DNA replication, transcription

and translation [96 marks]

1. Bacteria cultured in a medium containing only 15N were transferred to a [1 mark]
medium containing only 14N and allowed to complete one round of
replication. The DNA in bacteria produced as a result of replication on the 14N
medium was extracted and subjected to caesium chloride centrifugation which
separates DNA molecules according to their density.

Which centrifuge tube shows the arrangement of bands observed after one round
of replication?
A. Tube 3
B. Tube 4
C. Tube 5
D. Tube 6

Markscheme
D

Examiners report
The candidates found this question difficult, but it did discriminate well. This
was a common question with HL and the HL students performed better than SL
on the question as would be expected.
2. Which feature is common to both mRNA and DNA? [1 mark]
A. Covalent bonds between adjacent nucleotides
B. Hydrogen bonds between guanine and cytosine
C. Ribose sugar attached to phosphate
D. Antiparallel arrangement of polynucleotide strands

Markscheme
A

Examiners report
[N/A]

Cellular processes at the molecular level are regulated by enzymes.

3a. Outline the process of DNA profiling. [4 marks]

Markscheme
a. sample of DNA obtained from person/hair/blood/mouth/crime scene ✔
b. PCR used to amplify/make copies of DNA (in sample) ✔
c. using Taq DNA polymerase / using DNA polymerase from thermophilic
bacteria ✔
d. tandem repeats amplified/used ✔
e. gel electrophoresis used to separate DNA (into bands) ✔
f. separation according to length of fragments/number of repeats
OR
fragments of same length/number of repeats travel same distance ✔
g. pattern of bands/numbers of repeats is the profile/is unique to the individual
✔
h. example of application/forensics/crime investigation/paternity ✔
Do not accept ‘determine ancestry’ for mph. Other genes/chromosomes are
more often used for that.
Accept STR for (short) tandem repeat in mpd.

Examiners report
There were some good outlines of DNA profiling. Most knew at least one
application of the process. There was some confusion between profiling and
sequencing and the use of tandem repeats was often missed.
3b. Outline the role of DNA polymerase III in DNA replication. [4 marks]

Markscheme
a. binds to template strand adjacent to a primer/at the primer ✔
b. adds nucleotides to template strand/to single stranded DNA ✔
c. using complementary base pairing ✔
d. links nucleotides with sugar-phosphate/phosphodiester bonds ✔
e. adds nucleotides/builds new strand in 5' → 3' direction ✔
f. lagging strand is built in short segments/Okazaki fragments/synthesis is
discontinuous ✔
Accept A to T and G to C instead of ‘complementary’ in mpc.
For mpb it must be clear that nucleotides, not bases, are added to an existing
strand of DNA. Do not accept ‘to replication fork’ for this.

Examiners report
For the well-prepared candidate, this posed no problems and the four marks
were easily earned. At the other end of the performance range almost all
candidates mentioned Okazaki fragments — a benefit of giving something a
distinctive name.
3c. Explain the factors that affect the rate of enzyme-controlled reactions in [7 marks]
cells.
Markscheme
a. temperature increases rate up to optimum and higher temperatures
decrease rate / graph ✔
b. faster molecular movement as temperature rises (so more substrate-active
site collisions) ✔
c. high temperature/heat causes denaturation/irreversible change to active
site (so rate reduces) ✔
d. rate decreased if pH is above and below optimum/if pH is too high or low /
graph ✔
e. pH affects shape/structure of enzyme/active site /affects ionization (of
amino acids) ✔
f. increases in substrate concentration cause rate to rise towards a
plateau/WTTE / graph ✔
g. greater chance of substrate-active site collisions with higher substrate
concentration
OR
active sites saturated/all full at high substrate concentrations ✔
h. higher enzyme concentration increases rate (as there are more active sites)
✔
i. enzyme inhibitors/competitive inhibitors/non-competitive inhibitors reduce
the rate ✔
j. end-product inhibitors switch off metabolic pathway / act on enzyme at start
of pathway rate ✔
OR
allosteric site used to control enzyme activity by binding of (non-competitive)
inhibitor
Graphs can be used for mpa, mpd mpf and mph but x-axis must have the
variable indicated.
For mpa there must be exponential rise to optimum then faster drop.
For mpd there must be a bellshaped curve but it need not be exactly
symmetrical.
For mpf and mph there must be decreasing increases in rate towards a
plateau.

