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Minerals Engineering 24 (2011) 375–380

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Minerals Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mineng

Chrome ore beneficiation challenges & opportunities – A review

Y. Rama Murthy a,⇑, Sunil Kumar Tripathy a, C. Raghu Kumar b
a
Research and Development Division, Iron and Ferroalloys Research Group, Tata Steel Ltd., Jamshedpur 831 001, India
b
Raw Material Technology Group, Tata Steel Ltd., Jamshedpur 831 001, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Supply of world chromite (chrome ore) has come under severe pressure over the past year driven by
Received 23 July 2010 strong demand for ferrochrome used in ferroalloy production for making stainless steel. Many of the stra-
Accepted 5 December 2010 tegic minerals are inputs into products in fast-changing markets. This article reviews the major process
Available online 7 January 2011
flow sheets in practice for the recovery of chromite values from various types of ores and critical issues
related to chromite ore beneficiation. The comprehensive condensation of pertinent facts is intended to
Keywords: provide a single reference source rather than the reader perusing many articles. Emphasis is placed on
Chromite ore
different processes developed in identifying and solving critical plant problems.
Chromite deposits
Chromite beneficiation
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Gravity concentration techniques
Multi-gravity separator

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
2. Sources of chromite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
2.1. World chromite ore scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
2.2. Indian chromite ore scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
3. Commercial chromite ore beneficiation processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
4. Chromite ore beneficiation practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
4.1. Process plant/concentrator bottlenecks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
5. Review of the research works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
5.1. Reduction in tailing losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
5.2. Beneficiation of low and sub-grade chromite ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
5.3. Recovery of ultrafine chromite particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
5.4. Reprocessing of stockpiled tailings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
5.5. Achievement of required grade and ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

1. Introduction chrome produced (mainly high-carbon/charge grade). Chromite

Chromium is one of the modern industry’s essential element
and important raw material for the production of special steel
and ferrochrome alloys. Around 90% of mined chromite ore is con-
verted into different grades of ferrochrome by the metallurgical
industry. Stainless steel industry consumes about 80% of ferro-
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9204058852.
E-mail address: yrama.murthy@tatasteel.com (Y.R. Murthy).
varies widely in composition according to the chemical formula
(Mg, Fe+2) (Cr, Al, Fe+3)2O4. Chromium occurs as chromium spinel,
a complex mineral containing magnesium, iron, aluminium and
chromium in varying proportions depending upon the deposit. Iron
is replaced by magnesium and similarly chromium by ferric iron
and aluminium. It is this replacement that improves Cr:Fe ratio
in chromite. Chromium ore occurs exclusively in ultramafic igne-
ous rocks. Commercial chromite deposits are found in two forms
stratiform seams and irregular podiform/lenticular deposits. With
the richness of silica and iron, chromite ore deposit can be

0892-6875/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2010.12.001
 Author's personal copy
376 Y.R. Murthy et al. / Minerals Engineering 24 (2011) 375–380
classified as siliceous type (silica rich) and ferruginous type (iron
rich). Major associated gangue minerals are talc, quartz, hematite,
goethite, limonite, gabbro, serpentine, anorthosite, dunite, and
pyroxinite. Most of the chromite reserves in the world are concen-
trated in Africa and Asia followed by Europe, Australia and Brazil.
2. Sources of chromite
Chromium ore occurs exclusively in rocks formed by the intru-
sion and solidification of molten lava or magma which is very rich
in the heavy, iron containing minerals such as pyroxenes and oli-
vines. The chromium spinel is a heavy mineral and it concentrates
through gravity separation from most of the other molten material
in the magma during crystallization from the cooling magma.
Commercial chromite deposits are found mainly in two forms
namely stratiform and podiform.
 Stratiform seams in basin-like intrusions, often multiple seams
through repeated igneous injections. The best known example
of a stratiform deposit is the Bushveld Igneous Complex of
South Africa. This complex contains most of the world’s chro-
mite reserves. Other stratiform deposits occur in Madagascar
and in the Orissa state of India.
