Professional Documents
Culture Documents
17
Article 2 11/21/01 7:19 PM Page 18
Fig 1. Risk factors for developing type 2 diabetes mellitus and the metabolic abnormalities associ-
ated with insulin resistance. Note: * GDM (gestational diabetes mellitus) may be influenced by ge-
netics, lifestyle, insulin resistance, or a combination thereof. Source: Data from American Diabetes
Association, Clinical Practice Recommendations 2001, vol. 24: S21–S24.
Article 2 11/21/01 7:19 PM Page 19
Risk Factors 19
those with two diabetic parents was 6-fold All Hispanic populations, who com-
greater when compared with offspring prise the fastest growing minority popula-
without parental diabetes.5 No differences tion in the United States, have greater
were noted in maternal versus paternal prevalence rates of type 2 diabetes than
risk of transmission, though interestingly non-Hispanic whites.6 Statistics vary de-
the offspring with maternal diabetes were pending on the communities studied. Over-
more likely to have milder forms of glu- all, diabetes prevalence rates for Mexican-
cose intolerance as compared to paternal Americans are estimated at 2 to 5 times
transmission. that of the non-Hispanic white population,
with the greatest prevalence rates found
for Puerto Ricans and Hispanics living in
AGE
the southwest, where half of the adults are
affected in some cities.6–8 Limited data are
Type 2 diabetes has been known for
available for prevalence rates for Asian
years as “adult onset,” or “maturity-onset,”
Americans and Pacific Islanders.
emphasizing that the prevalence of type
According to the Centers for Disease
2 diabetes increases with age. Of persons
Control and Prevention (CDC), Native Amer-
65 years or older, 18.4% of all people in this
icans have a disproportionately higher
age group have diabetes.1 Many surveys re-
prevalence of diabetes—2.8 times that of
port a leveling off or slight decline at age 75
whites of similar age.7,9 Indeed, the highest
or greater.6 It is noteworthy that in the past,
prevalence of diabetes in the world has
the age of 45 years has been used as an im-
been found among the Pima Indians in
portant cut-off point in estimating the
Arizona, where approximately 1 of every
prevalence of diabetes. However, in the last
2 adults has type 2 diabetes. The CDC study
eight years, younger adults between the
of all Native Americans across the United
ages of 30–39 have had a startling 70% rise
States conducted between 1990–1997 re-
in type 2 diabetes.1 Rates for the next age
ported that the prevalence of diabetes in-
group, 40–49 years, rose a dramatic 40%.
creased almost 30% during that time pe-
These startling statistics are blamed on cur-
riod. These increases were evident across
rent lifestyle patterns that result in excess
all age groups.9 But even within the high
body weight and less physical activity.
risk populations differences in rates of
type 2 diabetes may vary depending on
RACIAL/ ETHNIC modifiable risk factors such as exercise and
weight. For example, the prevalence of
Minorities in the United States exhibit type 2 diabetes is six times higher in the
higher prevalence for diabetes (2–6 times Pima Indians living in Arizona than the
greater than that of white persons)7. The Pima Indians living in Rural Mexico.
Third National Health and Nutrition Sur- One explanation may be that the mean
vey—1988–1994 (NHANES III) showed the body mass index is 8 kg/m2 greater among
prevalence rate of diabetes to be 1.7 times the Pima Indians living in Arizona.3
higher for non-Hispanic blacks than for These minority populations are at higher
whites of similar age.1,6 Controlling for obe- risk, not simply because of their family
sity did not affect this increased risk.7 One history and genetic heritage, but because
in four black women aged 55 years or older of the increased number of environmental
has diabetes. This is twice the rate for age risk factors they exhibit from having
matched white women. Black females have “westernized” and taken on the American
the highest diabetes related deaths com- habits of high calorie diets and sedentary
pared with other minorities.1 lifestyle.7,9 Other contributing factors, such
Article 2 11/21/01 7:19 PM Page 20
as lower economic status and access barri- enced by the degree of obesity prior to preg-
ers to health care, may negatively impact nancy, the need for insulin treatment dur-
these groups.7–8 This remains an under- ing pregnancy, and higher glucose readings
studied topic. NHANES III data were ex- during oral glucose tolerance testing.15 Eth-
amined for racial and ethnic differences in nicity also strongly affects progression to
health outcomes for persons with type 2 diabetes after a GDM pregnancy, with high-
diabetes.10 Though small differences by risk ethnic groups often reporting 50% of
race and ethnicity were found in health women becoming diabetic within 5 years.14
care access and utilization, along with Of course, the confounding variables of
health outcomes, the most striking finding obesity and physical inactivity reported
was the overwhelming suboptimal health in these ethnic groups, as well as in all
status for all diabetics, regardless of race or women, affect progression to diabetes.