Examiners report
This was expected to be high-scoring, because it is such a standard topic, but
candidates may have been running out of steam by the time they reached it
and many answers were too brief, with significant points omitted.
4a. Describe the structure of the DNA molecule. [5 marks]
 Markscheme
a. two stranded/double helix ✔
b. antiparallel / strands running in opposite directions
OR
one strand organized 5’ to 3’ and the other 3’ to 5’ ✔
c. sugar-phosphate backbone ✔
d. each strand formed by chains of nucleotides ✔
e. each nucleotide is formed by a phosphate, a deoxyribose and a base /
annotated diagram of a nucleotide clearly indicated as a nucleotide ✔
f. the bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine ✔
g. strands held together by hydrogen bonds (between complementary base
pairs)
OR
A pairs with T and C pairs with G ✔
Both helix and two strands needed for mp a. Double helix is sufficient for the
mark.
Points can be awarded to annotated diagrams.
For mp c, the explicit label sugar phosphate backbone is required .
To award mp d from a diagram, at least three pairs of nucleotides should be
shown.
For mp e, the diagram would need to be labelled as a nucleotide .
For mp e, expect deoxyribose not just sugar.
The written names of the bases are required for mp f.
Do not penalize twice for mp f and g for using letters.
If they only ever use the symbols A,T,C and G they are ineligible for mp f. If
however, they say A pairs with T and C pairs with G, then they would get mp
g. If they wrote adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine,
then they would obtain both mp f and mp g.

Examiners report
A surprising number of students failed to discuss nucleotides explicitly.

4b. Outline the role of three enzymes used in the replication of DNA. [3 marks]
 Markscheme
a. helicase to separate/unwind DNA strands ✔
b. gyrase / toposiomerase to relax the tension as bacterial DNA is being
uncoiled / prevent supercoiling ✔
c. primase to synthesise primers ✔
d. polymerase (I) removes primers and replaces with nucleotide ✔
e. polymerase (III) adds nucleotides (in a 5' to 3' direction) ✔
f. ligase joins (Okazaki) fragments together ✔
Accept the enzyme name without ‘DNA’ included; e.g. ‘DNA ligase’ or ‘ligase’
can both be accepted.

Examiners report
Well answered.

4c. Insulin is produced in β cells of the pancreas and not in other cells of the [7 marks]
human body. Explain how differentiation of cells and regulation of gene
expression allow proteins such as insulin to be produced in only certain types of
body cell.
Markscheme
a. insulin production is determined by a gene ✔
b. gene for insulin (is found in all cells), but only activated in (β cells of)
pancreas ✔
c. stem cells differentiate into specialized cells/(into pancreatic β) ✔
d. during differentiation some genes are turned on and others off ✔
e. insulin is a hormone that regulates the amount of glucose/sugar in blood ✔
f. pancreatic β cells have sensors that detect glucose level in blood ✔
g. an increase in glucose will increase transcription of mRNA of insulin ✔
h. the site of transcription of insulin is in the pancreatic β cells ✔
i. gene transcription is regulated by proteins that bind to specific base
sequence in DNA/ enhancers/silencers/promoter proximal elements ✔
j. regulatory sequences/proteins are specific to the gene they regulate / insulin
regulator proteins are only found in in the pancreatic β cells ✔
k. (DNA) methylation (usually) inhibits gene expression / (histone) acetylation
promotes gene expression / tightness of coiling of DNA around histones affects
gene expression ✔
Accept sugar as equivalent to glucose.
 Examiners report
In general, scores for this question were quite low. Candidates were too vague
in their answers. Many failed to discuss chemical modification of DNA and the
role of non-coding sequences in the regulation of gene expression.

