Metals: Fracture Mechanical Analysis of Thin-Walled Cylindrical Shells With Cracks

metals
Article
Fracture Mechanical Analysis of Thin-Walled Cylindrical Shells
with Cracks
Feng Yue * and Ziyan Wu
School of Mechanics, Civil Engineering and Architecture, Northwestern Polytechnical University,

Xi’an 710072, China; zywu@nwpu.edu.cn
* Correspondence: yuefeng@mail.nwpu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-187-1051-8926
Abstract: The fracture mechanical behaviour of thin-walled structures with cracks is highly significant
for structural strength design, safety and reliability analysis, and defect evaluation. In this study,
the effects of various factors on the fracture parameters, crack initiation angles and plastic zones
of thin-walled cylindrical shells with cracks are investigated. First, based on the J-integral and
displacement extrapolation methods, the stress intensity factors of thin-walled cylindrical shells
with circumferential cracks and compound cracks are studied using linear elastic fracture mechanics,
respectively. Second, based on the theory of maximum circumferential tensile stress of compound
cracks, the number of singular elements at a crack tip is varied to determine the node of the element
corresponding to the maximum circumferential tensile stress, and the initiation angle for a compound
crack is predicted. Third, based on the J-integral theory, the size of the plastic zone and J-integral of a
thin-walled cylindrical shell with a circumferential crack are analysed, using elastic-plastic fracture
mechanics. The results show that the stress in front of a crack tip does not increase after reaching
the yield strength and enters the stage of plastic development, and the predicted initiation angle of
an oblique crack mainly depends on its original inclination angle. The conclusions have theoretical
and engineering significance for the selection of the fracture criteria and determination of the failure

modes of thin-walled structures with cracks.
Citation: Yue, F.; Wu, Z. Fracture
Mechanical Analysis of Thin-Walled Keywords: crack; thin-walled structures; fracture mechanical parameters; crack initiation angle;
Cylindrical Shells with Cracks. Metals plastic zone
2021, 11, 592. https://doi.org/
10.3390/met11040592
Academic Editor: Ivo Černý 1. Introduction

Reasonably designed thin shells can withstand considerable loads, making them
Received: 20 February 2021
Accepted: 1 April 2021
superior to thin plates. Owing to their advantages of good mechanical properties and
Published: 5 April 2021
economic applicability, thin-walled structures are commonly used in many fields, such as
machinery, architecture, military, aerospace, and marine engineering. However, the actual
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
strength of a material is much lower than that of its theoretical model owing to the presence
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
of cracks in practice [1]. Engineering accidents are frequently caused by cracks leading
published maps and institutional affil- to very severe consequences. The safety of thin-walled shell structures with cracks has
iations. always been an important issue in engineering. To establish a safety evaluation method, it
is necessary to study the fracture mechanical behaviour of thin-walled shells with cracks.
A large number of studies have been conducted on the fracture mechanical behaviour
of structures with cracks [2]. Hu and Xie [3] proposed a simple and practical method for
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
determining the stress intensity factor (SIF) of the crack of the irregularly-shaped thin-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
walled tube. Xie and Wang [4] proposed a simple method to determine the SIFs based
This article is an open access article
on a new concept of crack surface widening energy release rate. Xie et al. [5,6] proposed
distributed under the terms and an analytical and very simple method to determine the SIFs based on a new concept of
conditions of the Creative Commons crack surface widening energy release rate and the principle of virtual work. Bazant [7]
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// presented a justification of Kienzler and Herrmann’s estimate of SIFs of cracked beam
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ and further showed a possibility of improvement by introduction of an additional factor.
4.0/). Dunn et al. [8] presented simple, closed-form expressions for SIFs for cracked I-beams
Metals 2021, 11, 592. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11040592 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2021, 11, 592 2 of 26
subjected to a bending moment. Xing et al. [9] developed a novel fracture mechanics
framework for cracked thin-walled structures based on the Mindlin-Reissner plate theory.
Atluri [10] explored the physical interpretations of each of the integrals either in terms
of crack-tip energy release rates or simply energy-rate differences in two comparison
cracked-bodies. Blackburn [11] investigated the path independent integrals to predict onset
of crack instability in an elastic plastic material. Seshadri and Marriott [12] discussed a
new and a direct procedure for reference stress determination using the GLOSS R-Node
method. Sucharda [13] presented the procedure for the identification of fracture mechanical
parameters for a specific concrete with the use of developed inverse analysis combining
multi-criteria decision analysis, stochastic modelling and nonlinear analysis. Lei et al. [14]
investigated the impact fracture and fragmentation of glass via the 3D combined Finite-
Discrete Element Method.
Using the experimental methods and the theory of fracture mechanics, scholars have
studied the laws of crack instability and propagation, and put forward the corresponding
fracture criteria. Jahromi and Vaziri [15] analysed the instability of cylindrical shells with
single and multiple cracks under axial compression. Dyshel [16] carried out the analysis
of stability of a cracked cylindrical shell in tension. Estekanchi and Vafai [17] studied the
buckling of cylindrical shells with through cracks and proposed a general finite element
model. Zhou and Huang [18] developed a method to determine the elastic deflection of
the eccentric thin-walled columns containing some model-I cracks. Zhou and Huang [19]
developed a close form solution of the maximum deflection for cracked columns with
rectangular cross-sections and studied the elastic buckling behaviour and ultimate bearing
capacity analytically. Chakherlou et al. [20] investigated the fatigue crack initiation and
fatigue crack growth life estimations. Gao and Herrmann [21] used the beam theory
estimation to compute SIFs for a circumferentially cracked cylindrical pipe in bending
and tension and found good agreement with the exact solutions obtained from complete
shell analysis. Moës and Belytschko [22] demonstrated the effectiveness of the extended
finite element method by simulations of cohesive crack growth in concrete. Sukumar and
Prévost [23] discussed some of the key issues in the X-FEM and describe its implementation
within a general-purpose finite element code. Khan and Khraisheh [24] presented a detailed
analysis of mixed mode I-II crack initiation angles under different loading conditions using
different criteria. Khan and Khraisheh [25] proposed a new criterion for mixed mode I-II
crack initiation angles based on the characteristics of the plastic core region surrounding
the crack tip.
In the research of thin-walled structures with cracks in service, the following problems
still exist. (1) Although there are numerous studies on thin-walled structures with complete
components or geometric defects, there are few on those with physical defects. (2) There are
various studies on the effects of simple loads, whereas there are fewer studies on eccentric
compression and combination of tension and bending moment. (3) There are many studies
on the fracture parameters of thin-walled components with mode-I cracks, however, there
are only few studies on the fracture parameters in the presence of compound cracks and the
prediction of crack initiation angles. (4) At present, the research and theory on linear elastic
fracture mechanics is mature, whereas the studies on elastic-plastic fracture mechanics are
relatively fewer, and those of plastic zone size are rare.
In this paper, the fracture parameters, plastic zones and crack initiation angles of
thin-walled cylindrical shells with cracks are investigated using the finite element method.
First, the finite element models of thin-walled cylindrical shells with circumferential cracks
and compound cracks are established, respectively, and different loads such as axial tension,
eccentric compression and the combination of tension and bending moment are applied.
Second, for the constitutive relationship of linear elastic materials, the SIFs of thin-walled
cylindrical shells with circumferential cracks and compound cracks are calculated, based
on the J-integral and the displacement extrapolation methods, respectively. Subsequently,
by applying the theory of maximum circumferential tensile stress of compound cracks,
the node of the element corresponding to the maximum circumferential tensile stress is
and plastic zones are investigated.
2. Theory of Fracture Mechanics

Metals 2021, 11, 592 3 of 26
2.1. J-Integral
To analyse the strength of the stress and strain field at the
obtained by varying the number of singular elements at the crack tip. Accordingly, the
body,
initiationsome
angle of line integrals
a compound presenting
crack is predicted. Third, forconservation properties
the constitutive relationship
of elastic-plastic materials, the plastic zone size and J-integral of thin-walled cylindrical
J-integral is one such line integrals. It is defined as a line integral
shells with circumferential cracks are calculated. Finally, the effects of various factors on
shown in parameters,
the fracture Figure 1,crack andinitiation
expressed asplastic zones are investigated.
angles and
2. Theory of Fracture Mechanics

  u v  

2.1. J-Integral
J = W d y − T +
 field at thecrackx tip of a cracked
T  ds 
x J-integral yis one 
To analyse the strength of the stress and strain y body,
 used.
  are frequently
some line integrals presenting conservation properties
such line integrals. It is defined as a line integral around a crack tip, as shown in Figure 1,
where 
and expressed as
is any counter-clockwise
Z
∂u
loop
∂v
around
the crack tip. W
( x, y )
J= Wdy − Tx + Ty ds (1)
density at any point Γ on the∂x loop. ∂y The arrow T between T
where Γ is any counter-clockwise loop around the crack tip. W is the strain energy density
traction vector.
at any point Txloop.
( x, y) on the and T y are
The arrow the surface
T between Tx and Ty is force
the total components
traction vector. alo
T and T are the surface force components along the x and y directions at any point,
x y
rections atu any
respectively. point,
and v are respectively.
the displacement components ualong
andthe xvandare the displaceme
y directions at any
the x and y directions at any point, respectively. ds is the arc elem
point, respectively. ds is the arc element on the loop.
Figure 1. J-integral path.