 The podiform deposits are relatively small in comparison. They
are generally richer in chromium than the stratiform deposits
and have higher Cr:Fe ratios. Ore reserves in Kazakhstan are
of the podiform type. Podiform ores were originally highly
sought after, as the best source of metallurgical grade chromite
for high-carbon ferrochromium. These ores also tend to be mas-
sive (hard lumpy), as opposed to the softer, more friable ores
from the stratiform deposits.
 There is a third type of chromite deposit but of very limited
commercial significance. These are the eluvial deposits that
have been formed by weathering of chromite-bearing rock
and release of the chromite spinels with subsequent gravity
concentration by flowing water.
2.1. World chromite ore scenario
The major chromite ore and concentrates producing countries
are South Africa, India and Kazakhstan, representing 70% of 2008
world production as a whole. South Africa and Zimbabwe hold
about 90% of the world’s chromite reserves and resources, with
South Africa having reserves of about 3.1 billion tonnes. Zimbabwe
is the only country to exploit both stratiform and podiform depos-
Fig. 1. (a) World chromite ore production. (b) World chromite and ferrochrome production (2002–2008).
its with reserves of about 140 million tonnes and resources of 1 bil-
lion tonnes. Kazakhstan has podiform deposits in the Southern Ural
Mountain region with reserves of 320 million tonnes. The ores vary
greatly in chromium content and in Cr:Fe ratios. India’s output is
from podiform bodies on the east coast of the Orissa state. Its re-
serves are put at 27 million tonnes with a further resource of
67 million tonnes. In Brazil, production is concentrated in Bahia
and Minas Gerais. These are mainly stratiform deposits with re-
serves of 14 million tonnes and resources of 17 million tonnes. Chi-
na’s chromium resources are in podiform and stratiform deposits
but are largely unknown in terms of possible reserves and re-
sources. In the year 2008, world chromite ore production was
24 million tonnes against 22 million tonnes in the year 2007. The
following breakdown is shown in Fig. 1a and the world chromite
and ferrochrome production (2002–2008) is presented in Fig. 1b.
Within the total volume of ore and concentrates produced in
2008, 95% were metallurgical grade, 2% chemical grade and the
balance of 3% were refractory and foundry grade.
2.2. Indian chromite ore scenario
Chromite deposits occur in several Indian states like Tamilnadu,
Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Orissa in the form of discontinu-
ous bands, lenses and pockets in different host rock associations.
Though insignificant in the context of world resources, India is en-
dowed with appreciable quantities of good grade chrome ores.
Around 90% of the chromite resources of India are concentrated
in Sukinda valley of Jajpur district and Boula-Nuasahi belt of Orissa
state. The Indian deposits are typically characterized as ferruginous
and siliceous type ores. The ores of Sukinda valley are mostly high
grade, soft and friable in nature besides few quantities of hard lum-
py ore, formed in separate bands. These are mainly associated with
laterite, altered ultramafic rock, nickeliferrous limonite, goethite
and talc serpentine schist. Based on physical characteristics, Orissa
chrome ores are broadly classified as:
 Lumpy and granular: This type of ore is hard, compact, medium
to fine grained.
 Friable ore: This is soft, powdery in nature, mostly of high grade
(Cr2O3 > 50%) with very small gangue minerals and is the bulk
constituent of all brown ore horizons in Sukinda Belt.
 Ferruginous ore: Considerable portion of ore bodies in the
Sukinda belt and Boula-Nuasahi complex are lateritised giving
rise to ferruginous chrome ore where goethite and to some
extent hematite form the gangue minerals.
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Y.R. Murthy et al. / Minerals Engineering 24 (2011) 375–380
 Banded ore: This type of ore is generally encountered in the
wall rock of chromite bands.
 Disseminated ore: In this type of ore serpentine is distributed as
white spots called ‘‘spotted ore’’. Both banded and disseminated
ores are lower in Cr2O3.
