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Chapter 3 Assignment

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Chapter 3 Assignment

Define, Identify, Or Describe The Following:

Cytoplasm: This is the jelly-like substance that fills the cell and surroundings the organelles. It

comprises cytosol, organelles, and various cytoplasmic inclusions.

Cytosol: This is the fluid component of the cytoplasm. It contains water, ions, proteins, and other

molecules necessary for cellular functions.

Extracellular fluid: Extracellular fluid refers to the fluid found outside the cells, including

interstitial fluid and other body fluids like blood plasma.

Interstitial fluid: This fluid fills the spaces between cells in tissues. It provides nutrients and

removes waste products from cells (Martini et al., 2017).

Cytology: Cytology studies cells, focusing on their structure, function, and characteristics.

Cell biology: Cell biology is the broader field that encompasses the study of cells, plus their

structure, function, and processes, as well as their interactions with their environment and other

cells.

Plasma membrane: This selectively permeable barrier controls the movement of substances in

and out of the cell.

Integral protein: Integral proteins are embedded within the plasma membrane. They span the

membrane, with portions extending into both the cytoplasm and the extracellular space. Integral

proteins serve various functions: transport, cell adhesion, and signal transduction.

Glycocalyx: The glycocalyx is a layer of carbohydrates attached to the outside surface of the

plasma membrane. It consists of glycoproteins and glycolipids and plays roles in cell-cell

recognition, protection, and lubrication.

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Peripheral protein: Peripheral proteins are proteins associated with the plasma membrane but

not embedded within it. They are loosely attached to the membrane's inner or outer surface and

participate in various cellular processes, like cell signaling and enzymatic activity.

Somatic cell: Somatic cells are non-reproductive cells that comprise body tissues and organs.

They contain a full set of chromosomes and are involved in the body's growth, maintenance, and

repair.

Chromatin: This is the DNA, proteins, and RNA complex that makes up the chromosomes

within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. It is the condensed form of genetic material.

Histones: Histones are a group of proteins that help package and organize DNA into a compact

structure called nucleosomes. They play a role in gene regulation and chromosome stability.

Chromosome: A chromosome is a thread-like structure composed of DNA that carries genetic

information. It contains genes and is visible during cell division when it becomes condensed.

Gene: A gene is a DNA segment containing instructions for synthesizing a specific protein or

functional RNA molecule. Genes are the basic units of heredity and play a role in determining

traits

(Alberts et al., 2014).

Functions of the Cell Membrane:

Selective Permeability: regulates the entry and exit of constituents into and out of the cell,

allowing for the selective transport of ions, molecules, and nutrients.

Cell Signaling: The membrane contains receptors that recognize and bind to specific molecules,

initiating signaling pathways that regulate cellular responses.

Cell Adhesion: Membrane proteins mediate cell-cell adhesion and cell-matrix interactions,

maintaining tissue integrity and facilitating cell communication.

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Barrier and Protection: It acts as a physical barrier, protecting the cell from external threats

like pathogens and toxins.

Cellular Transport: The membrane contains protein channels and transporters that facilitate the

movement of ions, molecules, and water across the membrane.

Cell Recognition: The membrane carries unique molecules, such as glycoproteins and

glycolipids, allowing cell recognition and identification by other cells

(Alberts et al., 2014).

Description of Phospholipid Bilayer Membrane:

This is the basic structural component of the cell membrane. It consists of two layers of

phospholipids organized with their hydrophobic tails facing inward and their hydrophilic heads

facing outward. (Alberts et al., 2014).

Functions of Membrane Proteins:

Transport: It transports ions, molecules, and nutrients through the membrane.

Receptor Proteins: They recognize and bind to specific signaling molecules, initiating cellular

responses.

Enzymes: Some membrane proteins function as enzymes, catalyzing chemical reactions at the

cell membrane.

Cell Adhesion: Membrane proteins mediate cell-cell adhesion and interactions with the

extracellular matrix.

Cell Communication: Certain membrane proteins participate in cell signaling and

communication between cells

(Alberts et al., 2014).

Contents of the Cytosol:

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It comprises water, ions, organic molecules, and various soluble proteins. (Martini et al., 2017).

Microfilaments are thin structures composed of actin, providing cell movement and support.

Intermediate filaments offer mechanical strength and maintain cell shape.

(Alberts et al., 2014)

Microvilli: Increase surface area for absorption and secretion.

Cilia: Movement of fluids and particles along the cell surface, sensory functions, and embryo

development.

Centrioles: Organize microtubules during cell division and contribute to the formation of cilia

and flagella.

Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.

Proteasomes: Protein degradation and recycling.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Protein synthesis, modification, and folding.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Lipid synthesis, detoxification, and calcium storage.

Golgi Apparatus: Processing, modifying, and sorting of proteins and lipids.

Lysosomes: Breakdown of macromolecules, cellular debris, and pathogens.

Peroxisomes: Metabolism of fatty acids, breakdown of toxic substances, and lipid synthesis.

Mitochondria: ATP production through cellular respiration.

Nucleus: Storage and regulation of genetic material, DNA, and control of cellular activities.

