Nature, Place and People

Downloaded from www.worldscientific.
com
by 110.93.81.35 on 01/12/22. Re-use and distribution is strictly not permitted, except for Open Access articles.
Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com
Book 1.indb 1
4/4/18 12:01 PM
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Tan, Puay Yok, editor. | Liao, Kuei-Hsien, editor. | Hwang, Yun Hye, editor. | Chua, Vincent, editor.
Title: Nature, place & people: forging connections through neighbourhood landscape design /
[edited by] Tan Puay Yok (National University of Singapore), Liao Kuei-Hsien (National Taipei University),
Hwang Yun Hye (National University of Singapore), Vincent Chua (National University of Singapore).
Other titles: Nature, place and people
Description: New Jersey : World Scientific, [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2017056775 (print) | LCCN 2018000037 (ebook) | ISBN 9789813236035 (ebook) |
ISBN: 978-981-3236-02-8 (hardback : alk. paper) | ISBN 9789813236028 (paperback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Urban landscape architecture.
Classification: LCC SB472.7 (ebook) | LCC SB472.7 .T36 2018 (print) | DDC 712/.5--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017056775
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Cover images: Courtesy of Jamsari Ahmad © 2018.
Copyright © 2018 by authors

All rights reserved.
This is an Open Access ebook published by World Scientific Publishing Company and distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives (CC BY-NC ND) License.
Desk Editors: Amanda Yun/Tay Yu Shan

Layout Designer: Lionel Seow
Printed in Singapore
Forging Connections through

Neighbourhood Landscape Design
Edited by
Tan Puay Yok, Liao Kuei-Hsien, Hwang Yun Hye & Vincent Chua
Book 1.indb 3 4/4/18 12:01 PM

Book 1.indb 4
This page intentionally left blank
4/4/18 12:01 PM
5
Foreword I
T
he Housing & Development Board (HDB) houses over The transdisciplinary nature of the concepts offered herein could
80% of the resident population of Singapore in 1 million be considered by a multitude of stakeholders ranging from policy
flats, spread over 23 towns. As our heartlands develop into makers, builders and specialists, to design professionals such as
high-density townships, urban greenery has become an integral urban planners, architects, landscape architect and engineers.
part of the urban fabric, playing an indispensable role in mitigating “Nature, Place & People” sets the foundation for the co-creation
the high densities and ensuring a quality living environment. of meaningful urban landscapes that realise the larger urban
development goals of Sustainability, Liveability and Resilience.

The synthesis of nature into our urban living environment is an
essential factor in creating vibrant and sustainable towns that support
active and cohesive communities. Over the years, HDB has been
Dr Cheong Koon Hean
actively pursuing a better living environment through the provision
CEO of Housing & Development Board
of green spaces and urban greenery. These continuous efforts aim to 10 January 2018
integrate lush landscapes with high-rise buildings, which collectively
form a mantle of greenery across each residential town.
To further our greenery efforts, HDB developed the Biophilic Town

Framework to guide the enhancement of existing natural assets
and the development of residential landscapes for a greater sense
of place, better health and well-being, and enhanced quality of life
for our residents. It elaborates on the strategies and initiatives to
achieve “Enhanced Greenery & Biodiversity”, one of the 10 desired
outcomes under the broader HDB’s Sustainable Development
Framework.
Some three years ago, HDB embarked on a research collaboration
with the National University of Singapore, the Urban Redevelopment
Authority, the National Parks Board, and the Chinese University
of Hong Kong, to further develop this framework. Through
extensive literature reviews, surveys, feedback and testbeds, this
research collaboration has culminated in this book which outlines
comprehensive sets of principles, approaches, and strategies for
the planning and design of neighbourhood landscapes. Aptly titled
“Nature, Place & People”, this book proposes a calibrated and holistic
approach to the incorporation of nature and the optimisation of
urban ecosystem services within our neighbourhoods and towns for
human well-being and environmental health.
Book 1.indb 5 4/4/18 12:01 PM