3. Commercial chromite ore beneficiation processes
Pure chromium is difficult to produce since it is readily contam-
inated by many other elements. Huge quantity of raw chromite ore
is being mined and beneficiated in various chrome ore beneficia-
tion plants throughout the world to cater the customized needs
of various ferro alloy plants. During mining and processing opera-
tions enormous quantities of fines are generated, which are of ma-
jor concern from handling, storage and environmental point of
view. It was reported that more than 25% of the mineral value is
lost as slimes during the processing of many ores. The importance
of utility of these vast accumulated fines has engaged many R&D
organizations to recover chromite values from these rejected tail-
ings. In the last two decades, many processes for the recovery of
chromite values have been claimed and reported in the form of
technical reports, papers and reviews (Gu and Wills, 1988; Guney,
1990; Guney et al., 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994; Guney, 1995; Atalay
and Ozbayoglu, 1992; Cicek and Cocen, 2002; Ozdag, 1993; Ozdag
et al., 1994; Ucbas and Ozdag, 1994; Cicek et al., 1998; Sönmez and
Turgut, 1998; Gence, 1999). To economically recover these lower-
grade deposits, separation circuits must be optimized. The present
article is a comprehensive review of all the research investigations
carried out by various researchers to form a data base for the chro-
mite waste processing. This paper describes established industrial
processes for recovery of chromite from sources such as raw ore.
4. Chromite ore beneficiation practices
The purpose of beneficiation is to render the ore concentrate
physically (granulometry) and chemically suitable for subsequent
treatments. Beneficiation practices depend on the mineral charac-
teristics of the ore deposits, gangue mineral assemblage and the
degree of dissemination of constituent minerals. In general
chromite beneficiation flow sheet (Fig. 2) has two major sections:
Fig. 2. General process flow sheet for chromite ore beneficiation.
377
comminution (for preparing the material to the subsequent unit
operations) and concentration. The feed preparation unit incorpo-
rates screening of the ROM ore to 75 mm from 220 mm followed
by two stage crushing (primary and secondary crusher) and
screening to produce less than 3 mm size fraction. This fraction is
further ground to less than 1 mm and then upgraded utilizing con-
ventional gravity techniques like spiral concentrator and shaking
table in the concentration section. Though gravity techniques are
well established and widely accepted for the concentration of chro-
mite ore, such techniques become inefficient and complex while
treating fine size particles (less than 75 lm). Recovery is a concern
particularly in finely disseminated ores due to its inherent com-
plexities. Each gravity separation technique delivers its maximum
efficiency under specific operating conditions and particle size
range.
Although literature on the performance of individual concentra-
tors are available but detailed information on the separator perfor-
mance with respect to size and liberation of particle is scarce. A
comparison of the peak efficiencies cannot be made based on the
effect of operating conditions alone. The research works of Pascoe
et al. (2007) shows that it is possible to make a sensible selection of
gravity separation from information on particle size and the miner-
alogy of the ore. Recovery of ultrafine particles below 75 lm size
from process tailings by flotation technique is the subject of recent
investigations. Since most chromite ores are easily beneficiated
with gravity concentration methods, flotation of chromite has not
been widely applied or got commercial acceptance (Atalay and
Ozbayoglu, 1992). This is the most essential issue of every gravity
separation circuit in mineral processing plants, which causes loss
of large fraction of the valuable minerals into tailings.
4.1. Process plant/concentrator bottlenecks
Due to inconsistent feed quality the efficiency of existing bene-
ficiation circuits are going down thereby losing a considerable
quantity of values as wastes. Further, the process circuit has to bear
the load of unwanted fines throughout the circuit, which not only
affects the quality of the product but also results in the loss of con-
siderable quantity of values into tailings. From the mineral conser-
vation point of view it is now obligatory to use the high grade
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378 Y.R. Murthy et al. / Minerals Engineering 24 (2011) 375–380
resource judicially along with the high grade tailings, which were
generated and deposited in the tailing dams in due course of time.
Generation of consistent quality of product by optimizing the
existing flow sheet as well as development of new process flow
sheet for the utilization of tailings is another big challenge for
the process engineers. The present article reviews all those re-
search works that have been done, outlines the approaches that
have been taken and indicates the considerable success that has
been achieved. The discussion concentrates on the process flow
sheets which have been developed to ease the solving of problems
in the Indian chromite ore beneficiation plants. Emphasis is placed
on different processes developed in identifying and solving those
problems, and analysis of the data generated by the researchers.
