Schizophrenia Spectrum & Psychotic Disorders

Schizophrenia:
• Description -disturbance in cognition, emotional responsiveness, and behaviour.

• Age of onset – Schizophrenia can be abrupt or insidious (usually insidious). Onset is between
late teens to early 30s.

 For Males – Late teens to early 20s.

 For Females – Late 20s to early 30s.

 Late Onset cases (age 40 years and up) are overrepresented by married females.
Psychotic symptoms but affect and social functions are often preserved.

• Symptoms – Delusions, Hallucinations, Disorganized Thinking (Speech), Grossly disorganized or

abnormal motor behaviour (including catatonia), negative symptoms – (these are more common
than positive symptoms).

Positive symptoms - the addition of a behaviour that should not be there.

Delusions – belief that is incongruent to reality.

 Referential – ordinary events have hidden meanings

 Grandiose – false attribution of importance to oneself.
 Erotomanic – belief that someone famous or important loves you.
 Nihilistic – belief that you no longer exist or that there is no point in
living.
 Somatic – belief that your bodily organs are failing.
 Persecution – belief that others are out to harm you.

Hallucinations – perception of things that aren’t there. Reactions to nonexistent

external stimulus. Usually, vivid, clear, has same impact of normal perception and is not
under voluntary control.

 Hypnagogic or hynopompic hallucinations do not count in this sense.

 Hypnagogic – experience right before you fall asleep.
 Hynopompic – experienced just prior to waking up.
NB. Sleep paralysis is different to hallucinations.

Disorganized Thinking (speech) – inability to communicate coherently.

 Derailment – frequent interruptions in thought and jumping from one

idea to another unrelated or indirectly related idea.
 Loose association -
 Tangential Speech – repeatedly diverging from original subject.
 Grossly disorganized or abnormal motor behaviour – difficulty in sustaining goal-
oriented behaviour.

 Mania - a state of excitement, overactivity, and psychomotor agitation,

often accompanied by overoptimism, grandiosity, or impaired
judgment.
 Social disinhibition – inappropriate social behaviour.
 Catatonia – neuropsychiatric syndrome characterized by disturbance in
motor behaviour. Usually secondary to another illness such as Mood,
Psychotic, Medical or Neurologic disorders.

Catatonia can be diagnosed if the clinical picture is dominated by 3 or

NB. Aphasia is an acquired more of the following:
language impairment that
results from brain damage,
typically in the left hemisphere;
caused by stroke, tumors or
degenerative diseases.
Negative
symptoms – a
deficit in the ability
to perform normal
functions of living.
It includes:
Alogia –
diminished speech
Anhedonia
– reduced pleasure
Avolition –
lack of self
motivation
1. Stupor (i.e., no psychomotor activity; not actively relating to
environment)
2. Catalepsy (i.e., passive induction of a posture held against
gravity)
3. Waxy flexibility (i.e., allow positioning by examiner and
maintain position)
4. Mutism (i.e., no, or very little, verbal response [exclude if
known aphasia])
5. Negativism (i.e., opposition or no response to instructions or
external stimuli)
6. Posturing (i.e., spontaneous and active maintenance of a
posture against gravity
7. Mannerisms (i.e., odd, circumstantial caricature of normal
actions)
8. Stereotypy (i.e., repetitive, abnormally frequent, non-goal-
directed movements)
9. Agitation, not influenced by external stimuli
10. Grimacing (i.e. making a grimace like children)
11. Echolalia (i.e., mimicking another's speech)
12. Echopraxia (i.e., mimicking another's movements)

Asociality – lack of interest in social interactions.

Affective flattening (blunting of affect) – inability to feel range of emotions.

