2017 WHO Report FINAL WEB

Towards More
Physical Activity
in Cities
Transforming public
spaces to promote
physical activity
— a key contributor to
achieving the Sustainable
Development Goals
in Europe
This publication has benefited from the primary
contribution of Louise Vogel Kielgast (Gehl),
and from contributions by Shin-pei Tsay (Gehl
Institute), Jo Jewell, João Breda and Francesca
Racioppi (WHO Regional Office for Europe) under
the supervision of Gauden Galea (WHO Regional
Office for Europe).
Further thanks are owed to Romeu Mendes

(Institute of Public Health, University of Porto)
for his kind review, as well as to Riley Gold (Gehl
Institute), Helle Søholt (Gehl), Birgitte Svarre (Gehl)
and Vannesa Ahuactzin (Gehl) for review.
This publication was made possible by funding from

the European Commission Directorate-General for
Education and Culture. Translation into Russian was
supported by the Ministry of Health of the Russian
Federation.
The graphics and layout were provided by

Pernille Juul Schmidt (Gehl).
Contents
Foreword 2 Implementation 42
Introduction 4 A human starting point

for more physical activity 45
People-centred planning
principles 48
Case study Ljubljana 50
From policy to implementation 52
Physical activity and the Physical activity is not just about
built environment 8 getting from a to b 54
1
Defining the scope 10 Case study Barcelona 56
Equitable and responsive planning 58
T O WA R D S M O R E P H Y S I C A L A C T I V I T Y I N C I T I E S
Zoom in on everyday life
Public space 12 The living area

The commute
60
62
in cities – the drivers Daily errands 64
of sustainable change Spending free time 66
Sustainable development goals 16 Evaluation 68

European cities in context 18
Challenges on the agenda in
european cities 21
Case study Istanbul 26
Encouraging physical activity: Evaluations in urban planning
the case for co-benefits 28 and public health 71
The public space as an Case study Copenhagen 72
overlooked resource 31 New approaches to impact
Case study Moscow 32 assessments in cities 74
Using evaluations in planning 76
Towards new metrics and tools 77
Getting the 34
liveable city on
the agenda Conclusion 80
Planning for people 37
A different approach to planning 39
Vision and pragmatism 40
References 84
Foreword
The troubling levels of physical inactivity observed in all

Member States of the WHO European Region contribute
significantly to the high rate of noncommunicable
diseases, the biggest health challenge facing governments
across the region. The Physical activity strategy for the
WHO European Region 2016–2025 provides guidance to
Member States on effective ways of increasing levels of
physical activity among the population and decreasing
sedentary behaviour, notably through improvements
to the built environments in which we live, work, move
and play.1 In endorsing the strategy, Member States
committed themselves to work with all sectors at all
levels of government to ensure that all people have
2
Gauden Galea the opportunity to be physically active as part of their

Director of the Division
everyday lives. Towns and cities of all sizes across
of Noncommunicable Diseases
and Promoting Health through Life-course, Europe are therefore important arenas and actors for
WHO Regional Office implementing and driving change.
for Europe
This booklet, Towards more physical activity in cities, is

the product of collaboration between the WHO Regional
Office for Europe and the Gehl Institute – world experts
in research in public life and public space. It complements
the vision and aims of the Physical activity strategy by
discussing options for how to improve the “hardware” –
the physical infrastructure and spaces in cities and towns
– so as to transform the quality of public spaces and
encourage more physical activity. Within Europe, there
are great examples of cities that have taken the initiative
to promote physical activity and to improve the built
environment. For this reason, the booklet takes a case
study approach with the aim of providing inspiration to
others.
Shin-pei Tsay Levels of physical activity are strongly determined by

Executive Director, the physical environment, and smart improvements to
Gehl Institute
the design and layout of our cities can have significant
benefits. Yet many people living in cities across our
region currently face barriers to being physically active.
Challenges include the continuing dominance of car traffic
on the road, with limited provision of integrated options
for active transport; issues relating to the accessibility
of green spaces and other public spaces for recreation,
particularly in the poorer sections of our cities; and a
lack of human scale in the design of public spaces that
discourages use or makes physical activity impractical or
uninviting. New approaches to urban planning and design
that take such barriers into consideration offer great
potential to achieve improvement in rates of physical
activity.
At the same time, cities face a range of wider challenges

relating to the goal of achieving sustainable development,
including (to name but a few) air pollution and
environmental degradation, growing inequalities within the
population, threats to economic growth and affordability
3
of housing. These are often seen as first-order urban
challenges; in light of this, thought needs to be given to
the importance of identifying “win-win” scenarios where
solutions address multiple challenges simultaneously.
For example, affordable housing redevelopments may
also provide thoughtfully designed, safe green spaces for
gathering and active recreation. Similarly, policy-makers
may explore measures that have the effect of increasing
physical activity as a means of achieving other goals, such
as improving air quality.
The WHO Regional Office for Europe and the Gehl

Institute have long understood that cities are settings
with enormous potential for positive change. In this joint
publication, our two organizations build on previous work
and knowledge gained on the ground to set out guiding
principles for promoting physical activity in European
cities. Through better-quality urban planning and robust
evaluation, our hope is that cities will become better at
exploiting the potential of the physical environment to
promote physical activity and health more generally.
Introduction
4 T O WA R D S M O R E P H Y S I C A L A C T I V I T Y I N C I T I E S
This publication focuses on physical activity
and how it can be supported through urban
planning. The focus on physical activity is
explained by the fact that inactivity today
accounts for an increasing proportion of
deaths and disability worldwide and is
associated with significant health care
costs and productivity losses.2 Action to
increase rates of physical activity will be
necessary to achieve global targets on the
prevention of premature mortality from
6
noncommunicable diseases – the leading

cause of death worldwide – and to halt the
rise in obesity. With more than 80% of the

European population expected to live in
urban areas by 2030, cities play a pivotal
role in promoting and protecting health and
well-being.3 As cities continue to expand
in population, there is a growing need to
develop ways of supporting physical activity
in dense urban settings.
Governments across the WHO European Region have recognized the need
to prioritize physical activity in the city context. Member States have
adopted a physical activity strategy that highlights the importance of built
environments in helping to promote physical activity as part of everyday
life.4 At the same time, the Paris Declaration, “City in motion – people first”,
which was adopted in 2014 by European Ministers at the Fourth High-level
Meeting on Transport, Health and Environment, endorsed a commitment
to incorporate transport, health and environmental objectives into urban
and spatial planning policies.5 In addition, in 2017 the Sixth Ministerial
Conference on Environment and Health adopted the Ostrava Declaration
in which Member States committed to develop national portfolios for
actions on environment and health, including efforts by European cities
and regions to become “healthier and more inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable through an integrated, smart and health-promoting approach
to urban and spatial planning [and] mobility management”.6 To achieve
these goals, governments at all levels must be engaged and involved in the
identification and implementation of policies.
Such commitments fully align with the United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals and the New Urban Agenda.7 Both recognize that
urbanization contributes to some of the world’s greatest development
and environmental challenges, but that cities also represent an important
arena for advancing sustainable development with huge opportunities
for gains. For mayors and local leaders who are working to improve the
quality of life in urban environments across Europe, well-planned walkable
neighbourhoods, affordable housing and services with access to plenty of
green and public space, as well as multimodal public transit options, will
make a significant contribution not only to attainment of health goals but
also to a more balanced and equitable urban development.
7
Based on this strong political mandate, this publication builds on and
acknowledges the extensive work that WHO and other organizations have
already done in the field of healthy urban planning.8 It aims to take stock
of previous initiatives, moving these a step forward while retaining a focus
on more recent case studies of urban planning initiatives that promote
physical activity. It also places emphasis on the importance of collaborating
and aligning with urban planners, extending our understanding of the
factors beyond health that drive and motivate decisions in urban planning.
The publication acknowledges that cities have competing objectives, such

as the goal of becoming carbon-neutral or more attractive to investors,
or the need to address urban poverty. The aim is to explore how these
motivators can be harnessed to produce “win-win” scenarios or co-
benefits – in other words, to inspire urban planners in European cities to
rethink their approaches, so that cities become more conducive to physical
activity at the same time as achieving other politically important objectives
(and vice versa).
Finally, while not claiming to be comprehensive in scope, it specifically

explores city case studies from parts of our region that have been less
studied and aims to demonstrate how common principles and concepts
in urban planning can be used to encourage greater levels of physical
activity across the European region. Through this publication, WHO wishes
to provide inspiration and guidance on how different cities, in different
contexts and at different stages of development, can use planning to
encourage more physically active lifestyles for their residents. It will do
so by focusing on different stages of the policy cycle – from government
policy development to strategy implementation and design solutions – as
well as on the different components of the city profile, such as the city
centre, urban residential areas and suburbia, each of which may have very
different needs and challenges.
Physical activity and
the built environment
Physical activity is essential for health and well-being. 9
It is a key determinant of energy expenditure, as it

has a fundamentally positive influence on energy
balance and weight control. Regular physical activity
is therefore important in the context of high levels of
overweight and obesity across the region. 10
Physical activity is also a safeguard against a range of chronic

diseases, such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases
8
and some cancers (notably breast and colon cancers); it also

provides mental health benefits, helps prevent osteoporosis
and maintains functionality in the elderly.11 However, modern

life has reduced energy expenditure through physical activity to
a minimum, and sedentary behaviours now dominate.12 Current
WHO global recommendations state that young people aged 5
to 17 years should do at least 60 minutes of moderately intense
physical activity every day and take part in vigorously intense
activities at least three times a week, while adults (including
older people) should aim for a minimum of 150 minutes of
moderately intense activity throughout the week.13
The relationship between levels of physical activity and the

physical environment in cities has been subject to many
different studies, often focusing on specific subsections of
cities or key aspects of the built environment that might
The WHO Regional Office environments, accessible public and undertake physical activity”.
spaces and infrastructure”. A clear More recently, the 2017 Healthy
for Europe’s recent work role was highlighted for transformative Cities Pécs Declaration restated the
on physical activity and policies in the areas of urban design, role of cities in creating places that
healthy cities land use and transportation/mobility empower and enable all people to
planning, with cities identified as enjoy improved health and well-being.
particularly important actors. Improving the built environment in
In endorsing the Physical activity cities is also included in United Nations
strategy for the WHO European Such commitments built on previous Sustainable Development Goal 11,
Region 2016–2025, Member States statements by governments, including which calls for inclusive, safe, resilient
made a commitment to work across the Parma Declaration on Environment and sustainable cities. Specifically, it
sectors and at different levels of and Health (2010), in which Member aims to achieve “universal access to
government to enhance levels of States agreed “to provide each child safe, inclusive and accessible, green
physical activity and reduce sedentary by 2020 with access to healthy and and public spaces, in particular for
behaviour. Notably, they agreed safe environments and settings of women and children, older persons
to ensure enabling environments daily life in which they can walk and and persons with disabilities”.16
that support physical activity cycle to kindergartens and schools,
through “engaging and safe built and to green spaces in which to play
Figure 1 Factors influencing
physical activity in communities
Source: Figure from Edwards and Tsouros (2006).8
Focus of this
publication
Natural
environment
Water Built Weather

environment
Urban
Transport
Social design
environment
Culture Income
Topo-
Individual Green graphy
Air
Gender environment
Land-use Equity space
patterns Social
9
Age
cohesion Beliefs
Motivation Physical activity
& active living Skills Social
support
influence levels of activity, such as parks, cycle paths and

public transportation systems.14 In these studies, the built
environment has consistently been shown to affect the level
of physical activity among the population; thus, there is much
scope to use the setting of the city to increase opportunities
for physical activity. In light of this, WHO and other bodies
have recommended that the discipline of urban planning
should consider the needs of the population in terms of
physical activity,15 and this has been strongly reflected in the
well-defined concept of a “healthy city”.
This publication will draw not only on the aforementioned

studies, but also on research into people’s behaviours in
cities,17 such as their motivations for moving on foot or by
bicycle and for spending time in outdoor spaces in cities. While
acknowledging that there are many different determinants
of physical activity, this publication focuses on the built
environment (figure 1). It examines the challenges cities face
in integrating public health goals alongside many competing
agendas, but will also identify clear opportunities to align
objectives and maximize the potential of land-use planning,
public transportation systems and urban design to benefit
physical activity.
As health inequalities are prevalent in many cities of the WHO