5. What is the reason for Taq DNA polymerase being used in the polymerase [1 mark]
chain reaction (PCR)?
A. It does not denature at high temperatures.
B. It produces Okazaki fragments more rapidly.
C. It allows translation to proceed rapidly.
D. It works efficiently with helicase in PCR.

Markscheme
A

Examiners report
[N/A]
6. The diagram represents transcription and translation. [1 mark]

[Source: © International Baccalaureate Organization 2020.]

What structures do the letters X and Y represent?

Markscheme
B

Examiners report
[N/A]
7. For what did Meselson and Stahl’s work provide evidence? [1 mark]
A. The abiotic origin of organic molecules
B. The cell theory
C. The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure
D. The semi-conservative replication of DNA

Markscheme
D

Examiners report
[N/A]
8. The diagram shows mRNA codons. [1 mark]

[Source: elementix / Alamy Stock Photo]

The mRNA sequence UGGAACGUA codes for what amino acid sequence?
A. Glycine-Glutamine-Methionine
B. Methionine-Glutamine-Glycine
C. Threonine-Valine-Histidine
D. Tryptophan-Asparagine-Valine

Markscheme
D

Examiners report
[N/A]
 A short base sequence of mRNA and a table of the genetic code are shown below.
Sequence of mRNA

Table of the genetic code

9a. Outline the function of codons. [1 mark]

Markscheme
«three bases on mRNA» coding for one amino acid «in a polypeptide» ✔

Examiners report
[N/A]
9b. Determine the sequence of amino acids that could be translated from the [1 mark]
sequence of mRNA.

Markscheme
met-ser-arg-arg
OR
start-ser-arg-arg
OR
met-ser-arg-arg-stop
OR
start-ser-arg-arg-stop ✔
Do not accept peptides containing an amino acid/leu for the last codon.

Examiners report
[N/A]

9c. Determine the DNA base sequence transcribed to form this sequence of [1 mark]
mRNA.

Markscheme
TAC TCG GCT TCC ATC GAC ✔

Examiners report
[N/A]
9d. Suggest a hypothesis that accounts for the slightly different meaning of [1 mark]
some codons in a very limited number of organisms.

Markscheme
they occurred after the common origin of life OWTTE
OR
the genetic code is not «in fact» universal ✔
Look for alternatives.

Examiners report
[N/A]
 The diagram shows a section of a polypeptide.

9e. Annotate the diagram to show a peptide bond between two amino acids. [1 mark]
 Markscheme
any annotation between a C=O and the next NH ✔
e.g.

Examiners report
[N/A]

9f. State the type of reaction that removes water while linking amino acids [1 mark]
together to form polypeptides.

Markscheme
condensation ✔
Do not accept anabolism alone.

Examiners report
[N/A]
9g. Outline the function of Rubisco and of spider silk in relation to their [2 marks]
three-dimensional conformation.

Markscheme

Award [1] per correct row or correct column.

Examiners report
[N/A]
10. The gene that codes for a particular polypeptide includes the base [1 mark]
sequence shown.
GAGTACCCT
What is the base sequence of the mRNA molecule which is complementary to this
sequence?
A. GAGTACCCT
B. CTCATGGGA
C. GUGTUCCCT
D. CUCAUGGGA

Markscheme
D

Examiners report
[N/A]
11. The base sequences of a short section of DNA are shown, together with [1 mark]
mRNA that has been transcribed from it and one of the tRNA anticodons
that could be used to translate the mRNA.

Which strand of DNA is transcribed and to which codon in the mRNA would the
tRNA anticodon bind during translation?