ethnicity. Socioeconomic status was not a
major variable; rather a multiplicity of fac- IMPAIRED FASTING GLUCOSE (IFG)
tors impacted these outcomes. AND IMPAIRED GLUCOSE
TOLERANCE (IGT)
GESTATIONAL DIABETES MELLITUS
(GDM) The American Diabetes Association de-
fines IFG and IGT as an intermediate cate-
Women who have a history of GDM are at gory between normoglycemia and diabetes.
greater risk for future diabetes as are their Criteria for IFG include individuals with
children. Gestational diabetes is defined as a fasting blood glucose level of 110 mg/dl
any degree of glucose intolerance with its to 125 mg/dl. IGT is determined from a
onset or first recognition occurring during 2 hour oral glucose tolerance test reading of
pregnancy.11 This definition does not ex- ⱖ140 mg/dl but ⬍200 mg/dl.11 Individuals
clude the possibility that undiagnosed glu- with IGT demonstrate normal glycemic
cose intolerance may have preceded the levels throughout most of their daily lives,
pregnancy. The incidence of GDM averages with the metabolic impairment only noted
around 4% of all US pregnancies, though during glucose tolerance testing. IGT indi-
the range is much wider (1–14%) depend- cates a higher than normal risk of progres-
ing on the racial or ethnic groups studied, sion to type 2 diabetes, ranging from 2.3 to
as well as the prevalence of obesity.12–13 The 11% per year, especially among nonwhite
progression from GDM to diabetes may be racial and ethnic groups. Prevalence is
partly explained by more universal screen- greater among women in each minority
ing and detection along with the trend group.6,7,11 Insulin resistance and sub-
for older women to have children.14 The sequent IGT are directly involved in the
Nurses Health Study examined pregravid pathogenesis of diabetes. Data from six
determinants of GDM. A family history of prospective studies among diverse popula-
diabetes, advanced maternal age, nonwhite tions revealed that the strongest predictors
ethnicity, higher BMI, weight gain in early of progression from IGT to type 2 diabetes
adulthood, and cigarette smoking were were elevated fasting and 2-hour post chal-
found to predict a woman’s risk for GDM.13 lenge glucose levels.16 The detection of IGT
Rates of progression of GDM to diabetes is particularly significant since it signals
varies, with a 5% risk of type 2 diabetes long standing insulin resistance and is a
during the 3–6 month postpartum period, strong risk factor for type 2 diabetes.