European Region, social determinants will also be addressed
as an important and indispensable consideration in urban
planning initiatives.
Defining the scope
Two concepts are central to this publication:

physical activity as part of everyday life and the
built environment. Both of these concepts are broad
in nature and have many different aspects, so this
publication focuses primarily on specific aspects as
they relate to European cities.
Physical activity
10
Physical activity is limited to a focus on moderate-intensity

physical activity, which includes walking, cycling, playing and
various forms of light exercise. As part of everyday life, such
activity has proved to have a substantial impact on people’s

health. However, recent trends suggest that it has been
reduced to a bare minimum: people are sedentary most of the
time and increasingly use motorized transportation.18
The emphasis on moderate-intensity physical activity is also

relevant in light of recent trends in travel and recreation
patterns. Urban spaces that allow for informal physical
activity can provide opportunities for spontaneous and
self-organizing exercise. They can also enable people to
choose when and where to engage in active recreation.
Furthermore, evidence indicates that walking and active play
can contribute significantly to the overall level of physical
activity and energy expenditure, not least among children,
with consequent implications for health.19 In spite of this,
trends indicate that both children and adults are reducing
their physical activity levels with respect to active transport
and recreation.20 Thus there are likely to be significant
benefits from promoting active recreation and play in public
spaces, as well as from encouraging utilitarian walking and
cycling “with a purpose”, such as when going shopping or to
school or work.
Built environment
Consideration of the built environment is limited to a focus on
open, outdoor, public spaces, such as public meeting places
(squares, marketplaces), and connecting/traffic spaces and
thoroughfares, such as roads, pavements and building edges.
This publication will not look at the way individual buildings
are designed to support physical activity, nor will it consider
the design of indoor spaces such as workspaces, schools and
sports facilities.
This focus on the physical design and planning of the built

environment directs our attention to the infrastructure,
or “hardware”, that underlies the city, rather than the
“software”, or non-infrastructural measures, such as
parking policies, congestion charges and public-awareness
campaigns.21 While such measures are extremely important
and may encourage physical activity, modifying modal splits or
creating more favourable conditions for active mobility, they
lie beyond the scope of this publication.
European cities Sofia, Bulgaria has one of the oldest city centres
Over the course of history, European cities have brought in Europe. The city has in recent years shown an
prosperity and progress – political, social, cultural and interest for change with new investments and
architectural competitions.
educational – and city-living has generally been beneficial
for health and well-being.22 In the 21st century, however,
various new economic, social and environmental drivers
11
mean that cities and towns are faced with a range of new
health and environmental challenges. These include air and
noise pollution, waste management, water and sanitation,
affordable housing and access to green space, congestion,
changing demographics and adaptation to climate change.
The term “city” is used generically in this document. It
refers to urban settlements of various sizes found in Europe,
including towns, cities, metropolitan areas and city regions. It
is important to note that cities in the WHO European Region
vary greatly not only in terms of factors such as size, structure,
climate, orography, economic prosperity, transport systems
and modal splits, but also in a range of more complex factors,
including: planning traditions; attention and approach to
building in ways that are conducive to health; social norms and
attitudes towards physical activity, cyclists and pedestrians; Malmö, Sweden is an example of a city which has
and legal frameworks applicable to cycling. undergone a huge transformation process - from
many industries closing down to a young, innovative
and liveable city with new city areas like the
Consideration of these many variables will suggest how best Western Harbour.
to address physical inactivity in each case. This publication
will highlight and provide examples from a variety of urban
settings across Europe, in the hope of inspiring as many
different cities as possible, regardless of where they are
currently placed in this diverse landscape.
of sustainable
Public spaces
the drivers
in cities
change
—
The high levels of physical inactivity
observed across the WHO European Region
today present an enormous challenge
for both national governments and city
authorities faced with the task of tackling
issues of health.
Globally, one third of adults do not achieve

the recommended levels of physical activity.
In Europe, estimates suggest that more
than one third of adults are insufficiently
14
active; 23.1 million deaths (about 10% of the

total) and 8.3 million disability-adjusted life
years lost each year in the European Region

are attributable to physical inactivity. It is
estimated that 5% of the burden of coronary
heart disease, 7% of type 2 diabetes, 9% of
breast cancer and 10% of colon cancer can be
attributed to physical inactivity.
24
While the picture may seem bleak, there is strong evidence to suggest
that efforts to increase physical activity as part of daily life will have
a beneficial effect. A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies
concluded that walking and cycling reduce all-cause mortality and that
public health approaches would have the biggest impact if they managed
to increase walking and cycling levels in groups that currently show
the lowest levels of these activities.25 Considered in a broader context,
however, the issue of physical inactivity represents only one of the many
challenges facing cities worldwide. This is why there is a strong need for
more integrated solutions that allow cities to simultaneously achieve
multiple objectives, such as those relating to sustainable transportation
and equitable housing policies.
Sustainable development is very high on the agenda of both nations and

cities in the WHO European Region. With the adoption in 2015 of the
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (see next page),
there is a clear recognition of the need for more joined-up thinking around
some of the more complex and intractable challenges. The SDGs consider,
15
for the first time, development priorities such as poverty eradication,
education, health and food security alongside a wide range of economic,
social and environmental objectives; they set goals and targets that are
interconnected, indivisible and universally applicable to all countries,
regardless of their level of affluence.
While the SDGs express the wish for a shared agenda and action at a
global scale, there is a growing understanding that cities are important
arenas for action to meet these goals. Indeed, cities may be one of the
most important places, as the challenges are concentrated there and at
their most visible. Accordingly, cities are places where new solutions can
have a significant impact and show the path towards a more liveable, just,
healthy, safe and sustainable world for all.26
Sustainable
Development
Goals!
#1 #4 #6
End poverty in all its Ensure inclusive and Ensure availability
forms everywhere equitable quality and sustainable
Ensuring access to environ education and management of water
16
ments and facilities that promote lifelong and sanitation for all
support physical activity
across social gradients could
learning opportunities In the planning of public spaces
contribute to addressing for all for physical activity there are

great opportunities to also
inequities observed in many Physical activity has proved to plan for more sustainable
European cities. be important for the ability to management of water.
learn and concentrate among
schoolchildren. Safe roads that
#2 allow for children to walk or

bike to school form part of a
more inclusive and equitable
#7
End hunger, achieve quality education. Ensure access to
food security and affordable, reliable,
improved nutrition, sustainable and
and promote
sustainable agriculture
#5 modern energy for all
Densification of urban areas
Achieve gender
could help ensure that all
communities have easier
access to retailers selling a
equality and empower
all women and girls #8
diverse range of foods required
Public spaces are important Promote sustained,
places for self-expression, and
for a healthy diet. providing urban environments inclusive and
that consider and support the sustainable
economic growth,
#3
special concerns and needs
of women and girls in relation
to active mobility and other
full and productive
Ensure healthy lives physical activities is one aspect employment, and
and promote well- of achieving gender equality. decent work for all
being for all at all ages
Public spaces that encourage
active outdoor life and active
mobility are important means
towards healthy lives and well-
being for all, and it is important
that the needs of different age
groups are considered in this
endeavour.
The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are diverse,
but interconnected and indivisible. A stronger focus on
making cities more conducive to physical activity could
help achieve many of the SDGs in rich and complex ways.
Below, we highlight some examples of how urban planning
strategies and improvements to the public space could
contribute to achieving the goals.
#9 #12 #15
Build resilient Ensure sustainable Protect, restore, and
infrastructure, consumption and promote sustainable
promote inclusive production patterns use of terrestrial
17
and sustainable ecosystems.
industrialization and
#13
foster innovation
Take urgent action #16
#10 to combat climate
change and its impacts
Promote peaceful and
inclusive societies
Reduce inequality Reducing car traffic and for sustainable
within and among promoting active mobility development, provide
countries instead is one step towards access to justice for
Different cities and countries combatting climate change;
provide very different climate adaptation projects all, and build effective,
conditions for being physically in public spaces can easily accountable and
active; to address and promote be integrated with and inclusive institutions
supplemented by measures
physical activity for all is one
that promote physical activity. at all levels
aspect of reducing inequality.
#11 #14 #17

Make cities and Conserve and Strengthen the means
human settlements sustainably use the of implementation
inclusive, safe, oceans, seas and and revitalize the
resilient and marine resources Global Partnership
sustainable for sustainable for Sustainable
Promotion of physical activity development Development
can help bring about shifts
away from heavy car traffic
and promote the expansion of
better-quality green spaces,
thereby contributing to more
inclusive, safe and sustainable
cities.
European Cities
in context
While European cities share a number of the broad

challenges facing cities worldwide as expressed in the
Sustainable Development Goals, they stand apart in
terms of population size and population density.
These two factors play an important role when it
comes to creating opportunities for more physical
activity in cities.
18
Population size
The population size of European cities is markedly different
from the patterns seen in most other regions of the globe.

Europe is characterized by having the largest proportion
(65%) of the urban population living in cities with fewer than
500 000 inhabitants, and close to 95% living in cities with
fewer than 5 million inhabitants.27 Only London, Moscow, Paris
and Istanbul can be considered megacities, normally defined
as cities with over 10 million inhabitants.28 In Asia and Africa, a
number of cities exceed 15 million inhabitants and some have
up to 30 million, while the number of megacities worldwide
has increased from 10 to 28 in the past 25 years. In this
context, cities in the WHO European Region, being relatively
compact, are generally in an advantageous position when it
comes to promoting physical activity (for instance, cycling) as
a way of commuting from A to B.
Smaller cities can encourage active travel as an attractive and

convenient alternative to journeys by motorized transport.
In larger-scale megacities, this becomes more difficult, and
it is not generally realistic to make round trips by bicycle. In
the case of these larger cities, any cycling strategy is likely to
require intermodality, or mixed-mode commuting, involving
(for instance) a connection between metro stations and
cycling hubs. But this is also true for some of Europe’s cities
if they want to integrate cycling within joint city–regional
transport plans, providing a combined cycling–public
transport system that meets the needs of commuters from
outside the city centre. Such areas of intervention will often
call for intergovernmental collaboration between cities,
regions and national governments and are not issues that
can generally be dealt with by individual city governments
acting alone.
Population density
Closely related to population size is the question of
population density. In a global context, European cities lie
somewhere between North America and Africa, on the one
hand, and Asia and Latin America, on the other. European
cities average 3000 inhabitants per km2, whereas the average
for a North American city is 1500 and between 4000 and
8000 in the rest of the world (excluding Oceania).29
The population density of a city is important for several

The convenience of bringing the bike on the regional
reasons. First, a population density of 3000 per km2 train is an important means towards increasing the
is normally considered a minimum to sustain a public level of cycling at a regional scale in Copenhagen,
transport system,33 and a good public transport system may Denmark.
increase daily physical activity as people are encouraged to
either walk or cycle to a station rather than use personal
motorized transport – though other factors, such as social Putting the bike first
context (for example, desirability of car ownership) and
Copenhagen has been highly successful
perceptions of safety, may play a role that is equal to or in creating a very bikeable city centre.
more important than convenience and health. Second, The City of Copenhagen now has
population density is an important prerequisite for explicit strategies for regional cycling,
19
including initiatives such as cycle
sustaining a variety of urban functions (shops, community superhighways, green ways for cyclists,
centres, etc.) that can – if planned in the right way – have and promoting and adapting the cycle
a positive impact on people’s physical activity patterns (for infrastructure for electric bicycles
(e-bikes). 30 Copenhagen has set itself
more on this, see Chapter 5). For these reasons density the ambitious goal of becoming carbon-
remains an important consideration for European cities, neutral by 2025, and cycling is one of
especially those with a lower-than-average population the key sustainable transport strategies
that is expected to help achieve this. 31
density that wish to increase levels of physical activity.
It may be that the main motivation for
Copenhagen’s politicians in promoting
The urbanization trend cycling is that achieving a 75% cycling/
walking modal split is essential
In addition to population size and density, it is important to reaching the city’s sustainable
transport goals, but the co-benefits
to consider the urbanization trend. Many cities in the WHO
for health are also an important
European Region are witnessing a change in which the rate of consideration.
urbanization is higher in the areas surrounding cities (suburbs
The strategy adopted in Copenhagen
and commuter towns) than in the city centres themselves.34
recognizes the need to look beyond
This poses a challenge in encouraging people to be more the city centre and integrate wider
physically active as these surrounding areas are generally transport systems. Similarly, in
Dresden, it now is permitted to take
not as inviting for walking and cycling, as bigger roads (for
bicycles onto trams and even onto
cars) and greater distances between urban functions serve to buses. On a working day, 6000 (1.5%)
discourage physical activity as part of daily life. passengers take their bikes onto a tram
or bus. 32
Another important characteristic shared by many European