5. Review of the research works
The critical issues related to the chromite process plants inves-
tigated by various researchers have been categorized as:
5.1. Reducing the tailing losses (9–20% Cr2O3).
5.2. Beneficiation of low and sub-grade chromite ore (10–30%
Cr2O3).
5.3. Recovery of unrecoverable ultrafine chrome particles.
5.4. Reprocessing of stockpiled tailings containing valuables.
5.5. Concentrate with required Cr2O3 content and Cr/Fe ratio.
5.1. Reduction in tailing losses
The critical area of concern in any chrome ore beneficiation
plant is the grinding circuit followed by beneficiation circuit com-
prising gravity units such as wet shaking tables and spirals. The
effectiveness of grinding circuit depends on the consistent feed
quality. Any variation in feed reduces the performance of the sub-
sequent unit operations. Such variations in feed/ore characteristics
reduce the efficiency of the beneficiation circuits resulting in the
loss of fine values into tailings. Recovery of the valuable minerals
contained in fine particles is a complex problem in mineral pro-
cessing and particularly in gravity separation. With decreasing par-
ticle size (<100 lm), the force associated with the water flow
becomes dominant over that associated with gravity. With conven-
tional methods depending on the liberation particle size of the ore,
significant amounts of fine chromites are lost to the tailings. For
this reason, all of the methods are only partly successful in the fine
particle size range (Gence, 1999). Mozley multi-gravity separator
(MGS) can be used with success for reducing fine chromite losses
in the gravity tailings of Turkish chromite gravity plants, based
on the fact that 105 lm fraction amounts to 8–46.4% of the total,
with a Cr2O3 content of about 10–21% Cicek et al. (1998, 2000,
2002). Typical chromite recovery values using the MGS can be
about 65–80%. Preliminary economical evaluations shows that
MGS chromite fines recovery units have pay back times of less than
one year. Based on the results, they developed a flow sheet. The
grinding circuit efficiency fluctuates due to the variation in ore
characteristics, resulting in an inefficient separation, with a loss
of fine chromite into tailing. In order to recover the same flotation
is the only alternative method. Numerous references are listed in
the literature to float chromite with cationic and anionic collectors
(Atak, 1982; Atalay et al., 1989; Foot et al., 1986; Guney et al.,
1991, 1993). Based on this fact, the research work of Sysila et al.
(1996), shows that by treating slime feed in flotation the tailing
losses can be reduced to 1.2–10% Cr2O3.
5.2. Beneficiation of low and sub-grade chromite ore
From the mineral conservation point of view it is necessary to
maximize the utilization of lean grade ore and minimize the high
grade ore consumption. This necessitates development of high
capacity processing plants with new technological unit operations.
Rao et al. (1987), depicted that, low grade chrome ore with Cr2O3 of
about 20–30% of Sukinda region of India, can be beneficiated to a
marketable grade of 45% Cr2O3 with 45% recovery, by grinding
the chrome ore (d80 passing size 260 lm) and desliming the same
using hydrocyclone and by treating the under flow on sand table
and the overflow on slime table. On the other hand, the same
ground sample after desliming followed by classification and ta-
bling can produce a concentrate of 53% Cr2O3 with 56% recovery
or alternatively 45% Cr2O3 with 73% recovery and tailing loss of
10% Cr2O3. (Rao et al., 1987), shows that low grade chromite ore
with Cr2O3 of about 20–30% of Sukinda region of India, can be up-
graded to a marketable chrome concentrate of 50% Cr2O3 with a
metal recovery of about 70% by using spirals and tables in the cir-
cuit. Research work of Tevfik Agacayk et al. on low grade chromite
ores of abandoned mines in Turkey (average grade 20–40% Cr2O3)
shows that best grades for Cr2O3 can be achieved by using shaking
table (55.65%), 57.52% by multi-gravity separator, 54.58% by Hum-
prey spiral test and 50.68% by jigging. All the unit operations were
operated individually rather than a flow sheet. Sub-grade chromite
ore with Cr2O3 of about 38.5% of Sukinda region of India, can be up-
graded to a marketable chrome concentrate of 53–54% Cr2O3 with
a recovery of about 58–60% and tailing loss of around 14–16.39% of
Cr2O3, by using wet shaking tables in the circuit (Banerjee et al.,
2005). Based on the findings of experiments researchers developed
two process routes for beneficiating two different size fractions.
