BIOLOGY

AS
New syllabus
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Created by
WAHID WANIS
 Cell structure
What is meant by endosymbiont?

Mitochondria and chloroplasts were prokaryotic cells that lost their cell
walls, bacteria that can carry out photosynthesis became chloroplast and
that can carry out aerobic respiration became mitochondria and live in
eukaryotic cells in mutual relationship (symbiotic or exchange of
benefits).

(2)

List the main evidences that support endosymbiont theory.

Both prokaryotic cells, mitochondria and chloroplasts share the

following
 Self replication.
 Have circular DNA
 Have small ribosomes (70s)
 Have similar membrane structure.

(3)
Microtubules are important structures in living cells, they are made of special
protein.

Describe structure of microtubules.

 Long rigid hollow tubes found in cytoplasm.

 25 nm in diameter.
 Made of protein known as tubulin.

The following figure for your understanding

(2)

List the main functions of microtubules in living cells.

 With actin filaments and intermediate filaments form the

cytoskeleton that determine shape of the cell.
 Cell organelles are held in place by microtubules of cytoskeleton.
 Centrioles and spindle fibres are made of microtubules.
 Form intracellular transport system as vesicles and other cell
components can move on surface of microtubules.

(4)

Microtubules are not considered as a permanent structures that can be found

during the whole life of the cell without being changed.

Explain this statement

Microtubules are made when needed by the cell, mostly are broken
down after their use such as microtubules which are made for movement
of vesicles or spindle fibres
(2)

Centrioles and centrosome are absent from most of plant cells

What is the difference between centrioles and centrosomes?

Centrioles are
 0.4 µm long.
 Made of a protein called tubulin.
 Found in animal cells only.
 Each animal cell contains two centrioles.
 Each centriole is formed of nine groups
of microtubules joined by fibrils.
Centrosomes are composed of the two centrioles surrounded by a mass
of protein 
 (2)

Until recently, it was believed that, cetrioles acted as MTOCs for the assembly of
microtubules that make up the spindle during nuclear division.

What is MTOCs?

The microtubule-organizing center (MTOC) is a structure found in

eukaryotic cells from which microtubules emerge. MTOCs have two
main functions: the organization of eukaryotic flagella and cilia and the
organization of the mitotic and meiotic spindle apparatus, which
separate the chromosomes during cell division.

If centrioles are not involved if assembly of spindle fibres, what are the roles of
centrioles in living organisms?

Found in bases of cilia and flagella and act as MTOC that organise
microtubules in cilia and flagella which are needed for their movement.
(3)

Describe the structure of a virus.

 Protein coat known as capsid formed of separate protein units each is

known as capsomer.
 Genetic material (DNA or RNA)
 They are very small in size ranging from 20-300 nm
(3)
In the recent systems of classification virus is not involved as a living organism?

What are the features of a virus which are similar to

Living organisms

Contain protein
Contain genetic materials
Can reproduce.

Non-living structures.

Non-cellular structure.
No cytoplasm
Cannot carry out any characteristics of living organisms except for
reproduction.

(4)

Formation of microtubule is an example of polymerization

What is meant by the term polymerization?

Building of large molecules from smaller, similar building ones.

(1)
Microtubules with other filament form cytoskeleton, what is meant by the term
cytoskeleton?

structure that helps cells maintain their shape and internal organization,
and it also provides mechanical support that enables cells to carry out
essential functions like division and movement.

Microtubules are formed of dimers.

Explain the term dimmers with reference to microtubule structure.

 a chemical structure formed from two similar sub-units. In case of

microtubules dimmers are formed of α and β tubulin
(2)

The following structures are found in living cells

Name three structures shown in the above figure

1-microtubule
2-vesicle
3-microfilaments
which of the above structures is a membrane bound organelle?

vesicle
Describe functions of this organelle.

It may be a lysosome that is involved in autophagy, autolysis or release

of enzymes by exocytosis.
It may be a secretory vesicle that carries mucus as an example.
It may be a shuttle vesicle that carries protein from rough ER to Golgi
apparatus.
(2)
 Cell membrane
What is cell signaling

 Getting a message from one place to another.

 Its importance is that it allows organisms and cells to respond
according to their environment

(1)

Signaling molecules may be hydrophilic and hydrophobic.

Explain how a hydrophilic signaling molecule can lead to a response.