cities is that they have a history that can be traced back
several centuries, if not millennia, and need to match the
needs of contemporary urban life with preservation of
their important historical and cultural heritage. This often
presents special challenges for urban planning in historic city
centres that can lead to conflict in the use, allocation and
redevelopment of public spaces and other urban functions.35
Modal split
Figures on modal split reveal great variety in people’s
movement patterns in different European cities. While it
20
should be remembered that these figures may sometimes Above: In Bern, Switzerland, the paving has been
changed to make it more bike-friendly while still
be calculated in different ways, they nevertheless indicate respecting the city centre as a world heritage site.
that cities do not start from the same place when it comes to Many old city centres across Europe face similar
promoting physical activity. A high percentage of car usage challenges.
is likely to correspond with a low level of physical activity as
part of the daily commute, while the other modes – public
transport, walking and cycling – all include some amount of Facts
physical activity.
Ninety-eight per cent of people using
public transport in Scandinavian cities
Looking across Europe as a whole, it is interesting to note begin their journey on foot or by
that the percentage of people walking is generally high. In 25 bicycle. Even in the countryside, 90%
European cities, walking accounts for more than 40% of the reach their destination as pedestrians
or by bicycle. 37
total modal split, and the majority of these are in southern
Europe.36 This is a significant point for urban planners to take
into account in promoting physical activity, as it suggests
that some cities may be better suited to (say) walking than
cycling. What these figures do not tell, however, is how much
walking takes place, and by whom (their age, for instance).
Such questions are important and will be explored further in
Chapter 6.
Challenges on the agenda
in European cities
While the various factors mentioned above are

often regarded as the most important contextual
considerations when it comes to promoting physical
activity through infrastructural changes, European
cities also face a wide range of additional challenges
that may not be directly associated with physical
activity but are highly relevant nevertheless.
21
The task of encouraging more physical activity requires
consideration and understanding of these challenges, some of
the most important of which are discussed below.38
Deindustrialization and changing

patterns of urbanization
The problem of dealing with rapid deindustrialization and the
declining city centre population numbers that accompany
it has been – and still is – a concern for many cities as the
working-age population moves out of the city in search
of employment. Some cities, such as Glasgow in Scotland,
Tampere in Finland, Budapest in Hungary and Malmö in
Sweden, have been successful in managing this transition,
while others, such as Leipzig in Germany and Kaunas in
Lithuania, are struggling with shrinking population numbers.39
Cities that are suffering from declining populations are found,
for the most part, in the eastern and southern parts of the
WHO European Region.40
The industrial era and shrinking population sizes have left

clear traces in the fabric of cities, resulting in large, often
centrally located areas that need to be redeveloped. While
there are many economic and social challenges to overcome
relating to deindustrialization, these areas do have huge
potential for densification, allowing new city centre functions
and workplaces to evolve. As such areas are redeveloped and
become new neighbourhoods, they open up opportunities
for barriers between urban areas to be removed and a more
integrated urban environment to be created, for instance by
the installation of attractive paths for walking and cycling.
Shortage of (affordable) housing
Conversely, some European cities are witnessing an increase
in the number of inhabitants (from urban migration,
immigration, etc.), which can put great pressure on
housing provision. The current situation echoes previous
periods of housing shortage which led to extensive public
housing programmes, such the so-called “Million Homes
Programme” in Sweden between 1965 and 1974.41 Many
of these housing projects built in the 1960s were designed
according to modernist planning principles, which are often
not conducive to walking and cycling.42 As cities face the
challenge of building significant amounts of new housing
in short periods of time, it is important to learn from
previous experience; the provision of adequate housing
in new areas should take into account the quality of the
urban environment (in terms of public and green spaces,
accessibility, transport, multifunctionality, etc.) and how it
can support physical activity.
Another equally important housing challenge across Europe Big, wide roads do not provide attractive walking
22
is related to cost. In comparison to non-urban areas, city environments. Rosengaarden, Malmö, Sweden.
dwellings typically impose higher costs on residents, some
of whom may be forced out of central urban areas, thereby

increasing urban inequality. The degree of this problem
varies between cities, even within the same country. In
Finland, for example, only 10% of people in Helsinki thought
it was easy to find good housing at a reasonable price, while
in Oulu the figure was 75%.43 For those who can no longer
afford to live in the city centres, relocation elsewhere makes
integration of active transport in their daily lives more
difficult, so the problem only gets worse.
Facts
Difference in life expectancy between
Growing inequality Copenhagen’s Indre By and Nørrebro
Growing inequality is a problem worldwide, notably in districts: 7 years
relation to health. Inequalities are found at many levels – at In 2013 the life expectancy for men in
country level, at city level and not least at neighbourhood Nørrebro was 71.3 years; in Indre By,
level. In some cities, health inequality between different 78.3 years. For women, the difference
was 6.4 years.
neighbourhoods is alarming and getting worse. In
Copenhagen, the difference in life expectancy across
neighbourhoods has reached six to seven years.44 In cities
from different parts of the WHO European Region, we see
similar trends in health inequality: lower life expectancy
linked to education and income level.45
Inequalities in health are also related to the quality of the

urban environment. In many cases there is a correlation
between low income and poor health, on the one hand, and
lack of attractive green spaces for recreation, good-quality
pavements for walking and suitable infrastructure for
cycling, on the other.46
Urban green space is essential in order to create healthy,

Nørrebro Indre By
sustainable and liveable cities and can encourage physical
activity. Interventions to increase or improve urban green
space can deliver positive health, social and environmental
Combatting congestion
outcomes for all population groups, particularly among
lower socioeconomic groups.47 Evidence suggests that for In the WHO European Region, some
every 10% increase in green space, there is a reduction cities face high levels of congestion.
According to the Tom Tom international
in disease equivalent to five years’ life expectancy; at the rankings, the most congested city in the
same time, such measures help to combat the effects of world, Mexico City, has a congestion
climate change (extreme urban temperatures) and improve level of 66%. In Europe, the highest level
is around 50%, found in Bucharest and
air quality. Istanbul, while a few other big cities,
such as Moscow, Saint Petersburg,
Marseille and London, are at a level
Congestion between 40% and 45%. In most of these
cities the levels of congestion are rising,
Congestion has become a major challenge in many cities making it a major concern. Possible
explanations for the congestion levels
around the world, including those in the WHO European observed vary from city to city and may
Region. In addition to the negative impact on the quality include a variety of factors, such as
of people’s everyday lives (for instance, from noise and extensive use of cars for short trips, free
parking and unattractive, inefficient or
air pollution), there are huge socioeconomic costs related inaccessible public transport.
to congestion. This sometimes leads to investment in
more road space for cars, but potential solutions to the Congestion in these rankings is defined
as a percentage increase in overall travel
congestion problem represent an opportunity to promote times when compared to a free-flow
23
physical activity. As well as investing in public transport situation, using speed measurements
and new, innovative car-sharing programmes, many cities from a historical traffic database.
These speed measurements are used to
acknowledge the need to improve conditions for active
calculate the travel times on individual
mobility as an element in addressing congestion.48 road segments and entire networks.
Busier and more important roads in the
network have more weighting in the
Air pollution outcome than quieter, less important
roads. 49
Air pollution is the single greatest environmental health risk
facing European cities and a major focus of policy attention
at the urban level, with emissions from transport, heating
and industrial activities representing the main sources of
exposure. Over the last two decades, concentration of air
pollutants such as lead, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide
has been significantly reduced through combinations
of European Union, national and local action, but many
cities are still struggling to reduce air pollution below EU
thresholds.50 The economic cost of deaths and diseases
due to air pollution in the European Region amounts
to US$ 1.6 trillion, according to a study in 2015 by the
WHO Regional Office for Europe and the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development.51 Sustainable
transport strategies such as increased cycling could
obviously play a part here, at the same time as encouraging
more physical activity.
Many cities face heavy congestion. In London, a

A growing elderly population congestion charge was introduced in 2003 to reduce
car traffic.
Although most cities have a larger share of young people
than areas outside cities, the need to accommodate ageing
populations and to promote the concept of “active ageing”
is sure to grow in the future. Indeed, demographic changes
mean that many European cities already have high old-age
dependency ratios.52 Cities must therefore be designed
to take into consideration the needs of people with more
limited mobility. This might include a more integrated public
transport system or greater attention to accessibility (such
as ramps and lifts); such an approach could, in turn, bring
the co-benefit of encouraging active mobility among other
groups, including young families.
Security and safety

From a global perspective, European cities are safe, with
very low homicide rates. Homicides in the European Union
dropped by 40% between 2002 and 2014.53 Nevertheless,
people living in cities have a greater perception of
insecurity: three times as many people in cities say they
live in an area with crime, violence or vandalism compared
to those living in rural areas. Despite a positive trend,
improving safety and feelings of security remains a priority
in many cities. Feeling safe in a city is likely to have an
influence on levels of activity; for instance, people are more
likely to walk from A to B at night or to encourage active
recreation among children in residential neighbourhoods.
25
Opposite: Most people - regardless of age - prefer

ramps from even small steps. Planning for elderly
with walking disabilities will thus benefit many more
people than the elderly.
Case study
26
Istanbul
Progress towards a more
walkable city
In Istanbul traffic is one of the most
pressing concerns for urban planners. It is estimated that the
population of the city increases fivefold every day, as students,
business owners, shoppers and tourists pour into the city.
With over 2 million daily commuters, Istanbul faces some of the biggest
congestion challenges worldwide. This has prompted the city to look at
innovative ways to improve the quality of urban public life and to address
existing obstacles to moving around the city on
foot or by bicycle.
over a period of two years from 2011 to 2013,
which included repavement, updated signage
and reorganized waste management.56 Work
was carried out by the Fatih Municipality and
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality.
Within the terms of the pedestrianization
project, there are a number of general rules to
manage and control use of the new streets:57
With ever more economic activity centred in • during daytime hours (10:00–18:00),
the streets and roads are accessible to
and around Istanbul, pressure on the city’s
pedestrians only (outside these hours
transport system is only expected to intensify.54
vehicular traffic is limited);
•
The percentage of car trips has increased
tremendously over recent decades (from 19.3% only official vehicles, such as embassy,
police, postal service, bank, fire service and
in 1987 to 26.3% in 2006), while the percentage
hospital vehicles, are allowed access during
of walking trips fell from approximately 50% to
daytime hours;
16% over the same period.55 Cycling in Istanbul is
often seen as a recreational activity and currently • vehicles with commercial licenses are
allowed access for loading and unloading
accounts for only 0.05% of urban traffic.
As is the case in many historic cities across the outside daytime hours;
•
27
WHO European Region, walking environments street vendors are prohibited from accessing
were previously characterized by very narrow certain streets and roads;
•
pavements, high levels of noise and air pollution, inspections and enforcement are conducted
and a growing need for pedestrian crossings. by the municipal police forces of Fatih
Municipality;
• tourist buses are restricted to specially
designated routes and stops.
Moving Forward
Following implementation of the project,
EMBARQ conducted an assessment
survey looking at some of the impacts of
pedestrianization.58 The report looks at various
issues such as:
More walking in the • user satisfaction;
historic peninsula • accident(both

safety perceived safety and actual
numbers);
In 2010, the first steps were taken to make
Istanbul more walkable. Focusing on the historic • economy/trade of local businesses.
peninsula, a group of stakeholders including The assessment shows, among other things, an
the sustainable transport initiative EMBARQ improvement in perceptions of safety among
and the architectural practice Gehl Architects, users of the area. However, there are still some
along with Istanbul’s Fatih Municipality and perceived issues with accessibility in some
UNESCO, proposed a pedestrianization project areas, as well as reports of the streets being
to expand sustainable mobility and create a used by cars and motorcycles.
more accessible area.
This type of assessment is an important tool for
The project resulted in a strategy to redress informing adjustments and redesigns that may
the balance between people and cars by means be needed in due course. It should also feed
of traffic-calming measures, improved walking into future planning across the city – not only on
conditions and public transport, and better the historic peninsula itself but more generally
connections to the waterfront; in practice this across Istanbul, to help the city achieve its aim
initiative led to changes in a total of 295 streets of becoming more walkable and bikeable.
Encouraging physical activity:
the case for co-benefits
Given the serious challenges facing cities today, it is

increasingly important to understand how interventions
in one area can also have a very positive effect on other
issues. Competing demands mean that, while physical
activity may be a desirable outcome of urban planning,
it is unlikely to be the single or major selling point for
city administrators when making policy decisions.
Indeed, promoting physical activity may be regarded
as a means to achieving some given objective, such as
28
reducing air pollution, rather than as a goal in itself.