increasing up to 47% at 5-year follow-
up.15 Review of additional studies reported INSULIN RESISTANCE
a 40% occurrence of diabetes at 15 years
in women with prior GDM.1,15 The devel- Insulin resistance is a defect in the abil-
opment of postpartum diabetes is influ- ity of insulin to take up glucose into the
Article 2 11/21/01 7:19 PM Page 21
Risk Factors 21
muscle cell. Despite being genetically de- (such as walking only 15 to 20 minutes a
termined, it is greatly aggravated by obesity day on a regular basis) or less.30 These life
and physical inactivity.17 During the initial habits, along with the aging of the popula-
phases of insulin resistance, the pancre- tion, contribute to the growing prevalence
atic beta cells are able to maintain normal of diabetes.31 Obesity alone, especially ab-
glycemic control through an increased pro- dominal adiposity, is a major determinant
duction of insulin, thereby making these in- of the development of type 2 diabetes,
dividuals hyperinsulinemic.18–19 However, causing it to occur at an earlier age.32 When
when individuals can no longer maintain obesity is compounded by physical inac-
normal glycemia from this compensatory tivity, the risk for type 2 diabetes dramati-
mechanism, they progress to development cally increases.33 People who are obese
of type 2 diabetes.18 and have insulin resistance can increase
Research suggests that insulin resistance insulin sensitivity by weight loss; however
is a multi-system disorder that is corre- those people who are obese without in-
lated with multiple metabolic abnormali- sulin resistance do not improve their in-
ties. It is not surprising that those individu- sulin sensitivity with similar weight loss.34
als who are insulin resistant share the Mechanisms for the improvement in in-
same risk factors as those who are at risk sulin sensitivity with weight loss are com-
for type 2 diabetes. Indeed, insulin resis- plex and not completely understood at this
tance predisposes individuals to both dia- time.35–36
betes and CVD.18–20 Factors that contribute Limited data in men with type 2 diabetes
to insulin resistance are genetics,21 obe- show that a low level of physical activity is
sity,22 physical inactivity,23 and age.24 Ab- an independent predictor of all cause mor-
dominal obesity often accompanies in- tality.37– 39 Exercise increases insulin sensi-
sulin resistance.25 Although there is a tivity and glucose tolerance, as well as im-
strong correlation with insulin resistance proves blood lipid profiles in persons with
and obesity, not all obese people are in- type 2 diabetes.40– 42 Exercise as an adjunct
sulin resistant.26–27 Metabolic risk factors to diet yields greater and more sustained
that commonly occur in persons with weight loss in obese subjects with type 2
insulin resistance are hyperinsulinemia, diabetes43 and exercise improves insulin
atherogenic dyslipidemia (elevated tri- sensitivity and reduces body weight.44 The
glycerides and low HDL-C), glucose intol- combination of weight loss and exercise
erance, hypertension, prothrombotic state, enhances insulin sensitivity and improves
hyperuricemia, and polycystic ovary syn- glucose control, thus facilitating the risk
drome.19,20,28 The clinical picture of insulin reduction in type 2 diabetes.
resistance is depicted in Fig l. Refer also to In summary, the profile of individuals
Quinn’s excellent description of the three most at risk for developing type 2 diabetes
stages of insulin resistance in the pathogen- is clear. Although genetic predisposition
esis of type 2 diabetes in the lead article exhibits the strongest influence, attention
of this issue. to the modifiable risk factors is strongly
warranted. It is clear that physical activity
OBESITY AND PHYSICAL INACTIVITY and weight management have a positive
influence on retarding or halting the pro-
An estimated 97 million US adults are gression to type 2 diabetes. As nurses, our
overweight (body mass index (BMI ⫽ 25– role is to be to be aware of what popula-
29.9 kg/m2) or obese (BMI 30 kg/m2 or ⬎ ).29 tions will be at higher risk for developing
Despite current recommendations to exer- type 2 diabetes and to be proactive in pro-
cise at a moderate level for 30–45 minutes moting influential lifestyle habits with the
on most days of the week, 75% of US goal of reducing the incidence of IGT and
adults engage in minimal physical activity type 2 diabetes and its complications.
Article 2 11/21/01 7:19 PM Page 22
REFERENCES
1. Centers for Disease Control and Preven- 14. Dornhorst A, Rossi M. Risk and preven-
tion. (2000) www.cdc.gov/diabetes/statis- tion of type 2 diabetes in women with ges-
tics. Feb 2001. tational diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1998;21
2. American Diabetes Association. Clinical Suppl 2:B43–B49.
Practice Recommendations 2001.vol 24: 15. Bloomgarden, ZT. American Diabetes As-
S21–S24. sociation 60th Scientific Sessions, 2000:
3. Reaven G, Laws A (Ed). Insulin resistance: diabetes and pregnancy. Diabetes Care.
The metabolic syndrome X. Humana 2000;23:1699–1702.