Figure 1. J-integral path.
In this paper, the research on J-integral is studied in ANSYS (Ansys Inc., Canonsburg,
PA, USA) software and is divided into two modules. For ideal elastic-plastic materials,
In quantities
physical this paper, the energy
such as strain research onof the
and stress J-integral is studied
elements around in ANS
the crack front
are extracted, and the routine for J-integral calculation is realized by APDL. For linear
onsburg, PA,according
elastic materials, USA) tosoftware and
the relationship is divided
between into
J-integral and SIF two modules.
in linear elastic F
materials, physical quantities such as strain energy and stress of th
crack front are extracted, and the routine for J-integral calculation
For linear elastic materials, according to the relationship between
Metals 2021, 11, 592 4 of 26
stage, SIF of thin-walled cylindrical shells with circumferential cracks can be obtained.
In the calculation of J-integrals, the strain energy density and strain field of the elements
around the crack front are mainly considered. To reduce the calculation error by the
maximum extent, the integral paths are selected in a sufficiently wide range to obtain
high-accuracy results. Several concentric paths having different lengths are defined around
the crack front edge. Subsequently, the calculated results are mapped to each path. The
J-integral values are obtained using Equation (1), and their arithmetic mean value is taken
as the result.
In this study, the change in the axial stress along the shell thickness direction and
the effect of the radial transverse shear force are ignored. Therefore, the loop integral
definition of a plane problem is adopted for the calculations. Because of the conservation
of the J-integral integral path, the high-stress and strain region at the crack front edge can
be avoided in the calculations, and any integral loop far away from the crack tip can be
selected, which makes the calculations simple. In the case of linear elasticity, the J-integral
is proportional to the square of the SIF.
1−µ 2
J= K I (Plane Strain) (2)
E
K2I
J= (Plane Stress) (3)
E
where E and µ are the elasticity modulus and Poisson’s ratio, respectively.
2.2. Displacement Extrapolation

By querying the content of the crack analysis of linear elastic material in ANSYS help
files, the actual displacements at and near a crack are the following formulas.
r r
K r θ 3θ KII r θ 3θ
u= I (2κ − 1) cos − cos − (2κ + 3) sin + sin + O(r ) (4)
4G 2π 2 2 4G 2π 2 2
r r
KI r θ 3θ KII r θ 3θ
v= (2κ − 1) sin − sin − (2κ + 3) cos + cos + O(r ) (5)
4G 2π 2 2 4G 2π 2 2
r
2KIII r θ
w= sin + O(r ) (6)
G 2π 2
where u, v and w are the displacements in the local Cartesian coordinate system, respec-
tively, as shown in Figure 2. r and θ are the coordinates in the local cylindrical coordinate
system, as shown in Figure 3. G is the shear modulus. KI , KII and KIII are the SIFs related
to deformation.
κ = 3 − 4µ (Plane Stress) (7)
3µ
κ= (Plane Strain) (8)
1+µ
where O(r ) is a term of order r or higher, and the high-order term O(r ) is omitted. The SIFs
can be expressed as
√ G |∆v|
KI = 2π √ (9)
1+κ r
√ G |∆u|
KII = 2π √ (10)
1+κ r
√ G |∆w|
KIII = 2π √ (11)
1+κ r
where ∆u, ∆v and ∆w are the movement distances between two crack surfaces.
G w
K III = 2 G w
K III = 2 1 +  r
1+  r
Metals 2021, 11, 592 where u , v and w are the movement distances between
5 of 26 two cr
where u , v and w are the movement distances between two cr
Figure 2. Local coordinate system of front.

spatial crack front.
Figure 2.Local
Figure 2. coordinate
Local system of
coordinate spatial crack
system of spatial crack front.
Figure 3. Approximate displacements of crack tip node.

Figure 3. Approximate displacements of crack tip node.
FigureAs3.shown
Approximate
in Figure 3,displacements of crack
three nodes I, J and tip node.
K are located on the crack surface. If
point I is the coordinate origin, the displacement v at node I is zero. Then A and B can be
As shown
determined using theinfollowing
Figureformula I,J
3, three nodes K and
on t are located
As shown in Figure 3, three nodes I , J and K are located on th
point I is the coordinate origin,
|v| the displacement v at node I is z
point I is the coordinate origin, (12)I is z
+ Br.displacement v at node
√ = A the
B can be determined using the r following formula
B can be determined using the following formula
v
v = A + Br .
r = A + Br .
r
At nodes J and K , let r tend to 0, then
Metals 2021, 11, 592 6 of 26
At nodes J and K, let r tend to 0, then
|v|
lim √ = A. (13)
r →0 r
Therefore, KI can be expressed as

√ 2GA
KI = 2π . (14)
1+κ
2.3. Initiation Angle of Oblique Crack

The direction of the path between the crack initiation point and the crack tip is
regarded as the observed crack initiation direction. The problem of compound fracture is
highly complex, and the current research focuses on the brittle fracture, using the method
of linear elastic fracture mechanics. Various brittle fracture theories have been proposed
by scholars to predict the initiation angle of a compound crack, such as the maximum
circumferential tensile stress theory, strain energy density factor theory, and energy release
rate theory.
Based on the theory of maximum circumferential tensile stress, a crack initiates and
propagates along the direction of maximum circumferential stress under I-II compound
loads. Taking the crack tip as the centre, a small circle (damage core) can be drawn, and the
circumferential tensile stress σθ at each point on the circle is different. In addition, (σθ )max
is the maximum circumferential tensile stress in a certain direction and σc denotes the
critical value of tensile stress during crack propagation. When (σθ )max reaches the critical
value σc , the crack begins to extend and propagate. When the ratio of KI /KII is large, the
calculation model of oblique cracks is close to be subjected to uniaxial tension. In this case,
the inclination angle of the crack is large, and the numerical values of the cracking angles
predicted by several theories are relatively close. However, when the ratio of KI /KII is
small, i.e., when the mode I component of the crack is small, the crack angles predicted by
these theories are quite different. Because the prediction theories of the initiation direction
of a compound crack are not mature at present, to ensure the safety in practical engineering,
empirical formulas are frequently established based on the experimental data of materials.
In Figure 4, the crack length is 2a and the crack inclination angle is Φ. It is assumed
that the angle between the new crack surface and the extension line of the original crack
◦
surface after crack initiation and propagation is ∆. When Φ = 90 , the crack is subjected to
a mode-I load. Both theoretical prediction and experimental results show that the angle
between the new crack surface and the original crack surface is 0 after the crack propagates
◦
unsteadily, i.e., the crack propagates along the original crack surface. When Φ 6= 90 ,
the crack is subjected to the combined action of mode-I and II loads, and the relationship
between crack initiation angle ∆ and crack inclination angle Φ is as follows [26]
sin ∆ + (3 cos ∆ − 1) cot Φ = 0. (15)
The equation is a special case of predicting the crack initiation angle. It is an analytical
formula for a flat plate with a penetrating composite crack under tension at both ends.
In this paper, the formula is used to prove the feasibility of predicting crack initiation
direction by finite element simulation. The maximum circumferential tensile stress theory
is used to predict the initiation angle of an oblique crack. The initiation direction of a crack
is along the direction of the maximum circumferential tensile stress σθ around the crack tip,
then the crack propagates unsteadily. To simulate the singularity at a crack tip, a number
of parameterized modified solid elements are used. Accordingly, to predict the initiation
direction of an oblique crack, it is only necessary to obtain the location of the element
with the maximum circumferential tensile stress around the crack tip. Following this, the
direction of the newly generated crack surface after the crack unsteadily propagates can
be determined.
30°. Clearly, this number of elements and accuracy are ineffective for predicting the crack
initiation angle, as shown in Figure 5. Therefore, the number of singular elements at the
crack tip is increased to 30 or 36, so that the crack angle can be approximately predicted
Metals 2021, 11, 592 to be within a range of 12° or 10°, which nearly satisfies the engineering needs.
7 of 26In the fi
nite element analysis software, the stress and displacement values of the elements are
obtained using the interpolation method of the adjacent nodes.
Metals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 27
In the SIF calculations, the number of modified solid elements is 12 at the crack tip,
and the circumference of the crack tip is divided into 12 equal parts, each with an angle of
30°. Clearly, this number of elements and accuracy are ineffective for predicting the crack
crack tip is increased to 30 or 36, so that the crack angle can be approximately predicted
to be within a range of 12° or 10°, which nearly satisfies the engineering needs. In the fi-
nite element analysis software, the stress and displacement values of the elements are
obtained using the interpolation method of the adjacent nodes.
Figure 4.4.Oblique
Figure Obliquecrack model
crack subjected
model to tension.
subjected to tension.
In the SIF calculations, the number of modified solid elements is 12 at the crack tip,
and the circumference of the crack tip is divided into 12 equal parts, each with an angle of
30◦ . Clearly, this number of elements and accuracy are ineffective for predicting the crack
crack tip is increased to 30 or 36, so that the crack angle can be approximately predicted to
be within a range of 12◦ or 10◦ , which nearly satisfies the engineering needs. In the finite
element analysis software, the stress and displacement values of the elements are obtained
Figure 4. Oblique crack model subjected to tension.
using the interpolation method of the adjacent nodes.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5. Variation in number of singular elements at the crack tip, (a) 12 equal parts (b) 30 equal
parts (c) 36 equal parts.
2.4. Theoretical Shape of Plastic Zone