In recent years, concepts such as liveability, urban sustainability

and urban resilience have moved near the top of the urban
agenda. The concept of the “healthy city” might not always be
at the forefront of city visions, but it is embedded in the concept
of the liveable city, and a study of zoning policies suggests that
physical activity as a motivation appears to be becoming more
prominent in recent years and is associated with higher levels of
policy innovation.59 To get physical activity on the agenda, the
same study calls for the importance of physical activity to be
framed in terms of other dominant concerns, such as liveability,
dynamic centres and economic development. Health agencies
are encouraged to work in coalitions to focus arguments on
behalf of physical activity.
A central concern for many cities today is to plan for improving

people’s quality of life and to create urban environments
that are responsive to the everyday lives of their citizens.
For decades, urban planning was dominated and driven by a
strong focus on cars, but this is now changing to a focus on
creating cities for people that have balanced mobility systems
and in which active mobility is encouraged.60
This shift offers a huge potential for co-benefits. For example,

encouraging more people to walk has a number of other
positive benefits:
• Safety and security

Pedestrians are legitimate road users, but they are
frequently overlooked in transportation systems.
Considering the needs of walkers through transport
planning (e.g. reduced traffic speed; traffic calming
Distribution of Space
Streets make up
25 – 35% of the city
Streets
25 – 35%
29
Everything
else
65 – 75%
Streets often account

for 80% of open space
Parks
20%
Streets
80%
measures) can encourage more pedestrians and impact
traffic safety61. At the same time more people walking also
provide more eyes on the street, which enhances the sense
of safety and may also contribute to crime reduction.62
• Social cohesion
More people walking in cities create more activity and
opportunity for social interaction, which helps to prevent
loneliness and stimulate social cohesion.
• Equality
Improved conditions for active mobility are one way of
addressing inequality, as walking and cycling are both
affordable mobility modes, whereas driving in a private car
and even public transport can be too expensive for some
low-income groups in cities.
• Economic vibrancy and development

Walkable environments, encouraging more people to
walk, appear to boost economic prosperity, in terms of
value of local services and goods, creation of more job
opportunities and increase in retail sales.63
30
• Benefits created by opportunities for

new jobs related to healthy transport
Active mobility can help reduce traffic congestion, which

Cyclists have the possibility to do impulsive stops for
is associated with great costs, both at the individual shopping, thus making bikeable environments good
household level and for businesses and society as a for local businesses in many cases.
whole. At the same time, it has been estimated that up
to 435 000 additional jobs might be created if 56 major
cities in Europe had the same modal share for cycling as
Copenhagen.64 Jobs created include cycling-related jobs
in retail, wholesale and design, but also various roles in
administration, construction and tourism.
• Environmental benefits
Encouraging active mobility and reducing motorized What is a healthy city?
transport has a big positive impact on pollution and
A healthy city is not one that has
carbon dioxide emissions, as well as reducing travel times
achieved a particular health status – it
in congested cities. As part of its strategy to address air is defined not by an outcome but by a
pollution, in September 2015 Paris introduced a ban on process. A healthy city:
• is conscious of health and strives to
the most polluting trucks and heavy-duty vehicles. Since
improve it (thus any city can be a
1 July 2016, the ban has been extended to exclude cars healthy city, regardless of its current
registered before 1 January 1997 between 08:00 and health status);
• is committed to health and to a
20:00 on working days. The legal basis for this measure is
process and structure set up to
provided by a law on energy transition enacted in 2015, achieve it;
which allows municipalities to restrict the circulation • is one that continually creates and
improves its physical and social
of vehicles to improve air quality as a public health
environments and expands the
measure. The measure is accompanied by an offer of a community resources that enable
50% reduction on a subscription to the Autolib’ electric people to mutually support each
other in performing all the functions
car-sharing scheme and a prepaid bonus of €50, together
of life and developing to their
with a one-year subscription to the Vélib’ bicycle-sharing maximum potential. 66
scheme and to the Navigo payment system for public
transport. Alternatively, individuals may choose to receive
€400 towards the cost of a bicycle (including electric
bicycles).65
The public space as an
overlooked resource
In our attempts to address the pressing issues

mentioned above, the overarching challenge in
most cities is that the public space is often an
overlooked resource.
As planning for cars has dominated cities all over the world,
including Europe, many public spaces have been reduced
to little more than transport corridors or parking spaces.
Their potential to serve many other needs has thus been
overlooked.
31
The ways in which many public spaces are planned and
designed have resulted in them becoming “anti-spaces” for
people: spaces that do not contribute positively to city life
and whose recreational, economic and democratic value to
society has been squandered.
Better planning:
more effective use of space
Rethinking the planning and design of public space in cities
is often met with resistance based on the assumption that
scarcity of available space makes it simply impossible to
reduce road space for cars and to introduce other functions It’s a streetfight
and services. However, while it is true that open space is
a scarce resource in some cities, it is in fact possible to everywhere,
redesign many public spaces in ways that serve a range of but I think the victory of
needs and purposes.
this fight in New York has
This became evident in New York when the Department implications everywhere
of Transport (DOT) started rolling out its “greater and
greener New York City” with a number of high-profile street and shows how, if you can
and public plaza upgrades. Surveys have demonstrated change the street, you can
that these interventions, such as pedestrianizing parts of
Broadway, have both benefited pedestrians and improved change the world.
travel times for taxis, the economy of local shops and overall
traffic safety.67 Janette Sadik-Khan,
former commissioner of New York City DOT68
Case study
32
Moscow
From large scale and
planning for cars to planning
for people
Like many cities around the world, Moscow has
realized that the rules of the game have changed and it needs to
compete on new terms. In 2012, the city launched a new masterplan
which set out a number of strategic directions for the development of
the city; one of these was a plan to upgrade the city centre and to make
the streets and public spaces more attractive for pedestrians.
Two challenges stood out for Moscow in 2012:
large-scale streets with multiple car lanes and
the overwhelming dominance of cars. The result
of these two factors, combined with generally
poor walking conditions, such as few pedestrian
crossings, was that few people were willing to
walk. Even for short trips, residents typically
chose to take the metro rather than walk.
More recently, the city has begun a process of
change, focusing not only on cars but on people. Parking
Some of the city’s most important initiatives
include: In a very short time streets and public spaces
formerly dominated by cars have been
• restricting parking in the city centre (adding

paid parking, enforcing parking regulations,
transformed into places for people.
etc.);
• improving pedestrian crossings;
• providing better connections to the
riverfront.
33
Introducing a human
scale in areas of high-rise housing
The importance of public space and of people’s
needs in relation to public space is not just a
city centre phenomenon. In the outskirts of
Riverfront
Moscow, private developers recognize that Previously, most of the waterfront near the
introducing a human scale and creating spaces city centre was surrounded by heavy traffic,
for people to spend time and play is an effective with 93% of the space allocated to cars, which
means of attracting customers to the housing created a barrier between the city and the river.
blocks. This is now changing.
Most housing areas are still dominated by Krymskaya Embankment has been transformed
high-rise blocks, but in between the buildings into an attractive and vibrant public space,
attempts are being made to introduce a more commissioned by Mosgorpark, the city’s parks
human scale, giving people stronger incentives authority, and designed by the Moscow-based
to spend time in public spaces. This involves, architects Wowhouse. The design aims to create
among other things, having playgrounds or many different options for an active city life in
different types of outdoor community spaces all seasons. Artificial hills and slopes are used
located in between the apartment blocks. for cycling, skating, skiing and sledging. This
design offers great opportunities for a wide
range of seasonal activities – not least over the
long, cold Russian winter – and attracts diverse
visitor groups into the one-kilometre stretch of
urban park.
liveable city on
Getting the
the agenda
Encouraging more physical activity through
city-making requires that such efforts are
part of, or aligned with, the city’s strategic
political priorities. A thorough understanding
of the current state of each individual city
is required: what are currently the most
significant barriers to promoting physical
activity? What other priority challenges could
be effectively coupled with efforts to promote
physical activity? In which areas would
interventions have the biggest impact?
36
More focused questions then follow. What

part of the population should new policies

and strategies target or benefit? Which
aspects of people’s everyday life should be
prioritized? Which areas of the city are most
in need?
While acknowledging that cities are at

different stages of development or face
different challenges, there is often a need to
prioritize according to local context. However,
even in cases where promotion of physical
activity is an explicit objective or a recognized
means to achieve another related goal,
planners and administrators still face valid
questions about where and how best to start.
Some suggested first steps are considered in
this chapter.
Planning for people
While good aesthetics may have a great impact on

the attractiveness of new buildings and public spaces,
and of the city as a whole, it is important to consider
people’s most basic needs first.
Start with the basic needs of safety

Safety encompasses a range of aspects, from traffic issues
to crime and perceived danger from strangers. Research Safe routes
suggests that if people believe their neighbourhoods are
37
unsafe, children are less likely to play outside and adults are If pavements and cycle lanes/paths are
not seen as safe, the chances are you
more cautious about walking or taking part in other physical will only attract those who are brave
activities,69 with a consequent negative impact on body–mass enough to risk exposure to dangerous
index (BMI) levels.70 Furthermore, high crime levels seem situations, and not those who are most
in need. Evidence that women, children
to affect women and young children disproportionately.71 and older adults are using them is a
Vulnerable road users are particularly exposed in urban areas, good indication that safe routes for
where they mix with motorized vehicles moving at higher cycling have been created.
speeds. Of the 85 000 people killed in road traffic accidents in
Europe in 2013, 26% were pedestrians and 4% were cyclists.72
The safety of these users is a fundamental priority. In traffic
planning, safety concerns often lead to a separation of road
users and pedestrians by means of pedestrian bridges or
underpasses, but most people do not find these attractive, and
they will attempt to cross at street level. Planning thus needs
to consider these human behavior patterns.
Focus on where people are

Many cities have focused on making city centres more walkable
and bikeable. Such interventions carry high symbolic value,
generally attracting a great deal of attention and helping to
build political momentum, but it is just as important that
planning initiatives focus on local neighbourhoods – on people’s
immediate living environment. Such a shift will help cities direct
their attention to how physical activity can more easily and
conveniently be integrated into people’s everyday lives.
Provide freedom of choice

In many city areas, there is little real alternative to driving.
Encouraging more physical activity is not a question of
completely abandoning the car; rather, it is about providing
people with the freedom to choose. It should be possible to
use whatever mode of transport (or combination of modes)
is best suited to the purpose of a trip, whether it is driving,
walking, cycling or using public transport. Planning for citizens
to have a genuine freedom to choose also means ensuring that
they have a high degree of participation in, and control over,
decisions that affect their lives, health and well-being.
Prioritize where it is most needed:

securing equity in health
Numerous studies have shown that citizens who already have
high levels of physical activity tend to live in walkable urban
neighbourhoods. If this issue is not addressed, it is almost
inevitable that health inequalities in cities will grow even
greater.
Tempelhof, Berlin. Photo: Domantasm on Flickr.