Foreword II
A
s the world is increasingly urbanised, coupled with a trend and people–people associations. If culture can nurture nature
for the compact mode of development and densification successfully, nature can nurture culture in a blissful reciprocity.
of existing built-up areas, more people have to dwell in Furthermore, the socially inclusive design can be embraced, catering
apartments in high-rise buildings. Cloistered in the indoor milieu, to multiple needs of residents in a barrier-free arrangement. The
deprivation of private open spaces and collateral detachment from health benefits of green spaces, the realisation of which require
nature have beset a large segment of humanity. The provision of frequent visits, can be facilitated by creating attractive landscapes
public green spaces within the grounds of residential neighbour- that encourage daily patronage.
hoods therefore presents readily available relief and a nature-based
The social dimension of the design, somewhat neglected in previous
solution to tackle this plight. The inherent, if not unique, traits
studies, has been aptly emphasised in this book. It conjures up
as well as objectives of such communal places call for special de-
people’s desire and affinity for natural companions. It inspires
signs to optimise landscape services for both nature and people.
residents to treat the neighbourhood landscape as an extension of
However, neighbourhood landscape design has to operate in a their living space, so that they can feel relaxed and at home. The
rather stifled environment that demands innovative solutions. It has sense of belonging is fostered by engaging the community in the
limited availability of space, which tends to be fragmented due to design and management of the sites. The residents can be organised
juxtaposed building blocks and roads. The same site has to compete to participate in site maintenance activities to further augment the
keenly with a plethora of building-related installations and services, feeling of empathy and ownership. Using the local endowments
vehicular and pedestrian passages, emergency vehicle access, and habitually will become a routine — if not second nature — reflecting
other common facilities. The co-location of often incompatible a subliminal urge to receive a regular dose of nature via salubrious
uses and high throughput of people could challenge the designer. outdoor recreation. The recurring interactions with people can
The constraints are balanced by some desirable conditions. While engender social harmony and cohesion to help community building.
buildings commonly reduce the sky-view factor and solar access,
Urban development could follow the innate human desire to be
they can shelter the open spaces from wind and exposure to improve
connected to nature, which is not that remote and difficult to
human thermal comfort. Their proximity to buildings means that
accomplish. What it needs is the rekindling of the community’s
residents can enjoy convenient accessibility and safety.
inborn urge and collective mobilisation of traditional wisdom, to be
Neighbourhood landscape design has been promoted in this book aptly translated into vision and motivation, and then into decision
as a seamless union of the tripartite: nature, place and people. The and action. The key is giving due respect to the role of nature in
improved biophilic approach takes care of both nature and people human welfare, and integrate the ideas into development blueprints
in the socio-ecological tradition. The site-specific design with nature at the incubation stage. After all, the green and blue infrastructures
has been enriched by design with people, taking into account the are part and parcel of a liveable and sustainable city. It is high time
special expectations and aspirations of residents who live nearby. that the indispensable naturalistic companions of a smart city could
This is quite a tall order, as the designer has to satisfy the eclectic be accorded their rightful place in parallel with the ubiquitous and
and divergent needs of a wide clientele, encompassing complex domineering grey infrastructures.
ecosystems and pluralistic human communities. Out of the disparate
The principle and practice of ecological planning has been skilfully
and sometimes conflicting interests of different stakeholders, an
expounded. Existing nature of high ecological worth can be
optimal compromise has to be found. A meaningful place has to
identified and evaluated for preserving and incorporating into the
be provided by consulting, preserving, enhancing and expressing
future green-blue space framework. Disturbed and lower quality
the genius loci, the distinctive character and ambience of the place.
habitats with the potential for enhancement can be upgraded
Providing high-order nature literally at the doorsteps of homes through ecological rehabilitation. If it is deemed appropriate, high-
has been convincingly demonstrated to be entirely feasible and order ecology could be created. The landscape design can take into
achievable. This gratifying enterprise entails generating ample but account the ground truth so that ecologically important features
largely serendipitous opportunities for nature and people to interact could be inherited by the green space. The successful advocacy
and intertwine in the neighbourhood landscape. The people– has henceforth and forthwith abandoned the anachronistic notion
nature coupling would blend imperceptibly with the nature–nature that neighbourhood spaces are merely left-over lands. Instead, it
Book 1.indb 6 4/4/18 12:01 PM

7
has shifted resolutely into the brave new world of nature-friendly, Overall, neighbourhood landscapes are the surrogates of nature for
nature-accommodating, nature-inclusive, nature-compliant and a large proportion of urban populations all over the world. It can
nature-integrated design. draw people from their cloistered indoor existence to relish joyfully
in the embracive and inclusive lap of nature. These proximal green
In compact cities, it is all the more important to make the best and
spaces offer places for the primary outdoor sojourns of people
balanced use of the insufficient and expensive land resource to meet
hampered by mobility challenges, and children who may not play
diverse demands. The limited supply of precious open spaces lying

without adult supervision. Their familiarity can breed patronage,
between residential blocks in high-density and high-rise residential
satisfaction and happiness. The increase in encounters with nature
areas, in some cities, have been given rather bland and stereotypical
by urban dwellers can bring on positive multiplier effects by raising
landscape treatment. They denote wasted opportunities that cry
environmental awareness and knowledge, which could be transmuted
out for an upgrading of landscape quality to enhance natural
into strong support for nature conservation policies and projects.
ingredients and people’s welfare. For less compact cities that are
The neighbourhood level of the green infrastructure deserves to be
aiming at densifying some areas, it is important to plan for the
given due attention and resources, to be transformed into a precious
locations and ingredients of future green spaces when re-modelling
local community asset and the pride of the community.

neighbourhoods. The resource base, albeit parsimonious, can benefit
from an enlightened design that optimises biophysical functions,
landscape services and recreational experiences.
Prof Chi Yung Jim
The provision of nature in cities can be realised through integrated University of Hong Kong
spatial planning, begging the key questions of where, what and how. 23 November 2017
At the neighbourhood scale, nature is most earnestly wanted by
people, yet it is often inadequately supplied in quantity and quality.
Such mismatch could hardly be rectified in developed areas. The
locational incongruity could be prevented by prescient, visionary
and benevolent planning. This Singapore-based study, including in-
depth conceptual exploration and innovative implementation, offers
fine exemplars to serve as references for other cities aspiring to strike
a balance between nature and development. Despite the shortage
of land, Singaporeans have kept their desire for urban greenery in
earnest, and have found a pioneering path to accommodate people
and nature, side by side, in a harmonious setting.
Landscape planning and design have commonly focused on the
large urban parks bestowing services at the high level of the green
space hierarchy, over local small-scale sites. The intermediate
neighbourhood scale hitherto has received relatively less attention as
a planning unit for green spaces. This book has successfully filled a
glaring but critically pertinent knowledge void, offering a convincing
proponent catering to the high-intensity outdoor recreational needs
of local residents. Such green spaces offer “everyday landscapes” to
most urban residents in compact urban areas, with critical impacts
on their perception of the urban landscape as well as restorative
benefits to their mental and physical health. The rendition is based
firmly on state-of-art concepts, in conjunction with ample primary
research findings and practical experiences.
Book 1.indb 7 4/4/18 12:01 PM