Jing and Khraishi [27,28] derived analytical solutions for crack tip plastic zone
shape using
(a) the Von Mises and Tresca (b) yield criteria and closed-form (c) solutions for mode
II crack tip plastic zone shape. Not only do these works talk about the plastic zone shape

Jing and Khraishi [27,28] derived analytical solutions for crack tip plastic zone
shape using the Von Mises and Tresca yield criteria and closed-form solutions for mode
II crack tip plastic zone shape. Not only do these works talk about the plastic zone shape
Metals 2021, 11, 592 8 of 26

Jing and Khraishi [27,28] derived analytical solutions for crack tip plastic zone shape
using the Von Mises and Tresca yield criteria and closed-form solutions for mode II crack
tip plastic zone shape. Not only do these works talk about the plastic zone shape that the
current paper discusses but they also talk about criteria for the path of crack extension.
Based on the expressions of stress fields near a crack tip and the calculation formulas of
the principal stress in material mechanics, the principal stresses near the crack tip can be
expressed as
s
σx + σy σx − σy

2
KI θ θ
σ1 = + + τxy = √ cos 1 + sin (16)
2 2 2πr 2 2
s
σx + σy σx − σy

K
2 = √ I cos
θ θ
σ2 = − + τxy 1 − sin (17)
2 2 2πr 2 2
σ3 = 0 (Plane Stress) (18)
K θ
σ3 = 2µ √ I cos (Plane Strain) (19)
2πr 2
In this study, only the outer surface of a thin-walled cylindrical shell is considered in
the calculation of the plastic zone. In this case, it belongs to a plane stress state, so σ3 = 0.
To estimate the plastic zone, the von Mises yield condition is adopted, i.e.,
(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 = 2σs2 (20)
where σs represents the yield limit of the material under uniaxial tension.
Substituting Equations (16) and (17) and σ3 = 0 into Equation (20), it can be obtained:
KI2

2 θ 2 θ
r= cos 1 + 3 sin (21)
2πσS2 2 2
KI2

2 θ 2 2 θ
r= cos ( 1 − 2µ ) + 3 sin . (22)
2πσS2 2 2
The above formulas are the curve equations in the polar coordinate system of the
plastic zone near a crack tip under the state of plane stress and the state of plane strain,
respectively. The shapes of the plastic zones are drawn using the Equations (21) and (22),
as shown in Figure 6. When θ = 0, the sizes of the plastic zone [26] on the extension line of
the crack are:
1 KI 2

r= (Plane Stress) (23)
2π σS
(1 − 2µ)2 KI 2

r= (Plane Strain). (24)
2π σS
Metals 2021, 11, 592 9 of 26
Figure6.6.Theoretical
Figure Theoreticalshape
shape
ofof
thethe plastic
plastic zone.
zone.
3. Finite Element Models of Thin-Walled Cylindrical Shell with Cracks

3. Finite Element Models of Thin-Walled Cylindrical Shell with Cracks
3.1. Model and Structure
3.1. Model and Structure
In this study, the following assumptions are made. (1) Both ends of the column are
hinged. In (2)
thisThe
study,
loadsthe
actfollowing assumptions
in the longitudinal are made.
symmetry plane (1)ofBoth ends of thecolumn.
the thin-walled column are
(3) The mode-I crack is located at the edge of the tensile side of the middle sectioncolumn.
hinged. (2) The loads act in the longitudinal symmetry plane of the thin-walled of
(3) column,
the The mode-I and crack is located
the crack at the edge of the
forms symmetrically tensile
at the crackside of the
section. (4)middle section of the
The self-weight
column,
is ignored.and Thethe crack
entire forms symmetrically
calculation process is shown at the crack section.
in Figure 7. The models(4) The self-weight is
established
ignored.
in this paperTheinclude:
entire calculation
(1) The linear process
elasticisfracture
shownbehaviour
in Figure of 7. thin-walled
The modelscylindrical
established in
shells with circumferential
this paper include: (1) The cracks
linearunder eccentric
elastic fracture compression
behaviour isofanalysed,
thin-walled as shown
cylindrical
in
shells with circumferential cracks under eccentric compression is analysed, asshells
Section 4. (2) The elastic-plastic fracture behaviour of thin-walled cylindrical shown in
with circumferential
Section cracks under eccentric
4. (2) The elastic-plastic fracture compression
behaviour ofisthin-walled
studied, as shown in Section
cylindrical shells5.with
(3) The linear elastic
circumferential fracture
cracks behaviour
under eccentric of thin-walled
compression cylindrical
is studied, shells
as with
shown oblique cracks5. (3)
in Section
under
The linear elastic fracture behaviour of thin-walled cylindrical shells with obliqueas
tension and combination of tension and bending moment is studied, respectively, cracks
shown in Section 6.
under tension and combination of tension and bending moment is studied, respectively,
Figure 8 is a schematic diagram of the mechanical model, taking the state of eccentric
as shown in Section 6.
compression as an example. Figure 9 is a simplified diagram of the geometric model, in-
cluding Figure 8 is a schematic
a circumferential crackdiagram of the mechanical
and a compound crack. Crack model, taking athe
1 represents state of eccentric
circumferential
compression as an example. Figure 9 is a simplified diagram of
crack, corresponding to Sections 4 and 5 below. Crack 2 is an oblique crack, corresponding the geometric model, in-
cluding
to Sectiona6.circumferential
Figure 10 showscrack and a compound
the sections of thin-walled crack. Crack 1shells
cylindrical represents a circumfer-
with cracks, in-
cluding linear elastic and elastic-plastic materials. Regions A and B represent the crack zonecorre-
ential crack, corresponding to Sections 4 and 5 below. Crack 2 is an oblique crack,
sponding
and to Section
the plastic 6. Figure 10For
zone, respectively. shows theelastic
linear sections of thin-walled
materials, cylindrical
the thin-walled shells with
cylindrical
cracks,
shell including
as shown linear
in Figure 10aelastic
containsandcircumferential
elastic-plasticcracks,
materials.
whereRegions
region AArepresents
and B represent
the
crack zone. For
the crack zoneelastic-plastic materials,
and the plastic as shown
zone, in Figure 10b,
respectively. For the thin-walled
linear elastic cylindrical
materials, the
shell contains cylindrical
thin-walled circumferential cracks,
shell where region
as shown in Figure A represents the crack
10a contains zone and region
circumferential cracks,
Bwhere
represents the plastic zone. In this study, for thin-walled
region A represents the crack zone. For elastic-plastic materials, as cylindrical shells with cracks,
shown in Fig-
the
urefollowing parameters are
10b, the thin-walled considered:
cylindrical shellthe radius Rcircumferential
contains = 0.10 m, wall thickness
cracks, where t = 0.01 m, A
region
length L = 5 m,
represents theelasticity
crack zone and Eregion
modulus = 206 GPa, and Poisson’s
B represents the ratio
plastic 0.3. e is
µ =zone. Inthe thisdistance
study, for
between the load and the axis of the section, and ε = e/R is the eccentricity.
thin-walled cylindrical shells with cracks, the following parameters are considered: the
radius R = 0.10 m, wall thickness t = 0.01 m, length L = 5 m, elasticity modulus E = 206
GPa, and Poisson’s ratio µ = 0.3. e is the distance between the load and the axis of the
section, and ε = e/R is the eccentricity.
Metals 2021, 11, 592 10 of 26
Figure 7. Calculation process of thin-walled cylindrical shells with cracks.
For a circular section,  is defined as the centre angle correspondin

length of the crack. So, the crack length is determined by changing the cent
The value range of  is 0°–45°, and the corresponding crack length b = R 
total crack length is determined as 2a  ( 0, 2b ) . The ratio of the crack
maximum crack length is 1 = a b , which is called as the crack length coe
the value range is 1  ( 0.1,1.0 ) .
Because the sections with different inclination angles are ellipses hav
perimeters, the length of the compound crack cannot be accurately reflected b
the centre angle θ corresponding to the compound crack. The crack lengt
 2 is introduced, which is the ratio of the true length of the crack to the ha
ence of the section where the crack is located. The crack angle  is the an
the oblique
Figure
Figure crackprocess
7.7.Calculation
Calculation and of
processthe coordinate
ofthin-walled
thin-walled z-axis.
cylindrical
cylindrical shellswith
shells withcracks.
cracks.
For a circular section,  is defined as the centre angle corresponding to the half
length of the crack. So, the crack length is determined by changing the central angle  .
The value range of  is 0°–45°, and the corresponding crack length b = R   . Here, the
total crack length is determined as 2a  ( 0, 2b ) . The ratio of the crack length to its
maximum crack length is 1 = a b , which is called as the crack length coefficient, and
the value range is 1  ( 0.1,1.0 ) .
Because the sections with different inclination angles are ellipses having unequal
perimeters, the length of the compound crack cannot be accurately reflected by the size of
the centre angle θ corresponding to the compound crack. The crack length coefficient
 2 is introduced, which is the ratio of the true length of the crack to the half circumfer-
ence of the section where the crack is located. The crack angle  is the angle between
the oblique crack and the coordinate z-axis.
Figure 8.Mechanical
Figure 8. Mechanicalmodel of a cylindrical
model shell subjected
of a cylindrical to eccentric
shell subjected compression.
to eccentric compression.
For a circular section, λ is defined as the centre angle corresponding to the half length
of the crack. So, the crack length is determined by changing the central angle λ. The value
range of λ is 0◦ –45◦ , and the corresponding crack length b = R · λ. Here, the total crack
length is determined as 2a ∈ (0, 2b). The ratio of the crack length to its maximum crack
length is ξ 1 = a/b, which is called as the crack length coefficient, and the value range is
ξ 1 ∈ (0.1, 1.0).
Figure 8. Mechanical model of a cylindrical shell subjected to eccentric compression.

