion resistance proportional to wet surface

1) Rearward centre of gravity

2) Forward centre of gravity

3) Very high speed

Static regime navigation

Limited commercial applications

Lifted up over the surface at a height h (D/h ≈ 10)

Increasing immersion until

No components of S along the

Stable equilibrium only if P = S

If P < S and i < H (floating body)