Acknowledgements
P
ublishing this book is a collaborative, interdisciplinary effort, Pearlyn Chang Mei Fen, Sylvia Augustina, Dr Mireille Mavoungo-
much like we have advocated in the contents for the creation Tchapi, Baey Yan Ling, Ivy Ma Yankan, Yuta Aihara, Suchi Jhalani,
of neighbourhood landscapes. This book is the product Aakansha Jain, Dr Abdul Rahim bin Abdul Hamid and Rosita
of an interdisciplinary project “Biophilic Town: A Framework for Samsudin who assisted us in the early part of our research.
Enhancing the Environmental and Social Capital of High-Density
Last but not least, we are grateful to our publisher, World Scientific
Towns”. We are grateful to our research collaborators and many

for its highly professional handling of this book project.
other parties for their contributions in the development of this book.
This book was developed based on research supported by the
We specially thank Dr Johnny Wong, Larry Cheng and Leonard
Singapore Ministry of National Development and National Research
Cai of the Housing & Development Board for their staunch support
Foundation under L2NIC Award No. L2NICCFP1-2013-10 to
in the undertaking of this research project, which was crucial in
Tan P. Y.
giving the project team a comprehensive understanding of the
context, opportunities and challenges of developing neighbourhood
landscapes in Singapore’s public housing estates. We are heartened

that as Singapore continues to urbanise, they share with us the firm
belief that landscapes must be used as a crucial medium to enhance Dr Tan Puay Yok
the liveability, sustainability and resilience of neighbourhoods. We Hwang Yun Hye
are also grateful to Dr Lena Chan and Holly Siow of National
Parks Board, and Ching Tuan Yee and Celine Tan of the Urban Dr Liao Kuei-Hsien
Redevelopment Authority, our other collaborators in the project Dr Vincent Chua
for their support and pertinent input which shaped the conduct
and outcome of the project, and Shen Nansheng from Ministry of Dr Agnieszka O. Guizzo
National Development for his strong support of this project.
Jane Chan
We also thank the Singapore Institute of Landscape Architects and
Singapore Institute of Architects who provided valuable feedback
for our guidelines, and the three design studios, Dongsimwon Design
Corp from South Korea, Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl (Singapore Office)
and Classic Landscape Design and Environmental Planning Pte Ltd
from Taiwan for courageously working with us to test our design
framework and guidelines. We also thank the numerous residents of
housing estates in Singapore, for whom we design neighbourhood
landscapes, who participated in our various community activities,
surveys, photo-taking sessions and who wholeheartedly contributed
their perspective of neighbourhood landscapes for our research.
The research project also owes a debt to the large team of assistants
and colleagues who were in involved in the project at different times
in different capacities, but who all made the research possible: Dr
Ayako Nagase for facilitating our very fruitful site visits in Tokyo;
Heather Banerd, for providing brilliant graphical assistance and
photography skills, Lai Hong Zhan for assistance in capturing the
aerial images of public housing in Singapore, Adel Ayu Sukma
for developing the AHP analysis and sophisticated 3D modelling,
fellow colleagues and student assistants Dr Nicholas Escoffier,
Book 1.indb 8 4/4/18 12:01 PM

9
Contributors
Jane Chan is a Research Assistant in the Department of Archi- Hwang Yun Hye is an accredited landscape architect in Singapore
tecture at the National University of Singapore. She obtained her and an Assistant Professor in the Department of Architecture in
Master in Architecture from National University of Singapore and the School of Design and Environment at the National University
subsequently a Specialist Diploma in Landscape Architecture and of Singapore. She obtained a post-professional MLA degree from
Interior Design. Her experience in architectural practice has inclined the Graduate School of Design in Harvard University, USA and
her towards the applicable and interdisciplinary aspects of academic MLA degree from Seoul National University. Yun Hye previously
research. Her interests range from the exploration of human-nature worked as a design director for public housing landscape projects in
interrelationships, understanding people’s values and behaviours Korea for many years where she received several landscape awards
towards the environment, to drawing from ecological philosophy from government authorities. Her research speculates on emerging
and principles for minimally invasive design interventions. demands of landscapes in the Asian equatorial urban context by
exploring ecological landscape management, the multifunctional
Dr Vincent Chua is an Associate Professor in the Department of role of urban landscapes, and actionable design strategies for fast
Sociology at the National University of Singapore. He received his growing Asian cities.
PhD in Sociology from the University of Toronto in November 2010.