Metals 2021, 11, 592 11 of 26
tals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure
Figure 9. Geometric
9. Geometric model
model of aofthin-walled
a thin-walled cylindrical
cylindrical shell
shell with
with different
different cracks.
cracks.
Figure 9. Geometric model of a thin-walled cylindrical shell with different cracks.
(a) (b)
Figure 10. 10.
Figure Crack sections
Crack for for
sections linear elastic
linear andand
elastic elastic-plastic materials.
elastic-plastic (a)(a)
materials. Section with
Section circumfer-
with circumferen-
ential
tialcrack
crackfor
forlinear
linearelastic
elasticmaterial;
material;(b)
(b)Section
Sectionwith
withcircumferential
circumferentialcrack
crackfor
forelastoplastic
elastoplastic mate-
material.
rial.
Because the sections with different inclination angles are ellipses having unequal
3.2.perimeters,
Element Type the length of (a) the compound crack cannot be accurately reflected by the size (b)of
1. the centre anglecylindrical
Thin-walled θ correspondingshells to the compound
with crack.cracks.
circumferential The crack length Solid45
Elements coefficient andξ 2 is
Figure
Solid9510.are
introduced, Crack
which sections
used isto the ratioaof
model forthelinear elastic
true length
structure with and
of the
spatial elastic-plastic
crack
cracks. toSolid95 materials.
the halfelement
circumference
is usedofto (a)
theSection
section
ential where
crack
simulate the
for
the crack iselastic
linear
singularity located.
at a crack The crack
material;
tip, andangle
(b) ϕ iselement
Section
Solid45 the angle
with between
for the oblique
circumferential
is used remaining crack
crack for el
and theSOLID45
part. coordinate is z-axis.
used for the 3-D modelling of solid structures. The element is de-
rial.
fined by eight nodes having three degrees of freedom at each node: translations in
3.2.
theElement
nodal Typex , y , and z directions. The element has plasticity, creep, swelling,
3.2. Element
Thin-walled
1. stress Type
stiffening, cylindrical shells and
large deflection, withlarge
circumferential cracks. SOLID95
strain capabilities. Elements is Solid45
a high- and
Solid95version of the 3-D 8-node solid element SOLID45. It can tolerate irregular to
are used to model a structure with spatial cracks. Solid95 element is used
1. er-order
Thin-walled
simulate cylindrical
the singularity at aofcrack shells
tip, and with circumferential
Solid45 element ishave for thecracks.
usedcompatible remaining Elemen
shapes without as much loss accuracy. SOLID95 elements dis-
Solid95
part. SOLID45
placement are and
shapes used areto
is used formodel
well the 3-Da
suited structure
modelling
to with
of solid
model curved spatialThe
structures.
boundaries. cracks.
The element
element Solid95
is is ele
defined by eight nodes having three degrees of freedom at each node: translations
simulate
defined the singularity
by 20 nodes having three degreesat a crack tip, and
of freedom Solid45
per node: element
translations
in the nodal x, y, and z directions. The element has plasticity, creep, swelling, stress
in the is used fo
nodal x , y , and z directions. The element may have any spatial orientation.
part. SOLID45 is used for the 3-D modelling of solid structures. The
SOLID95 has plasticity, creep, stress stiffening, large deflection, and large strain
fined byConsidering
capabilities. eight nodes having three
the symmetry of the degrees
problem, the of freedom
quarter model at eachis node
the nodal
adopted x
for the analysis. y
, As, shown z
and in Figure directions.
11, an elementThecan element has into
be transformed plasticity, c
a three-dimensional singular element by moving the middle node of the element at
Metals 2021, 11, 592 12 of 26
stiffening, large deflection, and large strain capabilities. SOLID95 is a higher-order

version of the 3-D 8-node solid element SOLID45. It can tolerate irregular shapes
without as much loss of accuracy. SOLID95 elements have compatible displacement
shapes and are well suited to model curved boundaries. The element is defined by
20 nodes having three degrees of freedom per node: translations in the nodal x, y, and
z directions. The element may have any spatial orientation. SOLID95 has plasticity,
creep, stress stiffening, large deflection, and large strain capabilities. Considering the
symmetry of the problem, the quarter model is adopted for the analysis. As shown in
EER REVIEW Figure 11, an element can be transformed into a three-dimensional singular element 1
by moving the middle node of the element at the crack front edge to 1/4 from the
and improve the
frontcalculation
edge. To ensurespeed, the accuracy
the calculation number andof modified
improve singular
the calculation speed, elements
the
number of modified singular elements is 12 when dealing with the SIF.
when dealing with the SIF.
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Geometric
Figuredescription of singular
11. Geometric description elements
of singular atatcrack
elements tip.
crack tip. (a) (a) Original
Original element,element,
(b) Modi- (b) M
fied element. fied element.
2.
Thin-walled cylindrical shell with oblique cracks. In the case of oblique cracks, the
2. finite elementshell
Thin-walled cylindrical model is not symmetric
with obliqueand a complete
cracks. Ingeometric
the case model
of needs
obliqueto be crack
established. In addition to Solid45 and Solid95, Mesh200 is also required. Mesh200
finite element model
element isisonly
notused
symmetric
for meshing and andhasa no
complete
effect on thegeometric model
solution results. It can needs
established. Inbeaddition
used to divide faces and bodies
to Solid45 and inSolid95,
2D and 3DMesh200
spaces. Mesh200 element
is also should
required. Me
contact Solid95 and Solid45 elements in a crack-affected zone and a non-affected zone,
element is onlyrespectively.
used forMESH200
meshing and has element,
is a “mesh-only” no effect on the
contributing solution
nothing results. It c
to the solution.
used to divide MESH200
faces and may bodies
be used inin 2D andwith
conjunction 3Danyspaces. Mesh200
other ANSYS element
element types. After itshould
is no longer needed, it can be deleted (cleared), or can be left in place.
tact Solid953.andAnSolid45 elementsload
eccentric concentrated in isaequivalent
crack-affected
to the axialzone and load
compression a non-affected
and the
respectively. MESH200
bending moment.is a Because
“mesh-only” element,
the model section contributing
is a hollow section, MPC184nothing
element to the
is used to form a rigid beam area to apply the load at the coupling point. MPC184
tion. MESH200comprises
may be used class
a general in conjunction with any
of multipoint constraint other
elements ANSYS
that apply element
kinematic
After it is no longer needed,
constraints betweenitnodes.
can be Thedeleted (cleared),
elements are or can
loosely classified herebeasleft in place.
constraint
elements and joint elements. The constraint may be as simple as that of identical
3. An eccentric concentrated load nodes.
displacements between is equivalent to also
Constraints can thebeaxial compression
more complicated, such asload an
those modelling rigid parts, or those transmitting motion between flexible bodies in a
bending moment. Because the model section is a hollow section, MPC184 elem
particular way. In the Figure 12, the purple part is Solid45, blue part is Solid95, red
used to form apart rigid beamand
is MESH200, area
greento apply
part the load at the coupling point. MP
is MPC184.
comprises a general class of multipoint constraint elements that apply kine
constraints between nodes. The elements are loosely classified here as cons
elements and joint elements. The constraint may be as simple as that of ide
displacements between nodes. Constraints can also be more complicated, su
Metals 2021, 11, 592 13 of 26
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure12.
Figure 12. Different
Different elements
elements on
on models
models of
of circumferential
circumferential cracks
cracks and
and oblique
obliquecracks,
cracks,(a)
(a)Element
Element
distribution of the model with a circumferential crack, (b) Element distribution of the model
distribution of the model with a circumferential crack, (b) Element distribution of the model withwith
an
an oblique crack, (c) Element distribution of the model with an oblique crack.
oblique crack, (c) Element distribution of the model with an oblique crack.
3.3. Mesh
3.3. Mesh Generation
Generation and and Boundary
Boundary Conditions
Conditions
For aathin-walled
For thin-walledcylindrical
cylindricalshell
shellwith
withaamode-I
mode-Icrack,
crack,thethequarter
quartermodel,
model,as asshown
shown
in Figure
in Figure13, 13,isisestablished,
established,and and symmetric
symmetric constraints
constraints areare applied
applied at the
at the boundaries
boundaries of theof
the symmetry
symmetry surfaces.
surfaces. The The symmetry
symmetry surfaces
surfaces and and symmetry
symmetry conditions
conditions are shown
are shown in thein
the Figure
Figure 14. It14.
can It be
canseen
be seen
that that the constraint
the constraint is applied
is applied fromfrom the crack
the crack tip, the
tip, and andpart
the part
not
applied is theishalf
not applied the crack length.
half crack ThereThere
length. are twoare key
twopoints in theinmodelling
key points process.
the modelling The
process.
first
The isfirst
thatisthe
thatmeshthe near
meshthe crack
near thetip must
crack tipbemust
fully berefined
fully when
refinedperforming the relevant
when performing the
calculation. Because of the singular stress field and high strain gradient
relevant calculation. Because of the singular stress field and high strain gradient in the in the crack front,
the elements
crack front, theat the crack front
elements at theshould be singular
crack front shouldelements.
be singular Theelements.
second key Thepoint
secondis that
key
in the is
point determination of the size ofofthe
that in the determination theplastic
size ofzone at the zone
the plastic crackattip,
thethe accuracy
crack tip, theofaccu-
the
meshing
racy of the significantly
meshing affects the accuracy
significantly affects of
thetheaccuracy
results. The
of thelength of the
results. Theelement
lengthclosest
of the
to the crack
element in thetomodel
closest is 1/78
the crack of the
in the minimum
model is 1/78 crack
of thelength.
minimum Moreover, the element
crack length. sizes
Moreover,
the element sizes are maintained at the same order of magnitude over a wide range
is the analysis of the
is the crack tip
analysis andcrack
of the the crack-affected zone, and the
tip and the crack-affected mesh
zone, of the
and the mesh
crack of
withthe crack with
different accuracies at different positions. The calculation accuracy of the most critical
crack tip is crack
governedtip isbygoverned
the number of singular
by the number elements,
of singularaselements,
shown inasFigure
shown15.inTheFigure 15. The
larger the number, the higher the calculation accuracy. It is stipulated
larger the number, the higher the calculation accuracy. It is stipulated in ANSYS that in ANSYS that
Metals 2021, 11, 592
solid elements have
solid only three
elements havetranslational degrees of freedom
only three translational degrees in of the
freedom the z x,di-
x, y inand y and z 14di-of 26
rections, butrections,
no rotational degrees of freedom. Therefore, when dealing with the
but no rotational degrees of freedom. Therefore, when dealing with the rightright
hinged support,
hingedit issupport,
necessary limit ux =
it istonecessary and uu y==00 and
to0limit at the = 0 nodes
u two at thewhere the where the
two nodes
x y
right sectionright
intersects
sectionthe xoy plane.
intersects Similarly,
xoy
the order plane. when dealing
Similarly, with
when the leftwith
dealing hinged
the left
are maintained at the same of magnitude over a wide range around thehinged
crack tip,
support, only u x ,
tosupport,
better umeetand
yonly the u are limited at
arethe
u y and urequirements
u x ,z accuracy two
limited nodes
of
at the
the where
results
two the
in
nodes left end
various
where section
yield
the leftranges.
end For the
section
z
Metals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW

intersects the xoy
quarter plane.
thin-walled For a complete
cylindrical thin-walled
shell with cylindrical
circumferential
intersects the xoy plane. For a complete thin-walled cylindrical shell with
cracks, the oblique
one
14 of shell
27
layer of elements
with oblique
cracks, the exists
two in the
layers ofthickness
elements direction.
exist in the thickness direction.
cracks, the two layers of elements exist in the thickness direction.
around the crack tip, to better meet the accuracy requirements of the results in various
yield ranges. For the quarter thin-walled cylindrical shell with circumferential cracks, the
one layer of elements exists in the thickness direction.
For a thin-walled cylindrical shell with a compound crack, the most important part
is the analysis of the crack tip and the crack-affected zone, and the mesh of the crack with
crack tip is governed by the number of singular elements, as shown in Figure 15. The
larger the number, the higher the calculation accuracy. It is stipulated in ANSYS that
solid elements have only three translational degrees of freedom in the x, y and z di-
rections, but no rotational degrees of freedom. Therefore, when dealing with the right
hinged support, it is necessary to limit ux = 0 and u y = 0 at the two nodes where the
right section intersects the xoy plane. Similarly, when dealing with the left hinged
Figure 13. Finite element
Figure model
Finite of thin-walled
element modelof cylindrical
of shell
thin-walled model with
cylindrical circumferential
shell model with crack.
circumferential crack.
u x , 13.
support, onlyFigure u13. Finite model thin-walled cylindrical shell model
y and u z are limited at the two nodes where the left end section
with circumferential crack.
intersects the xoy plane. For a complete thin-walled cylindrical shell with oblique
cracks, the two layers of elements exist in the thickness direction.
Figure 14. Symmetry surfaces

Figure14.
14. and symmetry
Symmetry conditions forconditions
surfaces and a circumferential crack.
Figure Symmetry surfaces andsymmetry
symmetry conditionsfor fora circumferential crack.
a circumferential crack.
Figure 13. Finite element model of thin-walled cylindrical shell model with circumferential crack.
For a thin-walled cylindrical shell with a compound crack, the most important part is
the analysis of the crack tip and the crack-affected zone, and the mesh of the crack with
crack tip is governed by the number of singular elements, as shown in Figure 15. The
larger the number, the higher the calculation accuracy. It is stipulated in ANSYS that solid
elements have only three translational degrees of freedom in the x, y and z directions, but
no rotational degrees of freedom. Therefore, when dealing with the right hinged support,
it is necessary to limit u x = 0 and uy = 0 at the two nodes where the right section intersects
(a) plane. Similarly,
the xoy (a) (b) with the
when dealing (c)
left hinged support,
(b) u x , uy and uz are
only (c)
limited
Figure 15. Finite at the
element twoofnodes
model a where the
thin-walled left end
cylindrical section
shell model intersects
with an the xoy
oblique plane.
crack. (a) For a complete
Figure 15. Finite element model of a thin-walled cylindrical shell model with an oblique crack. (a)
Middle part thin-walled
of model, (b) cylindrical
Local area of shell
model, with
(c) oblique
End region cracks,
of model. the two layers
Middle part of model, (b) Local area of model, (c) End region of model.
of elements exist in the
thickness direction.
Figure 14. Symmetry surfaces and symmetry conditions for a circumferential crack.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 15. Finite element model of a thin-walled cylindrical shell model with an oblique crack. (a)
Figure 15. Finite element model of a thin-walled cylindrical shell model with an oblique crack.
Middle part of model, (b) Local area of model, (c) End region of model.
(a) Middle part of model, (b) Local area of model, (c) End region of model.
4. Analysis of Elastic Fracture Behaviour of Shells with Circumferential Cracks

Metals 2021, 11, 592 15 of 26
4.1. SIF of Thin-Walled Cylindrical Shells
In fracture analysis, the J-integral method is frequently used to calculate the SIF of a
crack. First, the J-integral value on a certain path is calculated; subsequently, the value of
SIF 4.K Analysis
is obtained of Elastic
using theFracture Behaviour
relationship of Shells
between J and withKCircumferential
. Cracks
4.1. SIF of Thin-Walled Cylindrical Shells
The parameters of the thin-walled column studied in this paper are as follows: the
radius R In = 0.10 m, wall
fracture thickness
analysis, t = 0.01 m,
the J-integral lengthisLfrequently
method = 5 m, elasticity
used tomodulus
calculateEthe = 206
SIF of a
GPa, Poisson’s ratio  = 0.3 , and eccentricity  = e R .
crack. First, the J-integral value on a certain path is calculated; subsequently, the value of
SIF K is obtained using the relationship between J and K.
Suppose the applied load P = N  P0 , where P0 = 70kN and N is the load fac-
The parameters of the thin-walled column studied in this paper are as follows: the
tor, i.e., theRratio
radius of m,
= 0.10 thewallapplied load tto
thickness the basic
= 0.01 load.L The
m, length SIFelasticity
= 5 m, data aremodulus
extracted E= when
206 GPa,
eccentricity is  = 2.5 , and Figure 16 shows
Poisson’s ratio µ = 0.3, and eccentricity ε = e/R. the relationship curves of K I and 1 un-
der differentSuppose
loads.the
It applied load that
can be seen N ×SIF
P = the P0 , where P0 = 70almost
K I changes kN and N is the
linearly loadthe
with factor,
in- i.e.,
the ratio of the applied load to the basic load. The SIF data are extracted when eccentricity
crease in the crack length. At the same crack length, the SIF K I also increases with the
is ε = 2.5, and Figure 16 shows the relationship curves of KI and ξ 1 under different loads.
increase
It caninbe
theseen
loadthat
factor N . KI changes almost linearly with the increase in the crack length.
the SIF
At the same crack length, the SIF KI also increases with the increase in the load factor N.
16. K I −
Figure
Figure 16. KI − ξ 1 curves
1 curves forfor different
different loads.
loads.
The SIF data are extracted when the load is P = 360 kN, and Figure 17 shows the
The SIF data are extracted when the load is P = 360 kN, and Figure 17 shows the re-
relationship curves of KI and ξ 1 under different eccentricities. It can be seen that the SIF KI
lationship curves
exhibits a linear K I and with
of variation 1 under differentineccentricities.
the increase crack length ξIt1 .can be seen
At the samethat thelength
crack SIF ξ ,
1
K I exhibits
with the aincrease
linear variation with ε,the
in eccentricity theincrease in crack length
SIF KI significantly 1 . AtParticularly,
increases. the same crack
when the
length 1 , with is
eccentricity thesmall, the SIF
increase in eccentricity  , the
KI changes little with
SIFtheKincrease in the crack length
I significantly increases. Par-
1 . The
16 ofξ 27
crack opens less and develops less remarkably.
ticularly, when the eccentricity is small, the SIF K I changes little with the increase in the
crack length 1 . The crack opens less and develops less remarkably.
17. K I −
Figure
Figure 17. KI − ξ 1 curves
1 curves forfor different
different eccentricities.
eccentricities.
4.2. Data Fitting of SIF