38
A different approach
to planning
Working with the routine

of urban planning
Planning to encourage more physical activity in cities does not
mean starting from zero and creating a new vision overnight.
As we saw in the earlier discussion of co-benefits (see pages
28-30), promoting physical activity can be worked in with
other policies, plans and interventions in the urban planning
domain and can take a stepwise approach. One obvious area
of intervention is abandoned industrial spaces in need of
redevelopment, where the creation of recreational paths and
activities can act as a catalyst for a larger transformation.
One example is Tempelhof in Berlin, where a former airport
39
area has been transformed into a giant recreational park.
In this park, there are many opportunities and facilities for
physical activity such as ball games, roller-blading, walking and
cycling; these exist alongside more passive recreational areas,
such as spaces for barbecues, all of which make the park
attractive to lots of different people. This kind of intervention
is appropriate for any city but is especially relevant where
resources are limited and effective use of finances is crucial.
Identify areas of concrete co-benefits

and develop new funding streams
Many policies are developed within their own sector (health,
urban planning, education, etc.), thus missing the opportunity
to reap cross-sector benefits in policies, strategies and
projects. More integrated policies can help pave the way for
long-term investments in the built environment of cities, and
this is likely to increase levels of physical activity.
Long-term commitment
While large flagship projects such as “bikeathons” and
bicycle-sharing schemes attract attention and publicity, on
their own they cannot bring about high-impact and sustained
change. For this reason, it is important to secure long-term
commitment to changing the “hardware”, where interventions
to promote physical activity are implemented continuously
and result in structural changes to the urban fabric that
encourage behavioural change. This will then amplify the long
term impact of other projects.
Vision and pragmatism
Processes of change rely on vision. History shows

how strong vision often helps pave the way for more
concrete strategies and actions.
A vision is often formulated in positive terms: for instance,

“achieving sustainable and healthy transport for all”,
“making the city a good place to live and invest”, or “making
the city carbon-neutral” or “more competitive”. Cities may
also have ambitions, such as to become a “green capital”
or similar. A good example is the Sustainable Edinburgh
40
2020 vision, which states that in 2020 Edinburgh will be “a

low-carbon, resource-efficient city, delivering a resilient
local economy and vibrant flourishing communities in a
rich natural setting”.73 As such, focused efforts to reduce

motorized transport and increase active transport are
likely to be means to achieve a wider vision or goal, and
increased physical activity can be a by-product of specific
measures taken to achieve that goal. In implementing action
to achieve their goals, cities need to develop strategies and
policies that recognize the need for a stepwise approach;
they need to ask: what are possible first steps and how
might they lead to desirable change in the long term?
For example, it is not possible to convince all citizens, in all

different circumstances, to change their travel behaviour
overnight. An important first step is to introduce more
attractive options and to carefully consider which kinds
of behaviour might be easier to modify. An example is
targeting short journeys made in cars. In Europe, more than
30% of car journeys cover distances of less than 3 km, and
50% less than 5 km.74 If the process of travelling is made
comfortable and convenient, such distances can easily be
covered by walking or cycling.
Thus, strategies and interventions are more likely to

succeed if they are targeted at these short journeys rather
than at every journey made in a city. At the same time, by
reducing the frequency of short journeys, such interventions
could help reduce emissions of air pollutants, which are
particularly high in the first few minutes after a car engine is
started (the so-called “cold start”).75
41
1
1. The City of Praque has adopted

a transformation strategy for
Pilot projects Magistrála street cutting through

the city center, which involves
taking both small, medium and
long-term steps towards a future
transformation. These include
Testing the vision e.g. safer street-level pedestrian
crossings and connections to
The trend towards launching adjacent streets and squares.
more pilot projects represents 2 & 3. Many small changes can have a
a huge opportunity for cities great impact. In Almaty, Kazakstan
the picture to the left is an
to adopt both a visionary example of cycle paths often being
and a pragmatic approach to disconnected by barriers and the
building more liveable cities 2 simple removal of a piece of railing
(picture 3) has made the cycle path
– an approach which is likely more direct and connected.
to have a positive effect on
citizens’ physical activity.
Many cities have had great

success using pilot projects
as a strategic tool to test
new solutions on a small
scale. This has allowed them
to build a political case for
longer-term change and more
radical interventions, such as
permanently closing streets to
car traffic.
3
Implementation
To plan for physical activity in cities is a
way of putting people – its citizens – at the
centre of planning. To do so, it requires a
fundamental understanding of human needs
and behaviours. This chapter discusses in
more detail the practical implementation
of strategies and concrete design solutions
for urban environments that are more
conducive to physical activity.
44
A human starting point for
more physical activity
Regardless of where they are located in the world,

urban citizens share a number of human characteristics:
Size: the human scale

Human proportions are an important starting point in the Average height & viewing angle
pursuit of human-centred planning. The size of the human With a certain height and viewing angle
body makes some spaces feel out of scale and intimidating. humans are likely to see very specific
parts of their surroundings.
The dimensions of public spaces have a considerable impact
on a person’s level of comfort, as well as on the perception
of distance, which in turn may motivate or discourage people 72°
170 cm
45
from engaging in physical activities such as walking, cycling
and playing. 120 cm
walking
90 cm speed
5 km/h
Speed
Humans are slow, forward-moving beings who travel at
approximately 5 km per hour, and slightly faster when cycling.
However, with the introduction of the car, many city areas
have been planned for different speeds, with an architecture Average height
Average speed
Average speed
designed for 50 km per hour (or more). The results are big
signs and few details in the urban environment, all of which People walk at an average speed of 5
km/h. which allows them to experience
make for little stimulation and variation for people walking many details in the urban environment.
or cycling. Moreover, high urban speeds represent a real
170 cm
challenge in terms of encouraging more walking 72°and cycling.
Reducing speed does not only influences the chance of Need for Stimuli
120 cm
survival in case of an accident,76 but it generally affects the walking
perceived sense of safety. Rather than separating different 90 cm speed
5 km/h
users it is important to adapt traffic calming measures to suit
the needs of different urban contexts - from high streets to
residential streets.
Senses
Average
Planning that looks to stimulate the human senses height
will have a Average speed
big impact on the experience of walking, playing and cycling
in a city. About 75% of all stimuli are received through our
vision, and on the basis of physiological studies that show
that humans need sensory stimuli at short time intervals, the
architectural pioneer Jan Gehl has argued that the most active Need for Stimuli
and attractive streetscapes are those that offer fresh visual
details every four or five seconds.77 In addition to visual cues, 4 seconds 4 seconds 4 seconds
people are affected – both negatively and positively – by the

smells and the materiality of surfaces, as well as by the sounds
and sound levels in public spaces. Sound levels in excess of 65
decibels do not allow conversation, and such conditions are
generally not considered to be comfortable environments in
which to walk and cycle.
Convenience and flexibility Photo left: Street planting speaks to the senses.
46
In addition to information gained through the human senses, Photo right: Many street signs are made for cars
a number of other factors affect people’s behaviours and and not for people walking.
general motivation towards physical activity. One such
factor is the busy lifestyles that are now so prevalent and

the consequent lack of time, which makes it difficult for
many people to fit daily exercise into their everyday lives.
Convenience and flexibility of choice should therefore feature
prominently in plans to promote physical activity in cities,
so that it can be accommodated without too much effort
in people’s daily routines. This means ensuring that the
necessary infrastructure is accessible, that people do not have
to go out of their way to get where they need to go, etc.
Photo caption
walking
90 cm speed
5 km/h
Average height Average speed
Need for Stimuli
47
4 seconds 4 seconds 4 seconds
1000 stimulus
per hour
1 every
4 seconds
People-centred planning
principles
To increase physical activity through the planning

and design of the urban environment requires action
at many levels, ranging from overarching policies
and large-scale interventions to interventions that
are on a small scale and highly detailed. Some of the
policy areas that are particularly relevant to efforts to
support physical activity in cities are now considered.
48
Land use policies

Two trends within land use policy have proved to be especially
counterproductive when it comes to encouraging physical

activity in cities: urban sprawl that leads to increased car
dependency and mono-functional zoning that increases the
need for transport. In fact, physical activity is best supported
through densification and mixed-use land policies, as these
make it more possible to keep homes, workplaces, schools,
shops and recreational facilities within walking or cycling
distance. Recent research has suggested that population
density, in particular, has a significant impact on physical
activity.78 In spite of this evidence, a recent examination of
zoning provisions has shown that health and physical activity
are not among the major drivers of land use policies and
interventions.79
Public transport
Policies in support of public transport are likely to have a
positive effect on levels of physical activity, as most people
either walk or cycle to and from their train, bus, etc. In
Scandinavian cities, 98% of people using public transport
begin their journey on foot or by bicycle. Even in the
countryside, 90% arrive as pedestrians or by bicycle. In the
USA, an estimated 90% of journeys on public transport involve
walking at the start or end of the trip.80 For this reason it is
important to make public transport an attractive choice – by
offering reduced fares, for instance, and providing improved
service, as well as by the design of the physical environment
itself.81
49
Bicycle- and pedestrian-friendly policies Above: Removal of snow on the bike lanes first is
an example of a policy which prioritizes cyclists.
Bicycle- and pedestrian-friendly policies involve mechanisms
that encourage more journeys on foot or by bicycle. In Europe,
there are great variations in the levels of walking and cycling.
Cities with the highest numbers of cyclists are typically
found in Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany, while the
percentage of people walking is notably high, representing
more than 50% of the total modal split, in cities in southern
and eastern Europe.82 Exploring ways to increase walking and
cycling should build on this knowledge of existing local trends.
Policies for more active transport, which aim to improve
the conditions for walking and cycling, may involve both
infrastructural and non-infrastructural changes. These include
measures such as speeding regulations and various incentives
to leave cars at home, such as congestion charging and
parking policies.
Case study
50
Ljubljana
Reintroducing cycling
Along with Amsterdam, Copenhagen and
Berlin, Ljubljana has become one of the top cycling cities in Europe,
in terms of the cycling percentage in the total modal split.83 Today in
Ljubljana, 12% of all journeys are made by bicycle.
This is the story of retrieving a lost culture of
moving by bicycle.
Cycling in Ljubljana is not a new phenomenon. of a more liveable city with more sustainable
In the 1950s and 1960s cycling clubs were on modes of transport.
the rise, and the city looked for inspiration
elsewhere on how to build a good cycling
infrastructure.84 However, with the influx of Major cycling initiatives
cars throughout the 1970s, the city witnessed a
strong decline in cycling, and the percentage of
• Awidely
new bicycle scheme, set up in 2011, is now
used.
car use, at almost 60%, is amongst the highest
in all European cities. • has beenthepartly
One of main avenues, Slovenska Street,
closed off to motor traffic.
Since the beginning of the 2000s, Ljubljana has • Since 2012, it has been permitted to bring
small, folding bicycles on buses.
again been working strategically towards more
cycling in the city, with local NGOs acting as
important advocates and pushing the cycling
agenda. In addition, a number of EU projects
have been catalysts for this change:
• CIVITAS Mobilis (2004–2008): a project

which resulted in an increased number of
bicycle racks in the centre of the city.
•
51
CIVITAS Elan (2008–2012): a project
which, among other things, limited and
penalized illegal parking and introduced
a coordinator for cycling within the
municipality. In addition, a multi-stakeholder
cycling platform was established and
the Comprehensive Cycling Strategy was
discussed and drafted.85
Being part of such EU projects often provides The Triple Bridge BEFORE
the necessary seed funding to jumpstart
projects. It also helps to get cycling on the
agenda of various agencies at national, regional
and local levels.
Cyclists and pedestrians

Like many other European cities, not least
in southern Europe, Ljubljana has a high
percentage of people walking (about 20%). As
strategies to promote cycling are developed, the
relationship between cyclists and pedestrians
is critical, as has been demonstrated by an
extensive citizen-engagement process for
developing a cycling strategy for Ljubljana.
In the historic centre, redesigns of public
spaces and new infrastructure projects have
The Triple Bridge AFTER the redesign - with
made integrated spaces for both cyclists and integrated spaces for both cyclists and
pedestrians. Among these is the redesign pedestrians
of many bridges, where car traffic has been
restricted to make room for both pedestrians
and cyclists; this is an acknowledgement that if
both modes can coexist, it will be to the benefit
From policy to
implementation
In the translation of overall policies to concrete

implementation, while retaining a human-
centred focus, it may be useful to reconsider some
contemporary planning principles.
Urban density – or proximity

Many cities are concerned with densification, involving both
population and building density, as a tool to achieve more
sustainable development. However, solutions may look (and
52
feel) very different on the ground than on paper. Density is a

highly contested concept. High density is often associated with
tall buildings, but it can be achieved in quite different ways.
Taking a more human-centred approach to planning, it

might be more useful to talk instead about proximity, as
this term stresses the human experience. A city area may
have a high density of shops or public transport options, but
this information does not necessarily reflect how things are
experienced at ground level. Are facilities and functions easy
to get to, or do various kinds of barrier make them difficult to
access? Are facilities and functions clearly visible, or are they
hidden at split levels or behind closed facades?
Planning for more

– but also better – urban green
Planning for more urban green makes sense for many different
reasons, quite apart from stimulating physical activity. It is
an important part of interventions aimed at climate change
adaption, and it is an integral part of making cities more
liveable, as study after study has suggested that green areas
have a huge impact on our mental health and sense of well-
being.86 Urban green is, however, far from equally distributed
in cities, and some of the most disadvantaged and socially
deprived urban areas often suffer from a lack of green areas.87
Introducing more urban green is now part of many city plans
across the world, but often the focus is on quantity, not
quality.
Planning documents might have guidelines such as “everyone

should have a park within 500 metres of their home” or
“everyone should live within a 15-minute walk of a local park”
– the kind of statements given in a 2008 planning document,
53
Green and Blue Copenhagen.88 Rarely will such documents Photo left: Usce Park, Belgrade is today a big, green
island. A new strategy for the park sets out to improve
have guidelines on “how to get to the park” or “the quality connections through the park as well as integrateging
and experience offered once in the park”. the park into the surrounding street network.
Photo right: Not all bike paths can run through