His main research interests are in social networks, education, and Dr Liao Kuei-Hsien is Associate Professor at the Graduate
social stratification. He has published widely in reputable journals Institute of Urban Planning at National Taipei University since
including Social Networks, Social Science Research, Current August 2017. She received her PhD in the Built Environment from
Sociology, Comparative Sociology, Sociological Perspectives, the University of Washington, USA. Her research mainly focuses
International Studies in the Sociology of Education, American on how cities can adapt to, instead of resist, flooding through urban
Behavioral Scientist and Environment and Planning C. He received design. She bases her research on the theoretical framework of
the Faculty Teaching Excellence Award in 2013 and 2017. resilience theory, urban ecology, and ecological wisdom. She also
researches on green infrastructure, urban rivers, and sustainable
Dr Agnieszka O. Guizzo is a Research Fellow at the National cities. She has both academic and practical experiences in the design
University of Singapore. She obtained her PhD in Landscape and planning discipline. Besides academic writing, she has published
Architecture and Urban Ecology from the Faculty of Sciences at the extensively in public media to promote the knowledge associated
University of Porto, Portugal. She is interested in the relationship with ecological design and planning.
between people and their living environment, more specifically, in
exploring which attributes of built urban landscapes have the most Dr Tan Puay Yok is an Associate Professor in the Department
powerful impact on people’s health and well-being. In her research, of Architecture in the School of Design and Environment at
she has been using technical methods such as neuroscience to assess the National University of Singapore. He obtained his PhD
the design of urban landscapes. The interdisciplinary approach from Cornell University, USA and his academic training was in
brings her closer to the concepts of evidence-based design of our horticulture science and plant physiology. His research, teaching, and
living environment and design for mental health and well-being. professional activities focus on the science, policies, and practices of
urban greening and ecology of the built environment. He combines
his background in the sciences, experience in urban governance
from the public sector, and interactions with practitioners to apply
knowledge for urban greening to improve environmental quality
and societal well-being. He is active in international collaborations
and grant reviews, and serves as an editorial board member for a
number of international journals. He also advises on landscape
design and planning projects in the region as a means of transferring
knowledge from the academia to practice.
Book 1.indb 9 4/4/18 12:01 PM

Table of
Contents
5 PART I:
Foreword I A Conceptual Framework
Dr. Cheong Koon Hean for Designing Neighbourhood Landscapes
6 16
Foreword II CHAPTER 1
Prof. Chi Yung Jim Landscapes in Urban Areas
Tan Puay Yok | Liao Kuei-Hsien | Jane Chan
1.1 What are urban landscapes?
8
Acknowledgments
24
CHAPTER 2
9 Neighbourhood Landscapes
Contributors
Hwang Yun Hye | Jane Chan | Agnieszka O. Guizzo | Tan Puay Yok
2.1 Neighbourhoods and neighbourhood landscapes
12 2.2 Why neighbourhood landscapes matter
Introduction
Tan Puay Yok | Jane Chan 2.3 Typologies of green and open spaces of
neighbourhood landscapes
58
CHAPTER 3
A Conceptual Framework for
Neighbourhood Landscape Design
Liao Kuei-Hsien | Tan Puay Yok
3.1 Conceptual foundations
3.2 Conceptual framework for neighbourhood
landscape design
3.3 Principles and strategies for neighbourhood
landscapes design
11
PART II: 103

Guidelines for Neighbourhood Landscape Design 5.4 Soil
S1 Nutrient cycling | Tan Puay Yok

80
CHAPTER 4 S2 Maintenance of soil quality | Tan Puay Yok
Neighbourhood Landscape Development Process and S3 Erosion control | Tan Puay Yok
Design Approaches
Hwang Yun Hye | Liao Kuei-Hsien | Agnieszka O. Guizzo 119
4.1 Neighbourhood landscape development process 5.5 Water
4.2 Design approaches W1 Water cycling | Liao Kuei-Hsien

4.2.1 Site-specific design W2 Flood hazard mitigation | Liao Kuei-Hsien
4.2.2 Integrated design W3 Storm and domestic waste
Water Treatment | Liao Kuei-Hsien
4.2.3 Participatory design
W4 Water for irrigation | Liao Kuei-Hsien
4.2.4 Biophilic design
139
94 5.6 Flora & Fauna
CHAPTER 5 F1 Provision of habitat for biodiversity | Tan Puay Yok
Designing Neighbourhood Landscapes with
Landscape Services F2 Mosquito control | Hwang Yun Hye
Tan Puay Yok | Liao Kuei-Hsien | Hwang Yun Hye |Vincent Chua | F3 Fresh produce | Hwang Yun Hye
Agnieszka O. Guizzo | Jane Chan
5.1 Selection of landscape services for neighbourhoods 157
5.2 Trade-offs and synergies of neighbourhood landscape services
5.7 Outdoor comfort
C1 Heat mitigation | Hwang Yun Hye
5.3 Guidelines for neighbourhood landscape services
C2 Noise abatement | Hwang Yun Hye
204 167
References
5.8 People
211 P1 Sense of place | Agnieszka O. Guizzo | Jane Chan
Photo Credits P2 Aesthetic values | Agnieszka O. Guizzo | Jane Chan
212 P3 Social relations | Vincent Chua

Glossary P4 Environmental education | Vincent Chua
P5 Recreation | Agnieszka O. Guizzo | Jane Chan
214
Index
Introduction
“
The relationship between humankind and nature can be one of

respect and love rather than domination… With our knowledge
and sense of responsibility…we can create new environments
“
that are ecologically sound, aesthetically satisfying, economically
rewarding…This process of reciprocal adaptation occurs…through
minor changes in the people and their environment, but a more
conscious process of design can also take place.
René Dubos, The Wooing of the Earth (quoting from Biophilic Design, Kellert, 2011).
Book 1.indb 12 4/4/18 12:01 PM