For the cylindrical shell with a transverse crack subjected to a uniform tensile load in
reference [29], the SIF of the tensile mode is as follows.
Metals 2021, 11, 592 16 of 26
4.2. Data Fitting of SIF

For the cylindrical shell with a transverse crack subjected to a uniform tensile load in
reference [29], the SIF of the tensile mode is as follows.
N0 √
KI = Fs (λa) πa (25)
h
1/4 √
λa = [12(1 − µ2 )] a/ Rh (26)
where the parameters and variables involved are described in reference [29].
In this paper, the tensile stress of a crack section gradually decreases along the circum-
ference to the compression zone, and the specific expression is as follows:
σ (θ ) = − P/A + My/I0 = − P/A + PeR(θ )/I0 = − P/A + Pε(2R) R cos θ/I0 (27)
where P is the concentrated load, A denotes the cross-section area, and I0 represents the
moment of inertia of the circular cross-section.
The equivalent calculation is as follows
π
π
Z
4
σtR = tσ (θ ) Rdθ (28)
4 0
π
π
Z
4
σ= σ (θ )dθ/ . (29)
0 4
For the model used in this paper, the formula in reference [29] is transformed into
σ√
KI = f (r, t, θ ) πb (30)
t
where r and t are constants; therefore, f (r, t, θ ) can be rewritten as f (θ ) in this paper.
Linear regression and data fitting are conducted, and the corresponding SIFs are
r
−3 σ π2 R
KI = (0.1034θ + 0.9602) × 10 . (31)
t 4
5. Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanical Behaviour of Shells with Circumferential Cracks

5.1. Plastic Zone in Front of Crack
In ANSYS modelling, the mesh fineness at a crack tip affects the accuracy of the size
of the plastic zone. It cannot satisfy the condition that the plastic zone is less than the
minimum element length; therefore the extracted data can meet the requirements within a
certain range. Moreover, when yielding in a small range, only few nodes can be selected
in the plastic zone, and the curve formed by these nodes is not sufficiently smooth. After
conducting the data fitting, the resulting curve only yields the approximate range of the
◦
plastic zone, with a small error. The line with the angle of 0 represents the direction of the
◦
crack propagation, and the crack is located on the line with the angle of 180 . r represents
the distance from the point S on the boundary of the plastic zone to the crack tip, as shown
in Figure 6. Because the size of the plastic zone is remarkably affected by external loads,
their relationship should be first considered. As shown in Figure 18, when the eccentricity
is ε = 2.5, the plastic zone at the crack tip changes with external load P.
It can be seen that the size of the plastic zone on the crack extension line increases with
the increase in the load. Moreover, the longer the crack is, the faster the size of plastic zone
increases. When the load increases to a certain value, the growth curve of the plastic zone
size is almost perpendicular to the abscissa. The reason is that under the eccentric pressure,
the side relative to the crack has already entered the yielding state. With the increase in the
load, both the tension plastic and compression plastic zones in the crack front increase at a
rapid rate until the full yield is achieved.
o
the crack propagation, and the crack is located on the line with the angle of 180 . r
represents the distance from the point S on the boundary of the plastic zone to the crack
tip, as shown in Figure 6. Because the size of the plastic zone is remarkably affected by
external loads, their relationship should be first considered. As shown in Figure 18, when
Metals 2021, 11, 592 the eccentricity is  = 2.5 , the plastic zone at the crack tip changes with external load 17 of 26
P.
(a)
(b)
Figure 18. Sizes of plastic
Figure zoneof
18. Sizes forplastic
different external
zone loads. (a)
for different Sizes of
external plastic
loads. (a)zone
Sizesfor
ofdifferent
plastic zone for different
when loads
external loadsexternal 1 = 0.1 − 0.5ξ 1, (b)
when Sizes
= 0.1 − of
0.5,plastic zoneof
(b) Sizes forplastic
different external
zone loads when
for different external loads when
 = 0.6 − 1.0
1
ξ 1 .= 0.6 − 1.0.
5.2. J-Integral of Elastic-Plastic Fracture

The J-integral can be used not only to solve the problems of linear elastic fracture
mechanics, but also to solve the problems of elastic-plastic fracture. And it is suitable for
both small-scale yield and large-scale yields. The model used is consistent with the above
model for calculating the size of the plastic zone. In the post-processing stage, the contour
integral method is used to calculate the J-integral, and attention is paid to the selection of
the integral path. 16 integral paths with different lengths are selected around the crack tip
in a certain range, and the arithmetic mean value is taken as the calculation result.
The calculated values of the J-integral with the eccentricity ε = 1.5 are extracted. The
J-integral versus crack length curves under different loads are shown in Figure 19. It can be
seen that when the load is relatively small, the value of the J-integral increases gradually
with the increase in the crack length. However, when the load is large, even if the crack
length increases only slightly, the value of the J-integral increases significantly.
The calculated values of the J-integral with the eccentricity  = 1.5 are extracted.
The J-integral versus crack length curves under different loads are shown in Figure 19. It
can be seen that when the load is relatively small, the value of the J-integral increases
gradually with the increase in the crack length. However, when the load is large, even if
Metals 2021, 11, 592 the crack length increases only slightly, the value of the J-integral increases significantly.18 of 26
Figure
Figure − J 1− curves
19. J19. ξ 1 curves
forfor different
different eccentric
eccentric compression.
compression.
The calculated values of the J-integral are extracted when the load is P = 100 kN.
The calculated values of the J-integral are extracted when the load is P = 100 kN.
Figure 20 shows the curves relating the value of the J-integral and the crack length under
Figure 20 shows the curves relating the value of the J-integral and the crack length under
different eccentricities. When the eccentricity is relatively small, the value of the J-integral
different eccentricities. When the eccentricity is relatively small, the value of the J-integral
increases gradually with the increase in the crack length. However, when the eccentricity
increases gradually with the increase in the crack length. However, when the eccentricity
is large, the value of the J-integral increases significantly even if the crack length only
is large, the value of the J-integral increases significantly even if the crack length only
increases slightly. This is very similar to the trend of the effect of the load on the J-integral.
increases slightly. This is very similar to the trend of the effect of the load on
the
19 of 27
The reason is that the stress at a crack tip is determined by both the load and eccentricity;
J-integral. The reason is that the stress at a crack tip is determined by both the load and
therefore, both effects on the J-integral are fundamentally the same.
eccentricity; therefore, both effects on the J-integral are fundamentally the same.
Figure
Figure 20.−J−
20. J 1 ξcurves forfor
1 curves different eccentricities.
different eccentricities.
6. Fracture Behaviour of Thin-Walled Cylindrical Shells with Oblique Cracks

6. Fracture Behaviour of Thin-Walled Cylindrical Shells with Oblique Cracks
6.1. Distribution of Cracks on Members Subjected to Tension at Both Ends
6.1. Distribution of Cracks on Members Subjected to Tension◦at Both Ends
When the angle of an oblique crack is between 0 and 90◦ , certain stresses cause mode-
IWhen the angle
and mode-II of an
cracks oblique
in the stresscrack is the
field at between
crack 0°
tip.and
The90°, certain
oblique crackstresses cause
simultaneously
mode-I and mode-II
subjected cracks inofthe
to the stresses stress
these two field at the
modes ofcrack
crackstip.
is The
calledoblique
as I-IIcrack simulta-
compound crack.
◦
neously subjected to the stresses of these two modes of cracks is called as
When the inclination angle of the crack is ϕ = 0 and the external load is the normal I-II compound
stress
crack. When perpendicular
the inclination to the crack
angle plane,
of the crack  = 0odisplacement
theisrelative of theload
and the external crack
is surface
the
is perpendicular to the crack plane. Therefore, the crack in this
normal stress perpendicular to the crack plane, the relative displacement of the crack case can be abstractly
simplified
surface as a mode-Itocrack.
is perpendicular the crack plane. Therefore, the crack in this case can be ab-
stractly simplified as a mode-I crack.
Taking the inclination angle = 45o and tension σ = 1200 Pa as an example, Figure
21 shows the distributions of different crack lengths  2 on the components. The colour
scale represents Von Mises Stress. The load form at both ends is tension. The aim is
Metals 2021, 11, 592 19 of 26
◦
Taking the inclination angle ϕ = 45 and tension σ = 1200 Pa as an example, Figure 21
shows the distributions of different crack lengths ξ 2 on the components. The colour scale
represents Von Mises Stress. The load form at both ends is tension. The aim is comparing
PEER REVIEW 20 of 27
stress fields for different crack length coefficients.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 21. Von Mises Stress diagram
Figure 21.forVon
oblique
Misescracks
Stresswith different
diagram crack lengths
for oblique cracks (Pa). (a) Rela- crack lengths (Pa). (a) Relative
with different
tive length coefficient 2 = 0.05
length, (b) Relativeξlength
coefficient coefficient 2 =
2 = 0.05, (b) Relative
0.15coefficient
length , (c) Relative length
ξ2 = 0.15, (c) Relative length coefficient
coefficient  = 0.25 .
2
ξ 2 = 0.25.
Taking the inclination angles = 75o , 60o , 45o , 30o and tension σ = 1200 Pa,
and relative crack length coefficient 2 = 0.2 as examples. Figure 22 shows the dis-
tributions of the cracks with different inclination angles on the components. The colour
scale represents Von Mises Stress. The aim is comparing stress fields for different
Metals 2021, 11, 592 20 of 26
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
Taking the inclination angles ϕ = 75 , 60 , 45 , 30 and tension σ = 1200 Pa, and
relative crack length coefficient ξ 2 = 0.2 as examples. Figure 22 shows the distributions of
the cracks with different inclination angles on the components. The colour scale represents
Von Mises Stress. The aim is comparing stress fields for different oblique angles.
FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 27
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 22. Von Mises Stress diagram for22.
Figure cracks
Vonwith
Mises different
Stressoblique
diagramangles
for (Pa).
cracks(a) with
inclined crack oblique angles (Pa). (a) inclined crack
different
angle  = 75o , (b) inclined crack angle  = 60
◦
o
, (c) inclined crack angle  = 45o , ◦(d) inclined ◦
angle ϕ = 75 , (b) inclined crack angle ϕ = 60 , (c) inclined crack angle ϕ = 45 , (d) inclined crack
crack angle  = 30o . ◦
angle ϕ = 30 .
pands. It can be seen from Figure 22 that with the increase in crack inclination angle, the
crack is always near the crack tip.
stress near the crack tip does not change significantly, and the influence range of the
crack
6.2. is alwaysbetween
Relationship near theSIF
crack
and tip.
Crack Length Subjected to Tension
Metals 2021, 11, 592