Considering the tailing disposal problems of chromite gravity
plants, the research works carried out by Amer and Ibrahim
(1996) on hydrometallurgical processing of low grade chromite
ore (Barramiya, Egypt), with a new technique using mechanical
alkaline treatment in an attritor followed by oxidative leaching
in an autoclave reveals that even a short processing time in stirred
ball mill (25 min) leads to extraction P90% of chromium in the
form of chromate in only one leaching stage.
The beneficiation studies of Suresh et al. (1981), concludes that
low grade chromite ore of 16–25% Cr2O3, of Sitampundi area of In-
dia, cannot be upgraded by using tabling and flotation techniques,
to meet the metallurgical grade due to the intimate association of
iron in the lattice of chromite. But can be upgraded to meet the
refractory grade of 30–40% Cr2O3, by using gravity methods.
5.3. Recovery of ultrafine chromite particles
Large amounts of fine sized chromite tailings naturally occur
during production and processing, and this causes severe environ-
mental hazards as well as source losses due to the high chromite
content. There have been numerous research studies (Guney,
1990; Guney et al., 1991, 1992, 1993; Guney, 1994; Ozdag, 1993;
Ozdag et al., 1994; Ucbas and Ozdag, 1994; Gui et al., 1995; Cicek
et al., 1998; Sönmez and Turgut, 1998; Gence, 1999), on the bene-
ficiation of the tailings in recent years. Generally, after crushing
and grinding, spirals and shaking tables are used as the concentra-
tors, therefore fine size chromite particles ( 0.038 lm) are re-
moved as tailings (Guney et al., 2001). The beneficiation of the
valuable minerals contained in fine particles is a complicated prob-
lem in mineral processing and particularly in gravity separation.
The fines below 100 lm are generally discarded as gangue from
gravity concentration processes which ultimately reports to tailing
through process water stream. To recover these fines, investigation
results of Feng and Aldrich (2004) on the Western Chromite Mines
in South Africa, shows that maximum 95.6% of chromite fines can
be recovered by using column flotation with the optimum condi-
tions of parameters. Flotation recovery of many minerals decreases
as the particle size decreases. Based on this fact, the studies of
Akdemir and Hiçyilmaz (1996), reveals that shear flocculation of
 Author's personal copy
Y.R. Murthy et al. / Minerals Engineering 24 (2011) 375–380
chromite is possible in aqueous solution of sodium oleate to re-
cover the ultrafine (<10 lm) chromite particles.
5.4. Reprocessing of stockpiled tailings
The high value of chromite in the tailings of gravity chromite
concentration plants has been reported by many investigators.
During the earlier concentration of valuable minerals in many
plants, large volumes of tailings were produced and these tailings
_
may be harmful to the environment Ozkan and Ipekoğlu (2002).
Recovery of values from these tailings of gravity concentration
plants is one of the challenging issues for the process engineers.
A number of research investigations were carried out to determine
the most economic process applicable and flow sheets were devel-
oped to address the same problem.
The research work of Cicek et al., evidenced that the fine chro-
mite particles can be recovered from the stockpiled tailings of
Turkish chromite gravity plants with a Cr2O3 of about 8–14.4%.
By treating the same in a new process circuit which invariably con-
sists of multi-gravity separator (MGS) as the major fine gravity
concentrator, chrome concentrate of around 48% of Cr2O3 with a
recovery of 51.6% can be achieved. Guney et al., illustrate that by
introducing shaking table for 1 + 0.1 mm size fraction and high-
intensity wet magnetic separator (HIWMS) and column flotation
for treating 0.1 mm size fraction, fine chrome particles that are
present in the gravity tailings of Turkish chromite gravity plants,
chrome concentrate of 45–48% Cr2O3 and a tailing loss of below
7% Cr2O3 with a overall plant recovery of 60–65%, can be recovered
with success, based on the fact that 83% of the chromite exist in
0.1 mm fraction with a Cr2O3 content of about 20–22.11%.