13
E
ncouraging positive interactions among nature, people and This book is written for a specific purpose: to illustrate how the
place through a focused attention on the landscape design design of neighbourhood landscapes helps to deliver benefits to
of residential neighbourhoods is the central proposition urban dwellers and, at the same time, protect ecosystems that
of this book. But why landscapes, why neighbourhoods, and what facilitate human well-being. This is important, as the synergistic
positive outcomes? relationships between human well-being, quality of biophysical

urban environment and health of human-environment interactions
We focus on landscapes, as they constitute the space immediately
fundamentally underpin urban sustainability (National Academies of
perceived and experienced by people in everyday living. The daily
Sciences, Engineering and Medicine, 2016). We follow Paul Selman
experience with landscapes in urban areas may be strong and
(Selman, 2012) who promoted a reconnection agenda for sustainable
deliberate on the one hand, yet subtle and subconscious on the other
landscape planning and emphasise the role of neighbourhood
hand. However, their pervasive presence means that landscapes have
landscapes in forging connections between people and nature, people
the latent potential to enrich the connections between urban dwellers
and other people, and people and place. Most of all, we highlight the
and nature, shape attitudes and behaviours, and influence well-being.
need to focus on people in this endeavour, as it is only when landscapes
In the words of Joan Nassauer (Nassauer, 2012), landscapes are a
are appropriately designed and people recognise these benefits
“perceptible realm”, the space “where humans imagine, negotiate,
that they become valued and protected as a community resource.
and decide about design [and] intentional landscape change”.
This book is organised into two parts. Part I focuses on the conceptual
We focus on the neighbourhood as it is a place where people come
foundations that underpin the neighbourhood landscape design
into contact with one another, form local communities, and develop
guidelines we have developed. In this section, we describe how key
a sense of belonging. With more humans living in urban areas now
concepts relating functions of neighbourhood landscapes to the key
than at any time in the past, landscapes in neighbourhoods, or
urban development goals of sustainability, liveability and reliance
“neighbourhood landscapes” take on added significance, surpassing
can be represented in a framework, and how a synthesis of current
other forms of landscapes in cities. They therefore carry much
knowledge of cities as socio-ecological systems helps to identify
of the latent potential of providing benefits to urban dwellers.
principles that can guide neighbourhood landscape design. Part II
The last aspect of our focus — benefits from landscapes — has focuses on neighbourhood landscape design guidelines inspired by
a long association with urban history (Feng and Tan, 2017). the concept of ecosystem services; it includes design approaches,
Landscapes provide myriad socio-cultural, environmental, practical strategies, design targets and performance monitoring
and ecological benefits. Much has been written about the indicators to track the design of neighbourhood landscapes.
extent of these benefits in urban settings, but much less
about how landscapes should be designed to optimise them.
References
Dubos, R. (1980). The wooing of the earth: New perspectives on man’s use of nature. New York: Nassauer, J. I. (2012). Landscape as medium and method for synthesis in urban ecological
Scribner. design. Landscape and Urban Planning, 106(3), 221–229.
Feng, Y., & Tan, P. Y. (2017). Imperatives for greening cities: A historical perspective. In P. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2016). Pathways to urban
Y. Tan & C. Y. Jim (Eds.), Greening cities: Forms and functions (pp. 41–70). Singapore: Springer. sustainability: Challenges and opportunities for the United States. Washington, DC: The National
Kellert, S. R., Heerwagen, J., & Mador, M. (2008). Biophilic design: The theory, science and Academies Press.
practice of bringing buildings to life. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Selman, P. H. (2012). Sustainable landscape planning: The reconnection agenda. New York:
Routledge.
Book 1.indb 13 4/4/18 12:01 PM

Book 1.indb 4
4/4/18 12:01 PM
Book 1.indb 15
A Conceptual Framework
PART I:
for Designing Neighbourhood Landscapes
4/4/18 12:01 PM
Book 1.indb 16
4/4/18 12:01 PM
Book 1.indb 17
Urban Areas
Landscapes in
Tan Puay Yok | Liao Kuei-Hsien | Jane Chan
Chapter 1
4/4/18 12:01 PM
1.1 What are urban landscapes?
I
t seems odd to start this book with an explanation of landscapes. The term is so commonly
used not just in academic literature, but also in everyday language that it seems unnecessary
to explain what it means or how we use it in this book. “Landscape”, however, not only
connotes multiple and overlapping meanings; it is often used and misused in vague ways. More
than 50 years ago, Miksell (Miksell, 1968, as cited in Palka, 1995) said the word “landscape”
probably ranked second to “area” and “region” as the most often used technical word in
geographic publications. From then until now, the proliferation and fluidity of its usage and its
plurality of meanings have undoubtedly intensified. Landscape is now being used not just in the
disciplines it is most associated with, namely landscape architecture and human and physical
geography, but also in ecology, conservation biology, sustainability science, behavioural sciences,
social sciences, art history, archaeology, etc. It is also used metaphorically, such as in “political
landscape”, “educational landscape”, “landscape of the mind”, “linguistic landscape”, “mental