• Diagnostic criteria according to DSM-V

A. B.

Two (or more) of the following, each present for a
significant portion of time during a 1 -month period (or
less if successfully treated).
At least one of these must be (1), (2), or (3):
1. Delusions.
2. Hallucinations.
3. Disorganized speech
4. Grossly disorganized or catatonic
behavior.
5. Negative symptoms
For a significant portion of the time since the onset of
the disturbance, level of functioning in one or more
major areas, such as work, interpersonal relations, or
self-care, is markedly below the level achieved prior to
the onset.
Or, when the onset is in childhood or adolescence,
there is failure to achieve expected level of
interpersonal, academic, or occupational functioning.
 C.
Continuous signs of the disturbance persist for at least 6
months.
This 6-month period must include at least 1 month of
symptoms (or less if successfully treated) that meet
Criterion A (i.e., active-phase symptoms) and may
include periods of prodromal or residual symptoms.
During these prodromal or residual periods, the signs of
the disturbance may be manifested by only negative
symptoms or by two or more symptoms listed in
Criterion A present in an attenuated form (e.g., odd
beliefs, unusual perceptual experiences).
E.
The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological
effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a
medication) or another medical condition.
F.
If there is a history of autism spectrum disorder or a
communication disorder of childhood onset, the
additional diagnosis of schizophrenia is made only if
prominent delusions or hallucinations, in addition to the
other required symptoms of schizophrenia, are also
present for at least 1 month (or less if successfully
treated).
Specify if:
Multiple episodes, currently in acute episode: Multiple
episodes may be determined after a minimum of two
episodes (i.e., after a first episode, a remission and a
minimum of one relapse).
Multiple episodes, currently in partial remission
Multiple episodes, currently in full remission
Continuous: Symptoms remain for the majority of the
illness course
Unspecified
Specify if:
With catatonia
D.
Schizoaffective disorder and depressive or bipolar
disorder with psychotic features have been ruled out
because either:
1 ) no major depressive or manic episodes have occurred
concurrently with the active-phase symptoms, or
2) if mood episodes have occurred during active-phase
symptoms, they have been present for a minority of the
total duration of the active and residual periods of the
illness.
Specify if:
The following course specifiers are only to be used after a
1 -year duration of the disorder and if they are not in
contradiction to the diagnostic course criteria:
First episode, currently in acute episode: First
manifestation of the disorder meeting the defining
diagnostic symptom and time criteria.
First episode, currently in partial remission: An
improvement after a previous episode is maintained and
the defining criteria of the disorder are only partially
fulfilled.
First episode, currently in full remission: Full remission is
a period of time after a previous episode during which no
disorder-specific symptoms are present.
Specify current severity:
Severity is rated by a quantitative assessment of the
primary symptoms of psychosis (delusions,
hallucinations, disorganized speech, abnormal
psychomotor behavior, & negative symptoms)
Each of these symptoms may be rated for its current
severity (most severe in the last 7 days) on a 5-point
scale ranging from 0 (not present) to 4 (present and
severe).
• Course
NB. Diagnosis of schizophrenia is not usually made if there is a history of Autism Spectrum Disorder.

• Differential diagnoses and comorbidity

 Differential diagnosis - the process of determining which of two or more

diseases or disorders with overlapping symptoms a particular patient has.

 Comorbidity - the simultaneous presence in an individual of more than one

illness, disease, or disorder.

• Course - the length of time a disorder, illness, or treatment typically lasts, its natural
progression; and (if applicable) its recurrence over time.

 While symptoms have to be present for at least 6 months, with 1 month of

active-phase symptoms in order for a diagnosis of schizophrenia can be given,
the course varies of each client.

 Psychotic symptoms tend to diminish over the life course. However, negative
symptoms are more persistent.

 Cognitive impairments may persist when other symptoms are in remission.

 Though symptoms have to persist for 6 months, people often have subthreshold
prodromal and residual symptoms.

- Prodromal – preceding the onset of the disorder.

- Residual – following active phase.
- Course and outcome unreliable, however:
-

• Prognosis - a prediction of the course, duration, severity, and outcome of a condition, disease,
or disorder. Prognosis may be given before any treatment is undertaken, so that the patient or
client can weigh the benefits of different treatment options.

• Treatment - the administration of appropriate measures (e.g., drugs, surgery, psychotherapy)

that are designed to relieve a pathological condition.

 Treatment is usually a combination of medication in conjunction with

psychological interventions.

 Oral antipsychotic medication.

 Family intervention.
  Individual Cognitive Behavioural Therapy.

• Other Notes

 Only about 4% patients with active schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders

behave violently, compared with less than 2% of the general population.

 people with poor mental health are 7-56% more likely to be the victims of
violence

 Only about 10% -16% of people with schizophrenia commit suicide during the
course of a lifetime.

 Schizophrenia disproportionately affects African Americans and affects men and

women almost equally.

 Causes of schizophrenia are unknown. However, a combination of physical,

genetic, psychological, and environmental factors can make a person more likely
to develop the condition.

 The lifetime prevalence of schizophrenia is 0.30−0.7%.

 Using a broad definition of psychotic disorder there is a lifetime risk of 3.5% if

other psychotic disorders, such as bipolar disorder and substance-induced
psychotic disorder, are included (Perala et al. 2007)

 Sex – differs depending on populations and symptoms.

 Negative symptoms more common in males.

 Mixed presentation approximately equivalent in both sexes

 Males often have worse premorbid adjustment, lower educational achievement,

more prominent negative symptoms and cognitive impairment, and in general a
worse outcome.