This type cannot pass through hydrophobic tails of the phospholipid

bilayer so they bind to receptors specific to their shape on the cell
surface membrane.
when the signaling molecule bind to the receptor, the shape of the
receptor changes allowing contact of a G-protein which triggers a
series of enzyme-controlled reactions, each reaction amplifies the
message leading to the appropriate response

(3)
Using ruled lines label

a-Signaling molecule

b-G-protein

c-Second messenger

(3)

What is the relationship between pressure potential, solute potential and water
potential.

Water potential
 It is represented by the letter psi (ᴪ)
 It is the tendency of water molecules to move from one place to
another.
 The place or the solution from where water molecules move is said to
be of higher water potential.
Solute potential
 The component of water potential that is due to the presence
of solute molecules. It always has a negative value as solutes lower
the water potential of the system.
 Pure water has a solute potential zero. As solute is added, the value
for solute potential becomes negative

Pressure potential
 It is represented by the letter psi (ᴪp)
The component of water potential due to the hydrostatic pressure that
is exerted on water in a cell. In turgid plant cells it usually has a positive
value as the entry of water causes the protoplast to push against the cell
wall 
ᴪ = (ᴪs) + (ᴪp)

(3)

1.When cells respond to an extracellular signal, they most often convert the
information from one form to another. This process is called:

A. signal transformation. 
B. signal transduction. 
C. signal interference. 
D. signal amplification. 
 Enzymes
Enzymes have different turnover rate

What is meant by turnover rate?

the maximum number of chemical conversions of substrate molecules

per second for a given enzyme concentration
(1)

List and describe two factors that affect turnover rate of most enzymes.

Temperature
pH
substrate concentration
inhibitors
(3)

Explain the meaning of the following

Vmax of an enzyme.

The level at which all the enzyme molecules are bound to substrate
molecules
( means that enzymes are saturated with substrate molecules)
As substrate concentration increases the reaction rate rises to reach
Vmax.
(1)

Michaelis –Menten constant.

It is defined as the substrate level at which the reaction rate is half Vmax
(V refer to velocity)

(1)

What are the practical applications of Km and V maxof enzymes.

1.Help to predict how each reaction proceed and how the enzymes
interact, therefore scientists can build models of biochemical
pathways of cells in different conditions of temperature and pH.
2.Km indicates the proportion of the active sites occupied by substrate
molecules.
3.Km and Vmax can be applied to other fields of biochemistry such as
antibody-antigen binding.
4.Enables scientists to compare performance of the same enzyme when
obtained from different organisms such as bacteria , fungus, small
mammal so that can determine which source is better to obtain this
enzyme to be used commercially.
5.Help scientists to understand what affects enzyme efficiency so that
can design better catalyst by genetic engineering.

(3)

Notice
E is enzyme

S is substrate.
E.S is enzyme-substrate complex.

Why is the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction proportional to the amount of

E.S complex (enzyme-substrate complex)?

The rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction is proportional to the amount

of E.S since the formation of product occurs after the formation of such
a complex. No product is formed by the simple collision of E with S. E
and S must bind together before product is formed.

What is meant by saturation of the enzyme?

Saturation of the enzyme means that all of the E(enzyme molecules) is

bound to S(substrate) and no free E exists. The enzyme has bound to as
much substrate as possible. This situation occurs at high levels of S.

What is meant by saturation kinetics?

Saturation kinetics refers to the situation of an enzyme reaction reaching

a maximal velocity at high levels of S. All of the E present is present as
E.S, so the maximum amount of E.S is formed. Since the rate is
proportional to the amount of E.S, the rate is at a maximum value. The
enzyme is said to be saturated with S

What is the chemical basis of enzyme specificity?

Explain lock and key + induced fit

What is the advantage of calculating the value 1/Vmax

Because it is impossible to plot infinite substrate concentration, the

value 1/infinity is zero therefore :
 The resulting graph is a straight line.
 the value Vmax can be plotted accurately.

(2)

On the above figure,

a-sketch a curve to shoe the reaction velocity if there is a competitive inhibitor.

 (1)

b-Draw a line to determine Km in case of using competitive inhibitor.

(1)

What is enzyme immobilization?

Enzymes are attached to insoluble materials so that the enzyme can be

held in place during the reaction also can be removed and separated
from the products to be used again.

(1)
How a certain enzyme such as lactase can be immobilized in lab.