landscape”, etc.
This is not necessarily a problem as language evolves, nor is vagueness as a term peculiar to
landscape, as other words with blurry meanings abound, such as sustainable, resilient, ecosystem,
etc. However, until different professions and academic disciplines begin to look outside their
disciplinary lens at what landscapes mean, not necessarily to seek a unified definition, but to
recognise the deep and diverse meanings of landscapes, there is a risk of trivialising the usage
of the term and failing to recognise the potential of landscapes in the way we plan, design and
manage them. In many parts of the developing world, and even in developed countries like those
where the authors hone their academic and professional endeavours, it is not uncommon to treat
landscape as an act of prettifying to cosmetically enhance the left-over spaces when buildings have
been completed. This is a risk we need to guard against, for landscapes have much more to deliver
than the mere cosmetic treatment of our living spaces. The starting point we argue, should be
through a recognition of the social, cultural and ecological meanings associated with landscapes.
As described by Jackson (1984, p. 3), “landscapes” first “meant a picture of a view, then the view
itself ”, and finally, the material space where “on a modest scale, we undertook to make over a
piece of ground so that it resembled a pastoral landscape in the shape of a garden or park”. The
etymological origin of the term from the Germanic landschaft and Scandinavian landskap1, however,
suggests it was originally used to refer to bounded geographical regions in the countryside that
are defined by customs and culture. In fact, landskap is still used in the Scandinavian language
to refer to province or region. From the late 16th century onwards, “landscape” appeared
in the English language, seemingly borrowed from the Dutch landscap, and initially used as a
representation of scenery. In particular, it was used as a painterly way of seeing picturesque
views of the world (Duncan, 1995). Subsequently, this “representation of space rapidly became
a designation of material spaces themselves, which [are] referred to as landscapes” (Cosgrove,
2004). More recent conceptualisations of landscapes have begun to recognise that landscapes
1
"landskap" in WordSense.eu Online Dictionary (28th March, 2017)
Book 1.indb 18 4/4/18 12:01 PM

CH1 • Landscapes in Urban Areas
19
c
Fig. 1.1 Types of urban landscapes: (a) Cheonggyecheong stream, a constructed landscape in Seoul, South Korea.
Book 1.indb 19 4/4/18 12:01 PM

Fig.1.1 (b) landscapes along a transport corridor in Germany.

cover far more than visual qualities, even though their visual
attributes are the most recognisable aspects: landscape is about the
geographical space with its visible landforms and flora and fauna,
as well as less visible ecological flows of materials, such as carbon,
nutrients, water, and energy; landscape is also a culturally-shaped
space, one that carries the marks of human influences over time and
provides a basis for cultural and place identity; landscape can also
be man-made, intentionally shaped by humans, such as agricultural
landscapes, parks, and gardens, created solely to deliver utility to
humans. Combining these attributes, landscape is thus a visible
space shaped by both ecological and social or cultural processes.
Importantly, it is a perceived and experienced space, one with
the potential to influence the welfare of humans in contact with
them. A definition that attempts to integrate these attributes is
the European Landscape Convention’s (Council of Europe, 2000)
definition of landscape as “an area, as perceived by people, whose
character is the result of action and interaction of natural and/or
human factors”. Selman (Selman, 2012, p. 2) suggests this definition
is increasingly used by practitioners; its “overriding feature is that
‘culture’ combines with ‘nature’, so that human agency becomes an
important driver of a landscape’s appearance and functionality”.
It is this reciprocity between landscapes and humans — the capacity

for landscapes to be moulded by human agency, and landscapes
to provide the everyday experience — that we find the most
resonance with its use in this book. This perspective recognises
that no landscapes can escape human influences in the age of the
Fig. 1.1. (c) heritage landscape that dominates the view of a town in Japan.
Book 1.indb 20 4/4/18 12:01 PM

21
Anthropocene and are hence urban, whether directly or indirectly

(Nassauer, 2012). Combining this with the fact that human population
is predominantly urban in this century, landscapes which are mostly
perceived and experienced by humans are therefore urban landscapes.
The word “urban”, like “landscape”, needs to be explained,

but briefly. Urban has a different emphasis depending on the
disciplinary lens used for its discussion. Natural scientists for
instance, define “urban” based on measurable properties such as
energy consumption, land surface cover, population densities, etc.,
while social scientists examine social relations, cultural signposts,

employment, types of labour and living conditions (Feng and
Tan, 2017). “Urban” as used here describes an area with a higher
concentration of population densities and the associated human
activities and is a shorthand for “cities” or “urbanised”. It is also
important to recognise that, when used, urban is a relative concept,
as one region considered urban by some may be viewed by others as
rural. Urbanisation exists in degrees, and the degree of urbanity can

be measured either in an urbanisation gradient or conceptualised
using a recently proposed framework of “continuum of urbanity”
(Pickett and Zhou, 2015). The latter framework suggests that
because of evolving patterns in lifestyles and livelihood driven by
advances in telecommunications and economic forces, it is no longer
adequate to use conventional definitions of cities or metropolises
to describe the spatial extent and nature of urban settlements. The
specific details of this concept will not be further discussed here,
but suffice it to say, spatial patterns that emerge from the ways we
transform land will continue to evolve, and what matters the most in
the context of this book is that urban landscapes emerge from those
transformations whose forms and functions reflect human agency
and shape the welfare of humans connected to these landscapes.
Fig.1.1 (d) a central park in the old district of Hanoi, Vietnam.
Book 1.indb 21 4/4/18 12:01 PM