Markscheme
C

Examiners report
This question was too long to answer in one minute, but this is compensated
by other easy questions. It discriminated very well and was not too difficult.
12a. Outline the stages in the production of mRNA by transcription. [4 marks]

Markscheme
a. DNA is unwound/strands are separated «by RNA polymerase» ✔
b. new nucleotides attached to template strand «by RNA polymerase» ✔
c. complementary base pairing/base pairing with an example
OR
adenine with thymine/uracil with adenine/cytosine with guanine/guanine with
cytosine ✔
d. mRNA detaches from template ✔
e. DNA rewinds ✔
 Examiners report
Almost all students had a clear idea of complementary base pairing and that A
pairs with U in RNA. However, this question revealed weakness in the
understanding of transcription and the ability to distinguish transcription from
DNA replication and RNA translation. Often times candidates had hybrid
answers containing information from at least two, but sometimes all three
processes. Many candidates were able to gain a couple of the easier marks in
7a on transcription despite having a poor understanding of the process.

12b. Describe the functions of proteins in cell membranes. [4 marks]

Markscheme
a. facilitated diffusion by channel proteins ✔
b. active transport by protein pumps
OR
protein pumps eg sodium-potassium ✔
c. cell recognition by glycoproteins/protein receptors ✔
d. communication/receptors for hormones/signal molecules ✔
e. cell adhesion ✔
f. allow up to one additional mark for AHL material ✔

Examiners report
A wide variety of fairly well-developed answers. Often, they did not couple a
type of protein with its function or missed marks by being too general. Saying
“transport proteins” was not enough. Often the terms integral and peripheral
proteins were mentioned without going beyond that. Channel proteins and
facilitated diffusion was most commonly given. The mistaken idea that
proteins offer structural support or strengthen the cell membrane was seen
repeatedly.
12c. Explain how natural selection can lead to speciation. [7 marks]
 Markscheme
a. natural selection is caused by selection pressures in the environment
OR
example of a selection pressure ✔
b. natural selection requires that variation exists within a species ✔
c. variation arises randomly due to mutation
OR
variation is enhanced by meiosis/sexual reproduction ✔
d. over-production of offspring promotes selection
OR
natural selection occurs when there is
competition/overpopulation/predators/environmental changes/changes in
selection pressures ✔
e. well adapted individuals/individuals with best variations survive to
reproduce/survival of fittest ✔
f. «frequency of» genes/alleles conferring an advantage are selected for
OR
genes/alleles conferring a disadvantage are selected against ✔
g. genetic divergence/difference increases
OR
natural selection «genetically» isolates members of a species so eventually
they can no longer produce fertile offspring ✔
h. genetic divergence» leads to reproductive isolation ✔
i. geographical/behavioural/ecological factors may lead to «reproductive»
isolation ✔
j. prolonged «reproductive» isolation leads to speciation ✔
k. up to one additional mark for AHL information ✔

Examiners report
There were some excellent explanations given in well-structured responses.
Many candidates avoided talking about natural selection in genetics terms,
losing marks in the process. Darwin’s finches, industrial melanism and the
giraffe were common examples. Some students invented their own creative
examples.
The idea that natural selection limits biodiversity appeared a few times. The
flawed case of the peppered moth was given to exemplify speciation, however
Darwin's finches were the most frequent example.

13a. Outline the roles of helicase and ligase in DNA replication. [4 marks]
Markscheme
helicase:
a. unwinds/uncoils the DNA «double helix» ✔
b. breaks hydrogen bonds «between bases» ✔
c. separates the «two» strands/unzips the DNA/creates replication fork ✔
ligase:
d. seals nicks/forms a continuous «sugar-phosphate» backbone/strand ✔
e. makes sugar-phosphate bonds/covalent bonds between adjacent
nucleotides ✔
f. after «RNA» primers are removed/where an «RNA» primer was replaced by
DNA ✔
g. «helps to» join Okazaki fragments ✔
 Examiners report
This was generally well answered, with most candidates knowing at least
something of the roles of these two enzymes. Most candidates knew that
ligase connects Okazaki fragments but some claimed that it creates hydrogen
bonds between nucleotides on template and the new strand. Many candidates
did not distinguish between unwinding of DNA and separating the strands. Two
details that should be more widely known are that helicase separates the two
strands of a DNA molecule by encouraging the breakage of hydrogen bonds
between bases and that ligase seals nicks by making sugar phosphate bonds.