Research shows that more qualitative factors influence the green environments, but, if possible, they provide an
use of green areas. These factors include aesthetic qualities, important supplement and an attractive alternative to
practical features such as water fountains and toilets, things the street network. The Green Route, Frederiksberg &
Copenhagen, Denmark.
to watch in the park (other people and activities, natural
elements) and park maintenance.89 Also of great importance
is the route to the green area.
More qualitative planning principles

Supporting physical activity through more human-centred
planning in general requires more qualitative planning
principles. While quantitative measures such as extent
of pavements or cycle tracks are important, it is equally
important to consider qualitative measures, such as:
• for pavements: width of pavement, lack of barriers, even

surface, level of protection from motorized traffic, noise
levels, good lighting, presence of trees to protect against
heat and sunlight.
• for cycle tracks: level of protection and separation from

car traffic, even surface, good lighting, continuity of
network.
Physical activity is not just
about getting from A to B
To promote physical activity, there should be more integrated

approaches to implementation in which different kinds of need
are considered at the same time. In other words, more physical
activity is not brought about simply by focusing on walking,
cycling or playing. Crucially, it is about making cities more
appealing to spend time in and to attract people to get out and
use the city.
54
The street as a public space

Open space in cities is generally perceived as a scarce
resource. Streets typically make up 25–30% of all city land and

80% of all open space. This makes streets important places
for both investment and intervention, but it also shows that
streets need to serve many needs at the same time. They
need to function as transport corridors for different traffic
modes, not just cars, as well as providing an open space
where citizens can meet. For this reason, a holistic approach is
essential.
A good street for walking is also a good street for stopping,

standing and sitting. Bollards that can be perched on provide
opportunities for walkers to stop and rest, while sitting options
provide the basic conditions for social life. People sitting are
evidently not engaged in physical activity, but they provide a
social ambience and an informal kind of surveillance, and such
streets are likely to feel safer and more pleasant to walk along
than those that offer few opportunities for social interaction.
An inviting and attractive walking environment also depends
on the buildings along the street. Planning with the human
senses as a starting point entails close attention to the
quality of facades. The number of entrances, the level of
detail and dynamic use of ground floor space in buildings
(e.g. public functions, transparency) all have an impact on
the attractiveness of the walking environment as well as the
perceived distance to walk.
Overlap of programmes and facilities

Physical activity can also be encouraged through more
joined-up thinking – for instance, by adding a physical activity
feature to spaces and functions that otherwise serve different
purposes, as well as by making use of resources that already
55
exist but may currently be closed off from the public. Above: Israels Plads in Copenhagen, Denmark
combines a food market, an occasional flea market
Opening up schoolyards to the public outside school hours and sports facilities in the same public space.
or simply integrating schoolyards into the public space is a During the day time it functions as a school yard,
good example of using facilities more effectively and making but it is open for informal play during the rest of
the day and week.
resources available to more people. Going to a playground
might not be a conscious decision, but moving around the
city will suddenly allow people – both children and adults
– to engage in spontaneous play. One example of this is
trampolines in public spaces. Again, it speaks to many urban
dwellers’ need for convenience and flexibility.
Another way to create attractions for those who are not

seeking to be physically active is by having more overlap of
programmes in the same spaces or in the same buildings.
This includes, for instance, combining cultural activities with
physical activities.
Case study
56
Barcelona
Reconquering public space
for the public
Barcelona is one of the most renowned examples of
how to focus on public space as a catalyst for city change. It all started
with a strong desire to build a new culture in the city.
In 1982 the leading architect Oriol Bohigas
initiated a new urban policy, which highlighted
the need for visible improvements for the
citizens of Barcelona. The tool was not a
comprehensive plan but a commitment to
implement a number of public space projects
throughout the city, including the more
deprived neighbourhoods. According to the
policy, every neighbourhood should have its
own “urban living room” and every district its
local park, where citizens can meet and children
play. It is characteristic of Barcelona’s urban
space policy that public spaces arose from the
historical need for community meeting places
rather than from general traffic considerations.
Public spaces were thus created mostly by
tearing down old worn-out housing and
industrial buildings. Pedestrian priority area
During the period 1980–2000, the city’s image
57
underwent a veritable transformation. Thus The superblock
the foundations were laid for an attractive city
The long tradition of developing public
where people choose to spend time outside
spaces in Barcelona laid the foundation for
and where the function of public space is widely new initiatives which address more recent
recognized.90 and pressing issues in the city, including
traffic, noise and pollution. As part of a
new mobility plan, the City of Barcelona
has introduced the “superblock” concept,
where a nine-block area is converted into
We want these a unified mega-block neighbourhood. The
aim is to decrease urban traffic by 21% and
public spaces to be free up close to 60% of road areas for reuse
areas where one can exercise as “citizen spaces” – everything from cycle
paths, widened pavements and small public
all citizen rights: exchange, spaces for various activities (for example,
expression and participation, markets, children playing) to more urban
green. Most traffic will be limited to the
culture and knowledge, the boundaries of the superblocks, while within
them motorized transport is restricted to
right to leisure. local residents and deliveries.91
Salvador Rueda, director of the city’s urban

ecology agency92
Opposite – Parc Central del Poblenou. Barcelona’s public

space policy resulted in a broad range of public spaces: from
Plaza Soller, a simple plaza in a very dense neighbourhood, to
all the new public spaces and parks along the waterfront.
Equitable and
responsive planning
Securing more equity in health and physical activity

requires, first and foremost, that the issue of health
inequality is understood and acknowledged. Many of
the social determinants of health are closely linked
to conditions in the urban environment, such as
residential segregation, transport options and public
safety. Consequently, the social determinants of
physical inactivity can be effectively addressed, at
least in part, through urban planning – which is one
58
very strong argument for truly integrated planning.

Numerous studies have found that health problems in

cities, such as high percentages of inhabitants suffering
from physical inactivity or obesity, are often concentrated
in low-income neighbourhoods; these are also the areas
that do not perform well in terms of having an attractive
public domain (which comprises aspects such as park safety,
maintenance and good walking conditions).93
Other research on upward social mobility in the USA has

found that social mobility among children is affected by the
neighbourhoods they live in and by the amount of time they
spend in those neighbourhoods.94 Upward social mobility is
more likely to occur in neighbourhoods that have:
• elementary schools with higher test scores; Inspiration from Sweden

• a higher proportion of two-parent families; In Sweden, the challenges of social
• higher levels of involvement in civic and religious groups inequities with respect to health and
well-being have received a great deal
(social capital); of attention in recent years, most
• more residential integration of affluent, middle-class and

notably in the Malmö Commission,
which has thoroughly documented
poor families; and the health inequalities in the city.
The commission’s report considers
• less sprawl (shorter commutes). strategies for how to address these
inequalities and sets concrete
goals, including reducing residential
Such studies underline the need to develop more equitable segregation to the extent that it reflects
approaches to the planning of urban environments, health inequalities. One concrete
regardless of gender, socioeconomic factors, race and action is to transform barriers between
neighbourhoods into linking areas.95
ethnicity. While factors such as school results, family
status, civic engagement and social capital may seem
to have very little to do with people’s physical activity
patterns, a number of studies reveal that these factors are
in fact strongly associated with physical characteristics
of cities such as walkability and liveability.96 For example,
analyses indicate that people living in walkable, mixed-
use neighbourhoods have higher levels of social capital
compared with those living in car-oriented suburbs.
Respondents living in walkable neighbourhoods were more
likely to know their neighbours, participate politically,
trust others and be socially engaged. What is needed is a
process that leads to a more profound understanding of
how different demographic groups experience and use
place, and how interventions that change the “hardware”, Everybody needs safe crossings but especially
or physical infrastructure, can be responsive to such elderly, who tend to cross at a lower speed.
experiences and needs.
Ageing cities
With a growing elderly population, special attention needs
to be given to how the urban environment can support
59
senior citizens in being physically active. Physical activity
among the elderly is critical for social participation and well-
being, but also as a means to prevent falls, reduce functional
decline and help manage chronic conditions.97
A study conducted among elderly urban citizens in Finland

found that, for them, the ability to get out of their homes
and go to the local shops is especially important and
enhances the quality of their everyday lives.98 This highlights
the need for senior housing to be well integrated into local A study at the OPUS
neighbourhoods and for special attention to be given to research centre, University
the needs of senior citizens, such as safety and high levels of Copenhagen, has shown
of accessibility in streetscapes. A study from California
found that a lack of good street lighting, heavy traffic and that children who cycle
poor access to public transport are the factors most closely to school are able to
associated with decreased physical activity among older concentrate at school for
people.99
longer periods of time than
children who are taken by
Equal opportunities for children car or go by bus.102
There are alarming rates of obesity and growing sedentary
trends among children and young people,100 not least due
to new lifestyles where children and young people spend an
increasing amount of time every day on electronic media. It
is clear, therefore, that special attention needs to be given Co-benefits of planning
to encouraging such people to be more physically active in for children
cities. Children growing up with inactive parents seem to In the past decade, the City of
reproduce this behaviour,101 thus exacerbating the situation. Copenhagen has built and renovated
Indeed, a key way of making children and young people many playgrounds as part of a strategy
to attract young families. The Urban
more active seems to be to allow them freedom to access Life Account, which monitors trends in
outdoor spaces independently of adults. the city’s urban life, has documented
a new trend: an increasing number of
adults are engaging in play activities,
often using these new facilities.
Zoom in on the everyday life
The Living Area
Importance of good edge zones

The way in which buildings meet the street or the space
around them affects how living and being in an area
is perceived and increases the possibilities for social
interaction. This, in turn, makes walking or cycling more
attractive and enhances the perception of safety, which
encourages more people to walk or cycle. Good edge
zones are characterized by “soft” elements, such as open
and transparent façades with doors and windows, a mix of
functions along the street, use of details and variation in the
façades, such as steps for sitting or resting, and stimulation of
the senses – for instance, through the colour of the façades,
60
planting alongside buildings, and vertical lines or features

Soft edges with planting and balconies in one
that introduce separation or “breaks” in a façade.103 Good
of Vienna’s new residential developments.

edge zones are also important in residential areas, where
features such as small front gardens, outdoor staircases
and planting can make edge zones “softer” and increase the
likelihood of interaction and activities taking place.104
Parking in housing areas

Car ownership in European cities is generally high, which
means that there is a high demand for parking in residential
areas. But even with a car at their disposal, it is possible to
encourage people to engage in daily physical activity – for
instance, by locating parking in a central location, where
some walking is required (this might also encourage people
to either walk or cycle in the first place, if they are not going
too far). In a similar vein, some new housing areas have
experimented with having shared facilities such as garbage
facilities placed centrally, thus building on daily habits of
walking while at home and bringing the additional benefit
of meeting neighbours.
Designing common spaces

Some housing areas are characterized by big open spaces,
such as communal roof terraces, yards and gardens, which
lack any clear definition of “ownership”. Open spaces
in housing areas are often not used because people are
uncertain of who they belong to and what they can be
used for, or because building regulations restrict particular
activities and functions in communal spaces, such as
playing, using yards as protected parking places for bicycles,
and taking bicycles in lifts.105
61
1
2 3
Play streets and play areas 1. Sønder Boulevard in Copenhagen functions as an

extension of people’s living rooms and it invites
Especially for children, having areas for play in the for many recreational activities for both children,
immediate vicinity of their home is of huge importance. young people and adults.
2. Some streets in BO1, Malmö, Sweden, are car-free.
Studies show that children with a park playground within 3. Safe streets for children to play, Vauban, Germany.
1 km of their homes were more likely to be of a healthy
weight than children without a park playground near
their homes.106 Safe streets for play are also important as
they allow children to be less dependent on their parents
accompanying them and have greater freedom to go out
and play.
The commute
Incorporating active transport as part of the daily commute

is a very effective means of reaching the recommended
minimum of 150 minutes of weekly moderate exercise.
This requires a good understanding of where people
are commuting from and where they need to go – the
commuting routes in the city.
Connected and integrated networks

Making active transport part of the daily commute requires
a willingness to build a connected and integrated network
that connects people to where they want or need to go. The
62
alternative – putting pedestrian and cycle paths where it is

easiest or least inconvenient to put them – runs the risk that
the infrastructure is simply not used, and thus frustrates the

aim of making people more physically active. What is in fact
required is:
• a continuous and barrier-free pedestrian and bicycle

network;
• a network that is linked to major destinations and daily

functions;
• the removal of existing missing links in the network;

• direct routes with few detours;
• connections created between local and regional
networks.
In addition to the route itself, it is important to build in

good-quality cycle-parking facilities at the end destination. High quality public space in front of the train station
in Vejle, Denmark.
In cities with high numbers of cyclists, bike parking is a
recurrent issue as it needs to function well alongside other
public-space features, such as places to walk and places
to sit.
Active-transport commuting for children Inspiration from Denmark