in which the site is embedded, and context must be understood
and considered in the planning and design of urban landscapes.
Borrowing from the definition of European Landscape Convention,

urban landscape, is in our terms, “an area of human dominated
ecosystem that is perceived and experienced by people, and
whose character is the result of interaction of human and natural
factors”. Character refers to not just the perceptual qualities
directly relating to the forms and composition of the landscape,
but also the invisible ecological flows of materials and energy
which undergird the functional qualities of the landscape. Our

focal subject is the natural (ecological and biophysical) components
of such an area, not the grey infrastructure or buildings. We focus
on one type of urban landscape, neighbourhood landscapes, a
subject area that has not received adequate attention. Chapter
Fig.1.1 (e) a community-led urban farm in Taipei. 2 explains in greater detail what neighbourhood landscapes are,
why they matter, and the myriad forms in which they come in.
As a space perceived by humans, landscape is necessarily conditioned

by the spatial scale and context in the overall interactions between
humans and the landscape (Fig. 1.1). The importance of scale is
well-recognised in the landscape ecological perspective of landscape,
as well as the profession of landscape architecture, which perceives
landscape to be a multi-scaled concept, a “spatially heterogeneous References
area of various sizes, depending on the subject of study” (Wu,
Cosgrove, D. (2004). Landscape and landschaft. German Historical Institute Bulletin, 37,
2012). This has direct relevance to landscapes and their role in 57–71.
urban ecosystems. An urban ecosystem is dominated by humans, Council of Europe, European Union. (2000). European Treaty Series: Vol. 176. European
but in addition to the natural and human components, it has a landscape convention. Florence, Italy: Council of Europe.
large built component comprising buildings, open spaces, and Duncan, J. (1995). Landscape geography, 1993–1994. Progress in Human Geography, 19(3),
infrastructure (Tan, 2017). Urban areas exist in a continuum of scale, 414–422.
covering large (e.g., urban agglomerations and cities) and small (e.g. Feng, Y. Q., & Tan, P. Y. (2017). Imperatives for greening cities: A historical perspective.
In P. Y. Tan & C. Y. Jim (Eds.), Greening cities: Forms and functions (pp. 41–70). Singapore:
neighbourhoods) spatial units. Using residential estates in Singapore Springer.
as an example, the smallest unit that can be considered an ecosystem
Jackson, J. B. (1984). Discovering the vernacular landscape. New Haven: Yale University Press.
is a housing block, several of which comprise a precinct; several
Nassauer, J. I. (2012). Landscape as medium and method for synthesis in urban ecological
precincts constitute a neighbourhood; several neighbourhoods a design. Landscape and Urban Planning, 106(3), 221–229. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
town; and several towns a planning region (Fig. 1.2). Within this landurbplan.2012.03.014.
spatial scale, there are myriad urban landscapes, mostly man-made, Palka, E. J. (1995). Coming to grips with the concept of landscape. Landscape Journal 14(1),
63–73. doi:10.3368/lj.14.1.63.
in the context of a high-density city that has almost completely
lost its native forests. In a broader sense, urban landscapes also Pickett, S. T. A., & Zhou, W. (2015). Global urbanization as a shifting context for applying
ecological science toward the sustainable city. Ecosystem Health and Sustainability, 1(1), 1–15.
refer to agriculture land or transport corridors that separate urban doi:10.1890/EHS14-0014.1.
regions, green belts that encircle urban areas, park systems and Selman, P. (2012). Sustainable landscape planning: The reconnection agenda. New York:
ecological corridors that crisscross a city, neighbourhood parks, Routledge.
community farms, brownfield sites and remnant native vegetation Tan, P. Y. (2017). Perspectives on greening cities through an ecological lens. In P. Y. Tan &
that are perceived and experienced by urban dwellers. The different C. Y. Jim (Eds.), Greening cities: Forms and functions (pp. 15–40). Singapore: Springer.
spatial scales used to describe urban landscapes are also clearly Wu, J. (2012). A landscape approach for sustainability science. In M. P. Weinstein & R. E.
Turner (Eds.), Sustainability science: The emerging paradigm and the urban environment (pp. 59–77).
connected to the context. Context encompasses the interconnected New York: Springer.
biophysical and socio-cultural character of the larger environment
Book 1.indb 22 4/4/18 12:01 PM

23
Urban planning scale Public housing planning scale
Region
Each of the 5 regions provides a mix
of residential, commercial, business,
and recreational areas and is served
by a Regional Centre
Planning area
Each of the 55 planning areas is

served by a town centre and several
neighbourhood shopping centres
Town (23 towns + 3 estates) served by Town centre, town park, town
5 – 6 neighbourhoods council, major transportation
20,000 to 70,000 DUs terminal, transit nodes
Subzone
Each planning area is divided into
subzones which are centered around
a neighbourhood centre or an activity
node Neighbourhood centre —
commercial facilities, community
Neighbourhood served by centre, communal facilities,
6 – 7 precincts common green,
4,000 – 6,000 DUs sundry stores, coffee shops,
school, community plaza
Precinct pavilion, precinct garden,