13b. Explain how natural selection can lead to speciation. [7 marks]

 Markscheme
a. variation is required for natural selection/evolution/variation in
species/populations ✔
b. mutation/meiosis/sexual reproduction is a source of variation ✔
c. competition/more offspring than the environment can support ✔
d. adaptations make individuals suited to their environment/way of life ✔
e. survival of better adapted «individuals)/survival of fittest/converse ✔
f. inheritance of traits/passing on genes of better adapted «individuals»
OR
reproduction/more reproduction of better adapted/fittest «individuals» ✔
g. speciation is formation of a new species/splitting of a species/one
population becoming a separate species ✔
h. reproductive isolation of separated populations ✔
i. geographic isolation «of populations can lead to speciation» ✔
j. temporal/behavioral isolation «of populations can lead to speciation» ✔
k. disruptive selection/differences in selection «between populations can lead
to speciation» ✔
l. gradual divergence of populations due to natural selection/due to differences
in environment ✔
m. changes in the gene pools «of separated populations»/separation of gene
pools ✔
n. interbreeding becomes impossible/no fertile offspring «so speciation has
happened» ✔

Examiners report
Most candidates think they understand evolution by natural selection but
many do not. Here the focus was on speciation - the splitting of a species into
two or more species. Often answers described the evolution of one species
over time, rather than speciation itself. An idea central to natural selection
that was frequently missing from an answer is adaptation or fitness. Often
traits were referred to as ‘favourable’ and therefore likely to lead to survival
and reproduction but there is a circularity of argument there. Survival
depends on traits fitting the environment, hence being an adaptation to it. The
mostly common ideas seen in answers were differential survival and
reproduction, due to differences in traits. A common fault was to confuse
individuals and species and to refer to a whole species surviving and
reproducing more successfully than another species.

13c. Outline the features of ecosystems that make them sustainable. [4 marks]
Markscheme
a. recycling of nutrients/elements/components/materials ✔
b. carbon/nitrogen/another example of recycled nutrient/element ✔
c. decomposers/saprotrophs break down organic matter/release «inorganic»
nutrients ✔
d. energy supplied by the sun
OR
energy cannot be recycled «so ongoing supply is needed»
OR
energy is lost from ecosystems as heat ✔
e. energy flow along food chains/through food web/through trophic levels ✔
f. photosynthesis/autotrophs make foods/trap energy
OR
autotrophs supply the food that supports primary consumers ✔
g. oxygen «for aerobic respiration» released by
autotrophs/photosynthesis/plants ✔
h. carbon dioxide «for photosynthesis» released by respiration ✔
i. populations limited by food supply/predator-prey/interactions/competition
OR
populations regulated by negative feedback
OR
fewer/less of each successive trophic level «along the food chain»/OWTTE ✔
j. supplies of water from rainfall/precipitation/rivers/water cycle ✔
 Examiners report
There were some vague answers to this question but also some impressive
ones that explained ecological processes including nutrient recycling, energy
flow and regulation of population sizes.

14. Where are amino acids joined together to make polypeptides? [1 mark]
A. Nucleus
B. Nucleolus
C. Golgi apparatus
D. Ribosomes

Markscheme
D

Examiners report
[N/A]
15. The table shows some codons for five amino acids. [1 mark]

Which of these DNA strands will code for the amino acid sequence glycine-serine-
glycine?
A. CCUUCGCCG
B. CCTTCGCCG
C. GGAAGCGGA
D. CCUUCGCCU

Markscheme
B

Examiners report
[N/A]

16. What do DNA replication, transcription and translation have in common? [1 mark]
A. Take place in cell nucleus
B. Require free nucleotides
C. Catalysed by polymerase
D. Complementary base pairing
 Markscheme
D

Examiners report
[N/A]

17. Some yeast genes can be replaced by human genes that then continue to [1 mark]
produce the same human proteins in the yeast cells. Which statement
helps to explain this evidence?
A. The DNA of yeast and humans is identical.
B. Yeast and humans have the same number of chromosomes.
C. The genetic code is universal.
D. Yeast and humans are both eukaryotes.