Press, Totowa, NJ; 1999. 16. Edelstein SL, Knowler WC, Bain RP, et al.
4. American Diabetes Association. Screen- Predictors of progression from impaired
ing for type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. glucose tolerance to NIDDM: an analysis
2000;23:S20–S23. of six prospective studies. Diabetes. 1997;
5. Meigs JB, Cupples LA, Wilson, PW. 46:701–710.
Parental transmission of type 2 diabetes: 17. Reaven GM. Insulin resistance: a chicken
the Framingham Offspring Study. Dia- that has come to roost. Ann N Y Acad Sci.
betes. 2000;49:2201–2207. 1999;892:45–57.
6. Harris MI, Flegal KM, Cowie CC, et al. 18. Reaven G. Banting lecture 1988 the role of
Prevalence of diabetes, impaired fasting insulin resistance in human disease. Dia-
glucose, and impaired glucose tolerance betes. 1988;37:1595–1607.
in U.S. adults. The Third National Health 19. Reaven G. Pathophysiology of insulin re-
and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988– sistance in human disease. Physiological
1994. Diabetes Care. 1998;21:518–524. Review. 1995;473–486.
7. Carter JS, Pugh JA, Monterrosa, A. Non- 20. Reaven GM, Lithell H, Landsberg L.
insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in Hypertension and associated metabolic
minorities in the United States. Ann abnormalities—the role of insulin resist-
Intern Med. 1996;125:221–232. ance and the sympathoadrenal system. N
8. Hispanic health in the United States. Engl J Med. 1996;334:374–381.
Council on Scientific Affairs. JAMA. 21. Warram JH, Martin BC, Krolewski AS,
1991;265:248–252. Soeldner JS, Kahn CR. Slow glucose re-
9. Burrows NR, Geiss LS, Engelgau MM, moval rate and hyperinsulinemia precede
Acton KJ. Prevalence of diabetes among the development of type II diabetes in the
Native Americans and Alaska Natives, offspring of diabetic parents. Ann Intern
1990–1997: an increasing burden. Dia- Med. 1990;113:909–915.
betes Care. 2000;23:1786–1790. 22. Bogardus C, Lillioja S, Mott D, Reaven GR,
10. Harris M. Racial and ethnic differences in Kashiwagi A, Foley JE. Relationship be-
health care access and health outcomes tween obesity and maximal insulin-stim-
for adults with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes ulated glucose uptake in vivo and in vitro
Care. 2001;24(3):454–459. in Pima Indians. J Clin Invest. 1984; 73:
11. Report of the Expert Committee on the 800– 805.
Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes 23. Perseghin G, Price TB, Petersen KF, et al.
Mellitus. Diabetes Care. 1997;20:1183– Increased glucose transport-phosphoryla-
1197. tion and muscle glycogen synthesis after
12. Engelgau MM, Herman WH, Smith PJ, exercise training in insulin-resistant sub-
German RR, Aubert RE. The epidemiol- jects. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:1357–1362.
ogy of diabetes and pregnancy in the U.S., 24. Rowe JW, Minaker KL, Pallotta JA, Flier JS.
1988. Diabetes Care. 1995;18:1029–1033. Characterization of the insulin resistance
13. Solomon CG, Willett WC, Carey VJ, et al. of aging. J Clin Invest. 1983;71:1581–1587.
A prospective study of pregravid determi- 25. Abate N, Garg A, Peshock RM, Stray-Gun-
nants of gestational diabetes mellitus. dersen J, Grundy SM. Relationships of
JAMA. 1997;278:1078–1083. generalized and regional adiposity to
Article 2 11/21/01 7:19 PM Page 23
Risk Factors 23