Immobilizing enzymes using alginate beads

 Enzyme is mixed with a solution of sodium alginate ,
this mixture is dripped (usually through a syringe) into
a solution of calcium chloride so that the sodium ions
are displaced by the calcium ions, resulting in the
formation of hard, insoluble beads of calcium alginate,
in which enzyme molecules are trapped.

 The alginate beads are left to harden further.

 Beads are placed in a suitable container to create a column of beads.

(3)

What are the advantages and disadvantages of enzyme immobilization

Advantages

1.Enzymes can be recovered and used over and over again which is
useful when the enzyme is expensive or difficult to produce.
2.The product will not be contaminated by the enzyme because the
immobilized enzyme can be separated easily at the end of the process.
3.The matrix protects the enzyme as it acts as a physical barrier so that
the enzyme is more stable at extremes of pH and temperature.
4.Their effect can be controlled accurately as the enzymes can be
reduced in number or more can be added during the course of the
reaction.

(3)
Disadvantages

 Limited movement causing chance for collision between enzyme and

substrate to be limited.
 Many active sites may be enclosed in beads not exposed to the
substrate.
 The substance used in immobilization may be exposed to microbial
attack if it is organic substance.
 Substrate diffusion through the material used in immobilisation is
limited.

(3)

Cell and nuclear division

The following figure shows a kinetochore

What is kinetochore?

 Each chromosome has two kinetochores at its centromere, one at

each chromatid.
 Are made of protein molecules bind to DNA at centromere from one
side and to the spindle fibres in the other side.
 (1)

During which stage of cell cycle it is made?

 Are formed during S- phase then lost after mitosis.

(1)

What are homologous chromosomes?

Each similar pair of chromosomes in a diploid cell

Similar as they have
1. The same position of centromere.
2. Same length.
3. Same number, type and sequence of genes on the same loci
( position).
4. Have the same banding pattern when stained with proper stain.

Different
1.One is paternal (comes from the father in the nucleus of the male
gamete) and one is maternal ( comes from the mother in the nucleus
of the female gamete).
2.They may carry different alleles.

(3)

How many kinetochores are found in a pair of chromosomes?

……………………………………………
4…………………………………………

(1)

Name the coloured ends of the chromosomes

shown in the above figure?

Telomeres
(1)

Describe the structure of the those ends.

Formed of sequence of nucleotides that protects the ends of

chromosomes from deterioration and incorrect recombination.
In telomeres one DNA strand rich in C while the other is rich in G
(see next chapter)

(2)

List their main functions

Needed for continued replication,its main function is to ensure that

the ends of DNA molecules are involved in DNA replication.
Without telomeres enzymes of DNA replication do not work to the
end of DNA so many genes become lost leading to death of the cell.

(2)
Name the enzyme that influence the above structures

Telomerase
(1)

One  characteristic  of  cancer  cells  is  that  they  can  become  immortal.  How  

does this  happen?

Normal  human  cells  usually  divide  a  limited  number  of  times

only,  because  
the  telomere  sequences  at   the  ends  of  each  chromosome  lose  part
of  their
sequence  at  each  cell  division.   In  most  cases,  cancer  cells
reactivate  
telomerase  expression  to  maintain  telomeres  lengths  and   enable  the
cells  
to  divide  indefinitely.  

What are stem cells?

An undifferentiated cell that can divide by mitosis to an unlimited

number of times.

What is potency of stem cells?

(Potency is the power of stem cell to produce different types of cells)

 (1)

Stem cells are classified according to their potency.

What is the difference between totipotent and pluripotent stem cells?

1-Totipotent stem cell

A cell that can produce any type of cells e.g Zygote as many of its cells
developed into placental cells, muscle cells.

2-Pluripotent stem cell

Cells that lose ability to develop to any type of cells, but can only form
all the cells that can develop the embryo and later the adult.
Example
Embryonic stem cells.

(2)

Outline the features of stem cell therapy.

To introduce stem cells into damaged tissues to treat diseases such as

diabetes, muscle and brain damage.

(2)

2. Where can scientists obtain stem cells?

From an embryo or tissues in the body , Stem cells can also be obtained
from a fetus, umbilical cord or by using a recently developed technique
to ‘reprogramme’ specialized body cells so that they behave like
embryonic stem cells. These ‘reprogrammed’ cells are known as induced
pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells).

Embryonic stem cells can differentiate into which types of cell?

All types of specialized cells in the body

Neural stem cells from the brain can differentiate into which types of cell?

Only specialized brain cells