6.2. The two ends
Relationship of theSIF
between components
and Crack are subjected
Length Subjected to tensile stress σ = 1200 Pa. The cal-
to Tension 21 of 26
culated values of SIFs K I and KII using the displacement extrapolation method when
The two ends of the components are subjected to tensile stress σ = 1200 Pa. The cal-
the crack
culated values of SIFs 2 K Ichanges
length and KII underusing thethedisplacement
different crack inclination
extrapolation method angles
when
the= 75 o
,
Itcrack
60 o
, seen from Figure
45
can be length
o
are shown in Figures
changes 23
21 that under
and
with thethe
24, respectively.
increasedifferent
in crackcrack
length,inclination
the stress near angles
the
2
As can be seen from the figures, when the inclination angle of the oblique crack is
 = 75
crack o o
tip, increases o
60 , 45 gradually,
are shownand the influence
in Figures 23 andrange of the crack also gradually expands.
24, respectively.
large, the
It canAs be cancorresponding
seen from SIF22KthatI iswith
largethe K is in
andincrease small, which suggests that the
the stress
crack
be seenFigure
from the figures, when crack
theII inclination inclination
angle of theangle,
oblique crack is
near the
tends to crack
be only tip does not
affected by change
the mode-Isignificantly,
load. In and theat
addition, influence
the same range of the angle
inclination crack of is
large, the corresponding SIF K I is large and KII is small, which suggests that the crack
always near the crack tip.
the crack, the calculated values of K I and KII increase with the increase in the crack
tends to be only affected by the mode-I load. In addition, at the same inclination angle of
length, and thethe calculated
increasing trend becomes
of KLengthmore rapid.toThis means that with the increase
I and KII increase with the increase in the crack
6.2.
the Relationship
crack, between SIFvalues
and Crack Subjected Tension
in the crack length, the possibility of crack instability and propagation increases, and the
Theand
length, twothe ends of the components
increasing trend becomes aremore
subjected
rapid.toThis
tensile
meansstress = 1200
thatσ with thePa. The
increase
component is increasingly prone to undergo failure.
calculated
in the crack values
length, of the KI and KIIofusing
SIFspossibility crackthe displacement
instability extrapolation
and propagation methodand
increases, whenthe
◦ ◦ ◦
the crack length
component ξ 2 changes prone
is increasingly under to theundergo crack inclination angles ϕ = 75 , 60 , 45
differentfailure.
are shown in Figures 23 and 24, respectively.
Figure 23. KI − 2 curves for different crack inclination angles.

Figure 23.KIK−I ξ−2 curves
Figure23. for different crack inclination angles.
2 curves for different crack inclination angles.
24. KKII −−ξ

Figure 24.
Figure 2 curves for different crack inclination angles.
II 2 curves for different crack inclination angles.
II −  2 curves for different crack inclination angles.

Figure canKbe
As24. seen from the figures, when the inclination angle of the oblique crack is
large, the corresponding SIF KI is large and KII is small, which suggests that the crack tends
to be only affected by the mode-I load. In addition, at the same inclination angle of the
crack, the calculated values of KI and KII increase with the increase in the crack length, and
the increasing trend becomes more rapid. This means that with the increase in the crack
length, the possibility of crack instability and propagation increases, and the component is
increasingly prone to undergo failure.
Metals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW6.3. Relationship between SIF and Crack Length Subjected to Tension and Bending Moment
23 of 27
Metals 2021, 11, 592 22 of 26
Under the actual engineering conditions, components are rarely subjected to a single
6.3. Relationship between SIF and Crack Length Subjected to Tension and Bending Moment
tensile action, and the external loads are typically very complex. To truly reflect the stress
state Under the actual component
of a thin-walled engineeringin conditions,
the actualcomponents
engineering,are therarely subjected
external to a single
load action form
tensile
6.3.
is action,
changed in and
Relationshipthis the
betweenexternalandloads
SIFBoth
section. endsare
Crack aretypically
Length very
Subjected
subjected complex.
to to To truly
Tensiontensile
uniform and Bendingreflect
stress σ =the
Moment stress
1200 Pa
state of a
and bending thin-walled
Under the moment component in the
M = 0.8 N m.conditions,
actual engineering actual engineering,
Under the components
action of theare the external
bending load
rarely moment, action
subjectedthe form
to anormal
single
is changed
stress
tensile in this
generated
action, and bysection.
bending
the Both
external endsare
moment
loads are
is subjected
not a constant
typically to value
very uniformbuttensile
complex. varies stress
with
To truly σ =change
the
reflect 1200
the Pa
in
stress
and bending
stateinclination
the moment
of a thin-walled M = 0.8 N m. Under the action of the bending moment,
angle. component in the actual engineering, the external load action form is the normal
stress
changed generated
Under in this by bending
section.
the combined Both moment
ends
action of areissubjected
not and
tension a constant value
to uniform
bending but varies
tensile
moment, with
stress
to σ =the
determine 1200 change in
thePaeffect
and
the inclination
bending moment angle.
M = 0.8onN the
m. Under
SIF of the
the action ofcrack,
the bending moment, theKnormal stress
of the bending moment oblique the SIFs K I and II when the
Underby
generated thebending
combined actionisofnot
moment tension and bending
a constant value but moment, to determine
varies with the change the ineffect
the
crack
of the length
bending
inclination angle. changes
moment
2 on under
the SIF different
of the crack
oblique inclination
crack, the angles
SIFs KI 
and= 75 o
KII , 60 o
when , 45 o
the
are calculated.
Under theThe resultsaction
are shown in Figures 25 and moment,
26, respectively.
crack length  2 changes under different crack inclination angles  = 75 , 60 , 45
combined of tension and bending to determineothe effect o of
o
the bending moment on the SIF of the oblique crack, the SIFs KI and KII when the crack
are calculated.
length Theunder
ξ 2 changes results are shown
different crackininclination
Figures 25angles
and 26,ϕ respectively.
◦ ◦ ◦
= 75 , 60 , 45 are calculated.
The results are shown in Figures 25 and 26, respectively.
Figure 25. KI − 2 for different crack inclination angles.
Figure 25.
Figure I −−
25. KK ξ 2forfor
different crack
different inclination
crack angles.
inclination angles.
I 2
Figure 26.
Figure II −−
26. KK ξ 2forfor
different crack
different inclination
crack angles.
inclination angles.
II 2
II −  2 for different crack inclination angles.