Markscheme
C

Examiners report
[N/A]
18. What do DNA replication, transcription and translation have in common? [1 mark]
A. Take place in cell nucleus
B. Require free nucleotides
C. Catalysed by polymerase
D. Complementary base pairing

Markscheme
D

Examiners report
[N/A]
19. Meselson and Stahl investigated DNA replication by first feeding bacteria [1 mark]
with bases containing 15N (heavy), and then with bases containing 14N
(light). The results are shown in the photographs.

[Source: © International Baccalaureate Organization 2018]

From this information, what would be the composition of the DNA in generation 3?
A. There will be a single 14N band.
B. There will be a single 15N band and a single 14N band.
C. There will be a darker 14N band and a lighter hybrid band.
D. There will be a single 15N band, a single hybrid band and a single 14N band.

Markscheme
C

Examiners report
[N/A]
20a. Label the parts of the DNA diagram indicated by I, II, III and IV. [2 marks]

Markscheme
a. I. cytosine

b. II. sugar-phosphate/covalent/phosphodiester bond

c. III. phosphate
d. IV. deoxyribose
Award [1] for any two correct responses.

Examiners report
[N/A]
20b. Explain how model making helped Watson and Crick to establish the [2 marks]
structure of DNA.

Markscheme
a. decided to combine what was known about chemical content of DNA with
information from X-ray diffraction studies OWTTE.
b. built scale models of components of DNA
c. then attempted to fit them together in a way that agreed with the data
«from separate sources»
d. made several arrangements of scale model until found best one that fitted
all the data

Examiners report
[N/A]

20c. Distinguish between the chromosomes of eukaryotic cells and [1 mark]

prokaryotic cells.
 Markscheme
a. associated with «histone» proteins in eukaryotes but not prokaryotes
b. is linear in eukaryotes but circular in prokaryotes
c. in cytoplasm in prokaryotes, but within nucleus in eukaryotes.

Examiners report
[N/A]

20d. Outline the role of the enzyme helicase in replication. [1 mark]

Markscheme
unwinds/separates strands/double helix (by breaking hydrogen bonds)

Examiners report
[N/A]

20e. Outline the role of the enzyme DNA polymerase in replication. [2 marks]
 Markscheme
a. links nucleotides together to form a new strand of DNA

b. uses pre-existing strand of DNA as template

c. makes covalent bonds between nucleotides

Examiners report
[N/A]

21a. Sickle cell anemia is due to a single base substitution in DNA. Using the [2 marks]
diagram, outline how this translates into the production of an abnormal
hemoglobin molecule by completing the spaces labelled I, II and III.
 Markscheme
a. I: GUG
AND
II: CAC
b. III: Val/valine
Both required. Do not accept GAG to GTC.

Examiners report
[N/A]

21b. DNA codes for the amino acid sequence of polypeptides. List two other [2 marks]
functions of DNA.

Markscheme
a. promotion/repression/regulation of gene expression
b. introns (have functions in regulation of gene expression)
c. telomeres (form caps at the end of chromosomes)
d. coding for tRNAs/rRNAs
e. allows genes/traits/heritable characteristics to be passed to offspring

Examiners report
[N/A]
21c. Distinguish between the purpose of free and bound ribosomes. [1 mark]

Markscheme
free ribosomes produce proteins for use inside the cell/cytoplasm whereas
bound ribosomes produce proteins for secretion/for use outside the cell/for use
in lysosomes

Examiners report
[N/A]
 22. Which sequence of bases and amino acids could be produced by [1 mark]
transcription and translation
of the DNA molecule shown?

Markscheme
D

Examiners report
[N/A]

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