In Copenhagen the municipality has
Walking or cycling to kindergarten or school is one way gradually expanded the cycle track
to introduce habits of physical activity from an early age. network by using road repairs as an
Safety issues or long distances are barriers that prevent opportunity to install cycle tracks or
paths, thus making more effective use of
many children from such active “commutes”. Mixed infrastructure spending. It is also a sign
neighbourhoods with local schools that are close to homes of the city’s long-term commitment to
becoming more and more bikeable.
are a prerequisite to encouraging children to walk or cycle.
In Denmark, the number of children cycling to school is
decreasing, which could be explained by the fact that many
63
1
schools are being merged and smaller local schools are

closing down.107
Equally important is the creation of safe routes, either

by making separate paths or by reducing speeds.
Active transport also needs to be supported at the end
destination – the school or kindergarten: good parking
facilities for bicycles, scooters, etc. need to be provided.
Intermodality and quality of transport hubs 2
It is not realistic to suppose that all journeys will be made

solely on foot or by bicycle, so it is essential that networks
are well integrated with public transport options.
Intermodal connections must be easy and smooth, good
parking facilities for bicycles should be available, and
access should be simple and direct whether you arrive
on foot or by bicycle. And to make these multi-modal
trips an attractive option, it is important that transport
hubs themselves are of a high standard: they should be
safe and comfortable places to wait; all signage should
be clear and legible; and ideally they should offer other
3
services that make it easy to attend to daily errands
as part of the journey (e.g. small shops or kiosks; cash 1. A good waiting experience at a bus stop in Horten,
Norway.
machines). 2. Parking facilities for scooters in front of a school in
Copenhagen, Denmark.
3. A safe school street that supports commuting by
foot or bicycle, Odense, Denmark.
Spending free time
As sedentary lifestyles become more prevalent all over

the world, public spaces in cities play an important role in
Parks and physical activity
enticing people to spend more time outside, and hence to
spend more time being physically active. Research has suggested that parks work
via both direct and indirect effects on
physical activity. The availability and
quality of green spaces has a beneficial
Planning with the local climate in mind impact on people’s stress levels and
mental well-being, and high quality
Cities across the WHO European Region have very green spaces can also lead to more
different climates, and opportunities for spending physical activity. Some characteristics
time outside vary accordingly. Planning strategies to of green spaces are more likely to
encourage physical activity than others
encourage more outdoor recreational life need to take such as size, aesthetically pleasing
these local climatic conditions into account. In some natural environment, ease of access
64
parts of the region, strategies are needed that focus on to urban destinations and facilities/
amenities109. Equally, an attractive
winter activities and allow for features in public spaces physical environment that makes a
that support such activities. In other areas, meanwhile, place appealing for social contact,
meeting people or doing things together
summer heat is the main issue, and shade must be may support physical activity as an
provided if people are to be physically active in outdoor incidental benefit.
spaces.
Combining good routes with facilities

that encourage informal, spontaneous use
Some very successful public spaces provide effective routes
for pedestrians or cyclists to move through, while also
offering incentives to play and exercise along the way. There
is a broad range of such recreational components, including
water features, trampolines, small skating rinks and
basketball nets, as well as more subtle landscape features.
With more people engaging in self-organized sports, public
spaces need to meet new needs for flexible use – over the
course of the day, week and year.
Old industrial infrastructure:

a recreational resource
Green areas in cities are sometimes a scarce resource, so
recreational spaces have to be developed in other settings.
In many cities former industrial sites have been transformed
into recreational resources. Some such developments may
become attractive venues in their own right (e.g. new city
parks), but others serve as junctions, connecting different
parts of the city by means of new walking and cycling paths.
65
1
1. Ice scating rinks is a popular way to invite for

outdoor activities during the dark and cold winter
times.
2. Attractive waterfronts invite people to go walking
and to spend time outside. Lisbon, Portugal
3. Invitations for spontaneous physical activity can
take many forms, such as this wooden deck along
a pathway running through Copenhagen Business
School, Frederiksberg, Denmark.
2
Daily errands
In some cities, various factors, such as long distances

or mono-functional business parks far removed from
residential areas, mean that it is not realistic to expect the
usual mode of transport for commuting to change in the
short term.
In such contexts, priority can be given to encouraging more

physical activity as a normal part of running daily errands.
So, when going to the doctor or the supermarket, how can
people be encouraged to walk just a little bit further, a little
bit more often?
66
The supermarket car park

Regardless of the distance between home and supermarket,

some people are likely to take their car as this is the
more convenient option. The result is car parks with high
volumes of people passing through every day. Most car
parks, however, are only designed for cars, with little
thought given to how drivers and passengers may continue
their journey on foot. If parking is made available in a few
locations, interconnected by attractive routes for walking
that serve key destinations along the way, it is possible to
encourage more walking and to combine activities.
Attractive spaces in front

of supermarkets can
encourage people to walk
and spend some time
outside rather than quickly
leave by car again.
67
1. Temporary playful elements in

the street create unexpected
experiences in the every day life of
daily errands.
2. Non-interrupted sidewalks along
a shopping high street provide a
safe and comfortable space to walk
along.
2
Evaluation
If urban planning strategies and projects are
to have a real impact on people’s patterns of
physical activity, it is vital that these plans
set clear goals and criteria of success that
can later be measured and evaluated.
There is a growing number of cities that

have initiated interventions that promote
walking and cycling. While interventions
such as pedestrianized streets and bicycle-
sharing schemes are likely to increase
70
awareness of active mobility, it is important

that such interventions are targeted and
adapted to local conditions and challenges

in order to have a relevant and sustained
impact. Even more importantly, we must
learn from these interventions and the
effects that they have. To determine
whether they really achieved what they set
out to do, proper monitoring and evaluation
are required.
Evaluations in urban planning
and public health
Evaluation as a concept spans many different models,

including plan assessment, plan testing and evaluation,
plan critique, comparative research and professional
evaluation, and post-hoc evaluation of plan outcomes. 110
This section explores the potential of post-hoc evaluation

as a tool for measuring the effect of urban planning
initiatives on levels of physical activity.
71
In general, there is a lack of evaluation models within the
field of urban planning, and it is not common practice to carry
out evaluations. If done, most evaluations are limited to “little
Why do evaluations?
E” evaluations that measure whether the prescribed plan or
Evaluations can serve very different
project actions were carried out; often they are no more than an purposes. They can:
assessment of whether a project met its targets in terms of time
and money. “Big E” evaluations, on the other hand, look at the • most importantly, make sure that
decisions are made on an informed
outcomes of plans or projects, setting out to explore underlying basis;
topics or themes such as economic vitality and health. In • help gain knowledge about what
contrast to urban planning, this kind of evaluation is relatively works – all the way from policy and
strategy to concrete design projects;
common in the field of public health, which has a much stronger • communicate the benefits of
tradition of carrying out longitudinal impact assessments an intervention to different
that measure the effects of a certain treatment or health stakeholders;
• introduce a new language in which
intervention, including economic impact and cost savings.111 citizens and their quality of life are
more in focus;
Such evaluations may be rare in urban planning, but there are • help to build the political courage
needed to embark on or continue a
exceptions. New York City, for example, has put a lot of effort into process of change.
developing different types of “big E” evaluation to measure the
outcomes of public-space upgrades in relation not only to factors
such as traffic flows, economic turnover and accidents, but also
to more complex issues of social justice.112 Another example is the
city of Malmö in Sweden, where the Malmö Commission has set If you’re not
out to introduce health targets for urban development that can
help to steer the city’s future planning.113
measuring,
then you’re
To work towards more and better physical activity in cities,
there is an obvious gap to be filled. While the question of how
not managing.
best to carry out evaluations clearly needs rethinking, there is Janette Sadik-Khan,
also a huge opportunity to combine competences from both former commissioner of New
York City DOT109
public health and urban planning in order to learn much more
about how cities can stimulate physical activity. Certainly, as a
starting point, post-hoc evaluations need to be planned before
the event, to ensure that appropriate baseline data are available
to allow for comparison and that there is agreement about what
will be measured.
Case study
Copenhagen
Measuring as a tool for change
Copenhagen – a city often ranked among the
most liveable cities in the world – is an example of how
gathering people data has helped shape and steer the
development of the city.
Copenhagen was the first city in the world in
which comprehensive studies of public life were
systematically conducted over several decades.
What began as the Danish urbanist Jan Gehl’s
research on how people move through and
spend time in Copenhagen has evolved into a
method of informing city policy. The first studies
were carried out in 1968 (documenting, among
other things, the effect of the first pedestrian
street in Copenhagen – Strøget) and have since
been followed up in 1986, 1995 and 2005. 114
These studies measured pedestrian flows and
the types of activity people engaged in while a status report on bicycle mobility in the
spending time in public spaces. Both local city: number of cyclists at various locations,
government and the business community bicycle infrastructure, number of kilometres
gradually began to see the value of such data cycled, travel time, etc.; and it also goes into
as a tool for user-friendly urban development, more detail on specific issues and trends,
and in recent years the focus on people data has such as safety perceptions, accident statistics,
been integrated into the daily planning practice congestion on cycle paths, ownership and
of the City of Copenhagen. use of cargo bikes, and (not least) motivation
for cycling among citizens. Concerning
citizen motivation, the Bicycle Accounts have
demonstrated, year after year, that the number
one reason for cycling among Copenhageners
is that “it’s the fastest way to get around”,
followed by “it’s the easiest way to get around”,
while the third most common reason for cycling
is “to get exercise”. This again reinforces the
fact that – while we may aim for, and finally
observe, an increase in physical activity – this
is not necessarily the most effective “selling
point” or the main factor that stimulates
behavioural change.
The culture of monitoring has gone hand in

hand with an incremental process of changing A metropolis for people
the urban landscape. Slowly and step by step, In 2010 Copenhagen adopted a new vision – “A
the city has removed parking from the city Metropolis for People” (2010–2015) – to make
centre to make car-free public spaces, and this Copenhagen the most liveable city in the world.
approach has since been extended to other The vision included simple and tangible, yet
neighbourhoods. ambitious, metrics for urban quality of life, and
the city again committed to quantitative and
Inevitably, decisions are sometimes hard to qualitative targets to put people first on the
make, but the support of data has helped agenda, such as getting “more people walking”,
politicians stay firm and work towards a “increasing the level of people spending time”
common vision – regardless of what political and “increasing the level of satisfaction with
party happened to be in charge at the time. the public realm”. Since then, such metrics
have informed investments in public spaces in
Copenhagen and served as a guideline for all
The Bicycle Account new urban space projects. Having reached many
An important planning tool that has helped of its goals in 2015, the City of Copenhagen
Copenhagen achieve the title of number one has now formulated a new vision to “Co-create
city for cyclists is the Bicycle Account. First Copenhagen”, which focuses on community and
published in 1996, the Bicycle Account provides co-creation.115
New approaches to impact
assessments in cities
Cities vary in the type of data they collect and the

types of evaluation they carry out. Here are some
examples of the kind of information that is valuable
when promoting physical activity in cities.
Modal splits
Gathering data on the modal split – the division of people
by mode of transport – paints a picture of the level of car
dependency, the use of public transport and the level of
74
active transport. While some cities collect numbers on

both pedestrians and cyclists, others gather data only on
cyclists. Getting more information on pedestrians and

cyclists represents a major shift, as most traffic departments
traditionally only collect numbers on cars.
Bicycle accounts
A few cities around the world, such as Copenhagen, Leicester
and Auckland, have published bicycle accounts. While they HEAT: Health Economic
differ in their design and what they report, these accounts set Assessment Tool
out to provide a comprehensive picture of the status of cycling
To facilitate evidence-based decision-
in the city concerned, ranging from documenting investments making, the World Health Organization
in infrastructure to monitoring progress in the bicycle culture has developed, in collaboration with
of the city. experts in the field, an online tool to
estimate the value, in terms of reduced
mortality, that results from regular
walking or cycling.116 The intention is
Economic benefits that the Health Economic Assessment
Tool – or HEAT – should play a part in
Economic benefits are likely to be a strong motivating comprehensive cost–benefit analyses of
factor when it comes to improving conditions for physical transport interventions or infrastructure
activity. Such benefits work at different levels: citizens who projects, complementing existing tools
for conducting economic valuations of
save money riding a bicycle rather than driving a car; local transport interventions, for example on
retailers who increase sales by having good pedestrian and emissions or congestion.
cycling infrastructure in the surrounding environment; public
The tool can be used in a number of
authorities that can make great savings on their health different situations, for example:
expenditure.
• to help plan a new piece of cycling or
walking infrastructure;
• to evaluate the reduced mortality
Cycling and walking to school due to past and/or current levels of
Few cities collect such data, but having accurate numbers on cycling or walking;
• to provide input into more
how many children walk or cycle to school is a great investment, comprehensive economic appraisal
as it builds active habits early on in life. The data may be exercises, or prospective health
collected as travel surveys by the schools themselves, thus impact assessments.
calling for interdisciplinary and interdepartmental collaboration.
Areas that need
further development
Getting more real-time data on
walking and cycling
It is important to get more real-time data on walking and
cycling behaviour: to get more information on how long and
how far people walk or cycle. Copenhagen’s Bicycle Account
has shown, year after year, that most people choose to cycle
because it is the fastest and most convenient way to get
around. For this reason, it is vital that cities monitor if cycling
continues to be a fast way to get around or whether in fact
some routes suffer from congestion or other circumstances
that make cycling less attractive.
Gaining knowledge of activity levels