The research work of Bhima Rao et al., shows that tailings of
chromite gravity plants of Sukinda region of India, which invari-
ably contains 11.7% Cr2O3, can be beneficiated to produce a chrome
concentrate of 46% Cr2O3 content with a recovery of 38%, by using a
combination of Bartles Mozley (BM) table and cross belt separator.
Mohan Rao et al. (2006), concludes that incorporation of addi-
tional circuit in the chromite gravity plant comprising of hydrocy-
clone for desliming and two stage multi-gravity separators can
produce marketable grade concentrate with an increased chromite
recovery of 85% from the original recoveries of 70%. The tailings so
produced will analyse <12% Cr2O3. If Cr/Fe ratio required is >1.6, it
is essential to add magnetic separation to the circuit additionally.
5.5. Achievement of required grade and ratio
To achieve a consistent concentrate production of 50–52% Cr2O3
content and 2.8 Cr/Fe ratio with a recovery of 38%, from a feed
grade containing 25% Cr2O3 and 0.8–1 Cr/Fe, a combination of
shaking table and WHIMS can be used Murthy et al., (1994). The
investigations carried out by Bhima Rao et al. (1997), reveals that
Cr/Fe ratio of off-grade chromite samples of Orissa, India, can be
improved to 1.85–3.0 with a recovery around 10–30%, by high-
intensity magnetic separation of the washed ores. Based on their
result, they have developed a new process flow sheet. Magnetic
separation studies carried out by Abubakre et al. (2007) on Ankha
chromite ore shows that the Cr2O3 content has increased to 48%
from 36.84% with a maximum Cr:Fe ratio of 6.2:1.
6. Conclusion
The recovery of fine chromite values from tailings has been the
subject of recent investigations. For sustainability of high grade
chromite resources and to satisfy the continuous demand in the fu-
ture needs, beneficiation of lean/sub-grade ores as well as tailings
is imperative. This challenge has given rise to the need for develop-
379
ing a strategy for economic and efficient process/process flow
sheet for the recovery of chromite from the lean/sub-grade ores
and tailings. Though high quality of research works have been car-
ried out by various researchers in the beneficiation of low/sub-
grade chromite ores, the focus towards the recovery of chromite
values from fine, ultrafine and tailings has to be widened. The
application of enhanced gravity concentrators (MGS) and floata-
tion columns have found wide acceptance at various beneficiation
plant flow sheets of Turkey for the recovery of fine and ultrafine
chromite. For the beneficiation of Indian chrome ore these unit
operations yet to be established. The detailed study of chromite
ore beneficiation processes reveals that the opportunities still exist
to recover chromite values from the low/sub-grade ores and tail-
ings using the conventional beneficiation processes. Following con-
clusions were drawn from the research work carried out:
 By considering the aspects of conservation of mineral resources,
western researchers are now using the techniques to recover
even the traces of ultrafine chromite particles that are reporting
to the tailing.
 From the review it can be observed that the research work on
tailing losses and ultrafine recovery of chrome ore need more
focus in the Indian context. In order to solve the major problems
that are incorporated with Indian chromite ore beneficiation
plants, following aspects deserve further attention, and have
been identified on the basis of the literature survey:
 The ores invariably contains some amount of natural fines,
desliming the same before processing shows high tailing
loss.
 The investigations that have been carried out by various
researchers are highly appreciable but still the process flow
sheets are not completely acceptable since high tailing losses
are associated with the same as far as the production of
required quality of concentrate is concerned.
 From the literature it is evident that low grade chrome ore of
both ferruginous and siliceous type gets complete liberation
at the size below 212 lm and shaking tables that are being
used in the chromite ore beneficiation plants are inefficient
in separating chrome particle below 72 lm.
 Wet shaking table and multi-gravity separator play a key
role in unit operations apart from hydrocyclone and spirals
in the processing of chromite fines of Turkey.
 These unit operations are yet to be established for benefici-
ation of Indian chromite ore fines on an industrial scale.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to Tata Steel management and Dr. D.
Bhattacharjee, Director RD&T for their encouragement, support
and permission to publish the paper. Thanks are also due to Prof.
T.C. Rao for his guidance and discussion.
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