FigureIt26.
canK
be seen from the two graphs of SIFs KI and KII that the SIFs under the combina-
It tension
tion of can be and
seenbending
from the two graphs
moment of SIFs
uniformly K I and
increase KII that
compared withthe SIFs
those under
under the
single
combination
tension. This of tension and
is because bending
bending momentmoment
M alsouniformly
producesincrease
a normal compared
stress σM with
on thethose
sec-
It can be seen from the two graphs of SIFs K I and KII that the SIFs under the
under single tension. This is because bending moment M also produces a normal stress
tion. In addition, the change trends of the SIFs with the crack length and inclination angle
combination of tensionof
under the combination and bending
tension and moment uniformly
bending are similar increase compared
to those under withload.
a tensile those
under single tension. This is because bending moment M also produces a normal stress
Metals 2021, 11, 592 23 of 26
6.4. Prediction of Crack Initiation Angle of Shells Subjected to Tension

The main characteristic of the unstable propagation of a compound crack is that the
crack does not propagate along the original crack direction. This feature is a problem that
is encountered when studying the fracture of a compound crack. An oblique crack on a
thin-walled cylindrical shell subjected to tension or combination of tension and bending
moment is a type of I-II compound crack.
By increasing the number of singular elements at the crack tip, the prediction accuracy
of the crack initiation angle is improved. The other difference is mainly in the post-
processing stage after the calculation completion. The output coordinate system of the
result is activated as the cylindrical coordinate system. In ANSYS software, SY is the
circumferential tensile stress mentioned above. Other SX, SZ, etc. can be found in the
ANSYS help document. The node stress values of all singular elements are output, and
the maximum SY stress value of the element is obtained from the output values. It is the
maximum value of σθ in polar coordinates. Furthermore, the crack initiation direction can
be predicted.
Both ends of the thin-walled cylindrical shell are subjected to a tensile stress σ = 1200 Pa.
◦
The crack inclination angle is ϕ = 30 , and the relative length of the crack is ξ 2 = 0.1 After
the node stress values of the 36 singular elements at the crack tip are output, the element
with the maximum SY is found, as listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Element 565 (SOLID95) with maximum circumferential tensile stress (Pa) when ξ 2 = 0.1.
Node SX SY SZ SXY SYZ SXZ

35 1244.8 558.86 −750.3 1043.8 −108.1 −83.4
36 1047.6 782.91 −759.7 759.7 −158.0 −109.5
1 8080.1 12,458.0 3630.5 −2564.7 −1461.8 1099.3
1 8080.1 12,458.0 3630.5 −2564.7 −1461.8 1099.3
1957 1801.3 947.9 −581.6 858.1 −120.9 −268.9
1958 1656.7 1217.9 −548.4 605.8 −151.3 −323.4
1237 8443.0 14414.0 5637.1 −2491.2 1500.5 −307.2
1237 8443.0 14414.0 5637.1 −2491.2 1500.5 −307.2
In the ANSYS post-processing, the element number of the singular element with the
maximum circumferential tensile stress at the crack tip and the SY stress value of each node
are given. The node numbers with the maximum stress value are 1 and 1237, and these
two nodes are the corner points of the singular element after transformation. To determine
the specific direction of a new crack, it is necessary that the SY stress values of other nodes
are also the maximum value. Therefore, based on the maximum circumferential tensile
stress theory, the connecting line of the two nodes is the location of the propagated crack,
and the angle between the propagated crack and the original crack is the crack initiation
◦
angle δ. Thus, for the above example, the predicted crack initiation angle δ = 60 can be
◦ ◦
obtained, and the crack inclination angle ∆ = 60 can be obtained by substituting Φ = 30
into Equation (15). The predicted value is consistent with the theoretical value. Although
the number of singular elements at the crack tip limits the accuracy of the finite element
analysis results, there is a certain error between the predicted values and theoretical values
under other conditions. However, the error is still within the permissible range. This
method of predicting the crack initiation angles using finite element software is accurate to
a certain extent.
For the same inclination angle and different crack lengths, the above calculations are
also conducted. It is found that the crack initiation angle does not change significantly with
the change in crack length, however, the change in crack length significantly affects the
calculated values of the SIF. These results are consistent with the fact that the formula of
crack initiation angle is independent of the SIF.
The results of the crack initiation angle subjected to tension for various inclination
angles are summarised in Table 2 (ξ 2 = 0.5).
Metals 2021, 11, 592 24 of 26
Table 2. Comparison of theoretical value ∆ and calculated result δ for different inclination angles ϕ
(degree).
ϕ (º) 0 10 20 30 40 45 50 60 70 80
∆ (º) −70 −67 −64 −60 −56 −53 −50 −43 −33 −19
δ (º) −70 −60 −60 −60 −50 −50 −50 −40 −40 −20
6.5. Prediction of Crack Initiation Angle of Shells Subjected to Tension and Bending Moment
On the inclined sections with different inclination angles, the normal stress caused by
the bending moment also varies with the change in the inclination angle of the crack. The
normal stress is not uniformly distributed on the entire section subjected to the combined
action of tension and bending moment. The normal stress of the cross section will affect
the SIF, and the crack initiation angle predicted based on the maximum circumferential
tensile stress theory will also change.
The calculation results of the crack initiation angle with the change in the crack length
when the crack inclination angles are 15◦ , 30◦ and 45◦ are listed in Tables 3–5.
◦
Table 3. Crack initiation angles (degree) calculated using finite element method when ϕ = 15 .
ξ2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
δ (º) −60 −60 −50 −50 −60 −50 −60 −60 −50 −50
◦
ξ2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
δ (º) −60 −60 −50 −60 −60 −50 −60 −60 −70 −50
◦
ξ2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
δ (º) −60 −50 −60 −60 −50 −60 −60 −60 −50 −50
It is found that with the increase in the crack length, the crack initiation angle calcu-
lated using finite element method does not change significantly and fluctuates in a range
close to the theoretical value. Therefore, it can be concluded that although the stress state
of the section varies with the change in the crack length, the initiation direction of the crack
is only related to its original inclination angle. That is, as long as the compound degree of
the crack is determined, the crack initiation angle can also be determined.
7. Conclusions
In this paper, based on the fracture and elastoplastic theories, the SIFs, crack initiation
angles, plastic zones and J-integrals of thin-walled cylindrical shells with different cracks
are investigated. The main conclusions are as follows:
1. Regarding the linear elastic constitutive relation, the SIFs of eccentrically compressed
thin-walled shells with cracks are positively correlated with the load, crack length
and eccentricity. The relationship between the SIF and the crack length is obtained
by data fitting, which provides a reference for studying the cracking of thin-walled
cylindrical shells with cracks.
2. Regarding the elastic-plastic constitutive relation, the size of the plastic zone boundary
increases with the increase in load and crack length. The entire process from small-
scale yield to large-scale yield is analysed. The J-integral values are calculated for
different eccentricities and loads, and their influence relations are obtained. The
value of the J-integral increases with the increase in the crack length. Because the
Metals 2021, 11, 592 25 of 26
stress at the crack tip is determined by both load and eccentricity, the effects of both
parameters on J-integral are basically the same.
3. On the basis of previous research on compound cracks on semi-infinite plates, the
change rules of the SIFs of cylindrical shells are studied. It is concluded that the
change rule of the SIFs of oblique cracks on cylindrical thin-walled shells is nearly
consistent with the change in the I-II compound cracks on infinite plates.
4. The crack initiation angle can be obtained more accurately by increasing the number
of singular elements at the crack tip and rotating the output coordinates of the results.
An error is caused by the limited calculation accuracy resulting from the limitation of
the number of singular elements at the crack tip. Owing to the harsh conditions of the
compound crack fracture test, this method can be regarded as a mutual verification
method with the test results for brittle materials with compound cracks.
Author Contributions: Data curation, F.Y.; formal analysis, F.Y. and Z.W.; methodology, F.Y.; writing—
review and editing, F.Y. and Z.W. Both authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant
number: 51278420.
Data Availability Statement: All raw data supporting the conclusion of this paper are provided by
the authors.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the National Natural Science
Foundation of China by Grant No. 51278420.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
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metals

School of Mechanics, Civil Engineering and Architecture, Northwestern Polytechnical University,

Academic Editor: Ivo Černý 1. Introduction

Metals 2021, 11, 592. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11040592 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

2. Theory of Fracture Mechanics

2. Theory of Fracture Mechanics

Figure 1. J-integral path.

2.2. Displacement Extrapolation

Figure 2. Local coordinate system of front.

Figure 3. Approximate displacements of crack tip node.

At nodes J and K, let r tend to 0, then

Therefore, KI can be expressed as

2.3. Initiation Angle of Oblique Crack

sin ∆ + (3 cos ∆ − 1) cot Φ = 0. (15)

Metals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 27

(a) (b) (c)

2.4. Theoretical Shape of Plastic Zone

2.4. Theoretical Shape of Plastic Zone

2.4. Theoretical Shape of Plastic Zone

(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 = 2σs2 (20)

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3. Finite Element Models of Thin-Walled Cylindrical Shell with Cracks

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Figure 7. Calculation process of thin-walled cylindrical shells with cracks.

For a circular section,  is defined as the centre angle correspondin

Figure 8. Mechanical model of a cylindrical shell subjected to eccentric compression.

tals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW

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stiffening, large deflection, and large strain capabilities. SOLID95 is a higher-order

Metals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 14. Symmetry surfaces

(a) (b) (c)

4. Analysis of Elastic Fracture Behaviour of Shells with Circumferential Cracks

4.2. Data Fitting of SIF

4.2. Data Fitting of SIF

5. Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanical Behaviour of Shells with Circumferential Cracks

5.2. J-Integral of Elastic-Plastic Fracture

6. Fracture Behaviour of Thin-Walled Cylindrical Shells with Oblique Cracks

Metals 2021, 11, 592

Figure 23. KI − 2 curves for different crack inclination angles.

24. KKII −−ξ

II −  2 curves for different crack inclination angles.

Figure 25. KI − 2 for different crack inclination angles.

II −  2 for different crack inclination angles.

6.4. Prediction of Crack Initiation Angle of Shells Subjected to Tension

Node SX SY SZ SXY SYZ SXZ

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