(Alberts et al., 2014)

Name the four nitrogenous bases and their relationship to each other

Four nitrogenous bases in DNA are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).

Adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine. This pairing called complementary

base pairing, forming the double-stranded structure of DNA (Alberts et al., 2014).
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Describe in detail the central dogma of protein synthesis ( be sure to describe transcription

and

translation)

It describes the flow of genetic information in cells, involving two main processes: transcription

and translation.

Transcription happens in the nucleus, where the DNA sequence of a gene is copied into a

complementary messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule.

Translation takes place in the cytoplasm. It involves converting the mRNA sequence into a

specific sequence of amino acids, which form a protein. The mRNA molecule is read by

ribosomes, which move along its length and match each codon (a set of three nucleotides) with

the corresponding transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule carrying the corresponding amino acid.

Compare and contrast active and passive transport

Active Transport:

Transports molecules against their concentration gradient from an area of lower concentration to

an area of higher concentration.

Passive Transport:

Transports molecules along their concentration gradient from an area of higher concentration to

an area of lower concentration. It can occur through simple diffusion or facilitated diffusion.

Name a describe the three passive transport processes

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower

concentration. This occurs spontaneously and does not require energy input.
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Osmosis: It is the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane. Water moves

from an area of lower solute concentration (hypotonic) to a higher solute concentration

(hypertonic) to equalize the solute concentration on both sides of the membrane.

Facilitated Diffusion: It is the diffusion of molecules across the membrane with the help of

specific protein channels or carriers.

Name and describe the types of active transport

Primary Active Transport is an active transport type that directly uses ATP (adenosine

triphosphate) energy to move molecules across the cell membrane against their concentration

gradient (Alberts et al., 2014).

Secondary active transport depend on the electrochemical gradient established by primary

active transport. It uses the energy stored in the gradient to drive the movement of molecules

across the cell membrane. (Alberts et al., 2014).

Diffusion is dependent on five simple laws of physics. Name them and describe each

properties effect on rates of diffusion

Fick's First Law says that the diffusion rate is proportional to the concentration gradient. A

steeper concentration gradient leads to a higher diffusion rate as particles move from an area of

high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Fick's Second Law: Law relates the diffusion rate to the distance over which diffusion occurs

and the time it takes. It states that the diffusion frequency is inversely proportional to the square

of the distance. Thus, shorter distances facilitate faster diffusion.

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Graham's Law of Diffusion: Graham's Law of Diffusion says that the frequency of diffusion of

a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molar mass. Lighter molecules diffuse

more quickly than heavier molecules due to their higher average kinetic energy.

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures: Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures says that the total

pressure applied by a mixture of gases equals the amount of pressure each gas applies. It

explicates how gases diffuse independently, diffusing each gas according to its concentration

gradient.

Henry's Law: Henry's Law indicates that the amount of gas dissolved in a liquid is directly

proportional to the partial pressure of the gas. It explains how gases dissolve into liquids and

influence their diffusion properties.

(Hall, 2015)

Isotonic, Hypotonic, and Hypertonic Solutions and Each's Effect on a Cell

Isotonic Solution: An isotonic solution is equally concentrated as the cell. When placed in an

isotonic solution, there is no net water movement, and the cell maintains its shape and normal

function.

Hypotonic Solution: This is lowly concentrated with solutes compared to the cell. When placed

in a hypotonic solution, water draws into the cell, causing it to swell or even burst (lysis) due to

the influx of water.

Hypertonic Solution: This is highly concentrated with solutes than the cell. When put in a

hypertonic solution, water moves draws out of the cell, causing it to shrink or undergo cell

shrinkage (crenation) due to water loss.

(Alberts et al., 2014).

The Cell Life Cycle. The Roles Do Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis in The Cycle
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Interphase: Interphase is the longest cell cycle stage where the cell prepares for division. It is

divided into three stages: G1 (growth), S (DNA synthesis), and G2 (preparation for mitosis).

During interphase, the cell grows, carries out normal cellular functions, replicates its DNA, and

prepares for cell division.

Mitosis: Mitosis is the process of nuclear division that ensures each daughter cell gets same set

of chromosomes. It is divided into four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Cytokinesis: Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm and organelles, resulting in the

formation of two daughter cells. It usually occurs after mitosis and involves the constriction of

the cell membrane and the formation of a cleavage furrow or cell plate to separate the cytoplasm.

(Alberts et al., 2014).

Describe a cancer cell

A cancer cell is a cell that has undergone genetic changes, leading to uncontrolled cell growth

and division. It can invade surrounding tissues, form tumors, and potentially spread to other body

parts, disrupting normal cellular functions (American Cancer Society, 2021).

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References

Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, K., & Walter, P. (2014). Molecular

Biology of the Cell (6th ed.).

American Cancer Society. (2021). What Is Cancer? Retrieved from

https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-basics/what-is-cancer.html

Hall, J. E. (2015). Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology (13th ed.). Elsevier.

Martini, F. H., Nath, J. L., Bartholomew, E. F., Ober, W. C., & Garrison, C. W. (2017).

Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology (11th ed.). Pearson.