in specific population groups
75
Basic and generic data on numbers of pedestrians and
cyclists is not sufficient for measuring the impact that
physical interventions may have on targeted groups such
young people, the elderly or socially disadvantaged citizens
living in deprived neighbourhoods. For example, if cities
are to promote physical activity among a specific group (for
example, those who are currently least active), methods must
be developed to measure the effect of a given intervention
on a broad range of people who may vary in terms of their
previous activity level, location in the city, age, profession and
other socioeconomic indicators. Having such data available
is essential to measuring the impact among different groups,
assessing equity outcomes and informing future revisions.
Developing evaluation tools

for specific age groups
The current model of WHO’s Health Economic Assessment
Tool (HEAT) is only suitable for adults of approximately 20–74
years of age. Evaluation methods targeted specifically at
children, young people and the elderly need to be developed.
Collecting and unifying local

data sources
Many different actors within city landscapes are collecting
relevant data at any one time. For urban planners and
health professionals aiming to promote physical activity, it is
important to bring together these sources of data to provide
as complete a picture as possible. For example, local travel
surveys – either at schools or in workplaces – could usefully be
fed into the same databases and thus inform future planning
and design solutions in cities.
Using evaluations
in planning
Before- and after-surveys

Redesigns of public spaces, streets, etc. can benefit from
well-grounded surveys conducted both before and after an
intervention. Before-surveys can help to define the problem
which the redesign seeks to solve, while after-surveys help to
establish whether the redesign has succeeded. For instance,
the modal split on a given street section could be assessed
both before and after an intervention, to evaluate whether the
redesign has led to an increase in pedestrians or cyclists.
Pilots and a strategic project process

76
More and more cities are experimenting with temporary

projects and interventions. Various cities, including New
York City, São Paolo and Oslo, have successfully piloted new
solutions in streets and public spaces. In this way, they not
only showcase the issue but also present policy-makers with
a clear choice in which solutions are not descriptive texts
or drawings in a planning proposal, but a concrete (albeit
temporary) installation or redesign that has actually been
tested in an urban space. For such pilot projects to have
a strong strategic and long-term impact, it is important
that they are part of a project process that is founded on
measurements of the current situation and assumes a
willingness to follow up and refine the project.
Getting citizens into the loop

Evaluations of various kinds are tools for engaging with citizens Surveys of car traffic, pedestrian movement and
in new ways and make it possible to be more responsive stationary activities helped inform the design of
to their views. As the motivation factor is important in New Road in Brighton, and follow-up surveys have
demonstrated its sucess in terms of increased
encouraging more physical activity, it is essential that city pedestrian activity.
planners continuously update their understanding of the
people that their city is designed for. One such example is the
Auckland cycling account, in which the city now explicitly asks
citizens what they think should be measured.117
To fully understand how to encourage physical activity and

evaluate the effect of different types of intervention in the
urban environment, there is an apparent need to develop new
metrics for urban physical activity.
Towards new metrics
and tools
All too often, projects are evaluated in terms of their ability to

meet narrow project goals such as deadlines and budgets and
not so much in terms of the impact and value they bring. In
this respect, there is a fundamental need to rethink the ways
in which evaluations are conducted.
At an overarching level, evaluations should address both

behaviours and attitudes: behaviours, because these are
where the health impact lies; and attitudes, because these
offer insights into people’s motivations for being physically
active (or not).
77
In broad terms, we need:
• more baseline information on physical activity in different
everyday situations: what are we trying to affect –
commuting, shopping, recreation or something else?
Figure 2 From return on

investment to return on mission
Key Performance Impact

Indicators Indicators
Return on Mission return

invested capital on invested capital
• more baseline information on citizens’ activity levels in Opposite:
Evaluations do not need to objective
different areas of the city; and quantifiable. Other more
• information on the links between reported quality of life/ qualitative tools can help spark a
new type of dialoque focusing on
happiness and changes in activity patterns. what is important and should be
prioritized. One such example is the
12 quality criteria for public space
In refining and improving evaluation tools and research developed by Gehl.
methods that can provide more information about the
relationship between the built environment and physical
activity, it appears that more qualitative approaches will be of
great importance, as a supplement to the more quantifiable
measures of building density, population density, etc. This
will involve developing objective measures for a number of
environmental attributes that are relevant to physical activity,
such as pavements, pedestrian zones, and factors affecting
intersection quality (for example, pedestrian crossings and
traffic-calming).118
Given that the urban environment has a substantial

role to play in supporting physical activity, one further
recommendation is to encourage more cross-sector
78
collaboration in the execution of evaluations.

This would include public health agencies regularly working
with other sectors, such as city planning, city transport and

park agencies, in order to continuously assess and report on
the state of environments that support physical activity. This
would involve public health professionals participating in local
planning groups.
Equally important is for public health professionals to

collaborate with sectors working on environmental
sustainability. The aim here would be to bring identify and
assess evaluate that promote physical activity and achieve
health benefits at the same time as contributing to the
reduction of energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions
and air pollution. Such initiatives call for more joint research
and practice as well as joint funding.
Urban Quality Criteria
Protection against Protection against Protection against

Protection
traffic & accidents crime & violence unpleasant sensory

— feeling safe — feeling secure experiences
Protection for pedestrians Lively public realm Wind/draft
and cyclists
Allow for passive surveillance Rain/snow
Eliminating fear of traffic
Diversity of functions 24/7/365 Cold/heat
Safe crossings
Well lit / lighting in Pollution
human scale Dust, noise, glare
Opportunities Opportunities Opportunities

to walk/cycle to stop & stay to sit
Room for walking Attractive & functional edges Defined zones for sitting
Pleasant views, people watching
79
Interesting facades Defined spots for staying
No obstacles Objects to lean against Good mix of public and café
or stand next to seating
Good surfaces
Resting/waiting opportunities
Accessibility for everyone Facades with good details
that invite staying
Comfort
Opportunities Opportunities to Opportunities for

to see talk & listen play & exercise
Reasonable viewing distances Low noise levels Allow for physical activity, exercise,
Unhindered views Public seating arrangements play & street entertainment
Interesting views conducive to communicating, Temporary activities (markets,
‘talkscapes’ festivals, exhibitions etc.)
Easy orientation
By day and night
Lighting (when dark)
In summer and winter
Dimensioned at Opportunities to Aesthetic qualities

Enjoyment
human scale enjoy the positive aspects & positive sensory

of climate experience
Dimensions of buildings & spaces in
observance of the important Sun/shade Good design and detailing
human dimension in relation to Heat/coolness Good materials
senses, movements, size and
behaviour Shelter from wind/breeze Fine views/vistas
Rich sensory experiences:
trees, plants, water
Source: Gehl
Conclusion
Promoting more physical activity in cities
is an important step towards more healthy
cities. As this publication has set out to
show, cities have a role to play when it
comes to encouraging moderate physical
activity – the kind of physical activity that
is associated with people’s daily movement
and recreational patterns. However, raising
physical activity levels requires an integrated
approach in which such activity is not seen
in isolation. To promote physical activity
82
involves, among other things, understanding

people’s basic need to feel safe, their
desire to get quickly and easily from A to

B, and – not least – the way in which their
behaviours are affected by the quality of
the urban environment. As such, public
spaces in cities can act as important drivers
for change, provided that those in authority
are careful to make them suitable for many
different uses; and that includes making
them appropriate for more physical activity,
whether that be walking, cycling or playing.
The joined-up thinking required in this area also involves acknowledging
and planning for the many co-benefits that arise from urban environments
that support physical activity. Indeed, encouraging more walking, cycling
and playing has potential benefits when it comes to addressing a number
of other urban challenges, such as social equity, air pollution, congestion,
urban economy and innovation. Taking full advantage of this potential
calls for far greater cross-sector collaboration between the public health
and the urban planning sectors. At the same time, it should also be
recognized that, while increasing physical activity may not (politically) be
a major selling point, it may nevertheless emerge as a co-product of other
priorities; for instance, development of an improved transport network
may lead to more physical activity, even though that outcome was never,
explicitly, part of its motivation. These are opportunities to be identified
and grasped.
Encouraging more physical activity does not usually mean that cities have
to draw up specific planning documents to this effect; generally, it is just
as effective if the necessary messages are routinely woven into the fabric
83
of today’s many urban planning projects and programmes. In some cities,
however, a more radical change in overall vision and policy is required.
The cities that are most successful in promoting physical activity have a
strong vision of the kind of city they want to be; and having such a vision
allows pragmatic solutions to be adopted along the way, and specific
measures to be identified and implemented. Change will not happen
overnight; sometimes a step-by-step process is needed. But as numerous
examples throughout this publication have shown, change is entirely
feasible.
To help steer such processes of change, monitoring and evaluation are

vital so that we may continually learn what works in practice. Moreover,
such evaluation informs adaptation over time and – equally important –
provides a way to respond to people’s (changing) needs and patterns of
behaviour. And such sensitivity is essential, even if it means rethinking
what might be the most relevant and effective areas for intervention.
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68 Florida R. A playbook on the politics of better streets.
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LIfe. 2006. Copenhagen: The Danish Architectural Press.
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Towards More

Further thanks are owed to Romeu Mendes

This publication was made possible by funding from

The graphics and layout were provided by

Introduction 4 A human starting point

Public space 12 The living area

of sustainable change Spending free time 66

Sustainable development goals 16 Evaluation 68

The troubling levels of physical inactivity observed in all

Gauden Galea the opportunity to be physically active as part of their

This booklet, Towards more physical activity in cities, is

Shin-pei Tsay Levels of physical activity are strongly determined by

At the same time, cities face a range of wider challenges

The WHO Regional Office for Europe and the Gehl

noncommunicable diseases – the leading

rise in obesity. With more than 80% of the

The publication acknowledges that cities have competing objectives, such

Finally, while not claiming to be comprehensive in scope, it specifically

Physical activity is essential for health and well-being. 9

It is a key determinant of energy expenditure, as it

Physical activity is also a safeguard against a range of chronic

and some cancers (notably breast and colon cancers); it also

and maintains functionality in the elderly.11 However, modern

The relationship between levels of physical activity and the

Water Built Weather

Motivation Physical activity

influence levels of activity, such as parks, cycle paths and

This publication will draw not only on the aforementioned

As health inequalities are prevalent in many cities of the WHO

Two concepts are central to this publication:

Physical activity is limited to a focus on moderate-intensity

activity has proved to have a substantial impact on people’s

The emphasis on moderate-intensity physical activity is also

This focus on the physical design and planning of the built

Globally, one third of adults do not achieve

active; 23.1 million deaths (about 10% of the

years lost each year in the European Region

Sustainable development is very high on the agenda of both nations and

contribute to addressing for all for physical activity there are

#2 allow for children to walk or

#11 #14 #17

While European cities share a number of the broad

from the patterns seen in most other regions of the globe.

Smaller cities can encourage active travel as an attractive and

The population density of a city is important for several

Another important characteristic shared by many European

While the various factors mentioned above are

Deindustrialization and changing

The industrial era and shrinking population sizes have left

of whom may be forced out of central urban areas, thereby

Inequalities in health are also related to the quality of the

Urban green space is essential in order to create healthy,

Many cities face heavy congestion. In London, a

Security and safety

Opposite: Most people - regardless of age - prefer

More walking in the • user satisfaction;

historic peninsula • accident(both

Given the serious challenges facing cities today, it is

reducing air pollution, rather than as a goal in itself.

In recent years, concepts such as liveability, urban sustainability

A central concern for many cities today is to plan for improving

This shift offers a huge potential for co-benefits. For example,