Precinct service roads, precinct open
served by
4 – 8 blocks space, precinct centre —
400 – 800 DUs playground, multipurpose court,
fitness corner
Residents’ Committee,
Block served by Void deck — elderly facilities,
100 – 150 DUs childcare centres, sundry stores
Apartment
1 DU
DU = Dwelling unit
Hierarchical organisation of spatial units
Fig. 1.2 Hierarchical organisation of spatial units in public housing estates in Singapore.
Book 1.indb 23 4/4/18 12:01 PM

Book 1.indb 24
4/4/18 12:01 PM
Book 1.indb 25
Landscapes
Chapter 2
Neighbourhood
Hwang Yun Hye | Jane Chan | Agnieszka O. Guizzo | Tan Puay Yok
4/4/18 12:01 PM
2.1 Neighbourhoods and neighbourhood (a)
landscapes
T
he focus of this book is on neighbourhood landscapes, which we argue are quintessential
forms of urban landscapes. In a simplified sense, neighbourhood landscapes refer to
landscapes which occupy the spaces between residential buildings. More holistically,
from a landscape perspective, neighbourhood landscapes are the natural and cultural spaces
in which residential buildings are embedded. We use the term synonymously with residential
landscape, which refers to outdoor areas of residences (see Cook, Hall, and Larson, 2012),
and includes the interstitial spaces between buildings, front yards and back yards, community
gardens, community farms, community parks, etc.
We prefer “neighbourhood landscapes”, however, as neighbourhood is a central idea in the

planning of urban residential areas, and the core theme of this book is the design of urban
spaces where people forge meaningful connections with their immediate living spaces — the
community, the place and the natural elements. Since its conceptualisation in city planning by
Clarence Perry (1969) as a physical unit made up of social connections between urban dwellers,
nature, and place, its usefulness and relevance have been both supported and debated (e.g. see
Isaacs, 1948; Menking, 2015).
Although its meanings and use in planning and design have evolved over the years (Kallus and
Law-Yone, 2000), Perry’s concept has certain fundamental ideas that we, like other proponents, find
strongly relevant to contemporary planning and design of urban areas and which also complement
(b)
the core idea of landscape as a perceived space shaped by human agency. These fundamental
ideas, as described by Kallus and Law-Yone (2000), can be slotted into three approaches and
used to unpack the layered meanings of neighbourhood. The first, the humanistic approach, sees
the neighbourhood in terms of a social identity formed by the social and communal activities of
humans and reinforced by spatial proximity. The approach stresses the moral need for design and
planning professionals to provide the spatial conditions for such an identity to emerge. The second,
the instrumental approach, sees the neighbourhood as a planning unit nested within larger spatial
scales, not different from the hierarchical organisation of residential estates shown in Fig. 1.1. In
this case, the neighbourhood is conceived as a planning unit and a means to structuring urban
areas. The third, the phenomenological approach, views the neighbourhood as a context that
enables bonds between place and people to evolve, thus creating a sense of place. This evolution
is seen as a “unique urban phenomenon”.
To us, these three elements of neighbourhood resonate with the emphasis of this book on the
neighbourhood landscape acting as a medium for forging meaningful connections between
people, place, and nature. We argue that the design and planning professions should continue
to pay attention to neighbourhoods, as landscapes within neighbourhoods have a central role in
delivering the promise of neighbourhoods.
Given the diversity of residential types in the world, neighbourhood landscapes understandably
take on myriad shapes, forms, and character (Fig. 2.1). Our emphasis is on publicly accessible or
common landscapes in mid- to high-density residential estates, often seen as an antithesis, even
Book 1.indb 26 4/4/18 12:01 PM

CH2 • Neighbourhood landscapes
27
c
(c)
(d)
Fig. 2.1 Neighbourhood landscapes in mid- to high-density residential estates in (a) Tokyo,
(b) Seoul, (c) Zhuhai, (d) Singapore.
a remedy to urban sprawl (Madanipour, 2001), the most common

urban form in rapidly urbanising regions of the world, such as
Asia. Mid- to high-density neighbourhood landscapes are strikingly
different from the “yards” of the individual household plots common
in North American suburbs and elsewhere in the world.
Book 1.indb 27 4/4/18 12:01 PM

2.2. Why neighbourhood
landscapes matter
M
ore than a decade ago, in an article summarising the
proceedings of a conference “Does the Neighborhood
Landscape Matter”, Sullivan concluded: “Neighbor-
hood landscapes matter in profound and meaningful ways: they
catalyse citizen participation to bring about community change,

bring neighbors together and strengthen communities, and
provide a critical testing ground for new ideas” (Sullivan, 2001, p.
20). These reasons are still important today, perhaps increasingly
so, for the simple reason that more humans live in urban areas now
than at any time in the past. Thus, neighbourhood landscapes, as
a key component of the built environment,
inevitably have a strong influence on the

well-being of residents. However, the
importance of neighbourhood landscapes,
in our view, extends over and beyond the
social functions highlighted by Sullivan. We
summarise these additional factors below. One thing that strikes me about my
neighbourhood is the sheer variety of
Neighbourhood landscapes possibilities at the void decks. In the void
occupy substantial space in decks that I pass by every day on my way
cities to work, I've seen fat cats and roaming "cat
Humans have become an urban species. The ladies”, Chinese wakes, Malay weddings —
urban land set aside for residential uses — even spontaneous football kicking sessions
the neighbourhoods — is sizable and will (until it was banned). Such an ordinary
continue to increase. In the US for instance, landscape yet so charming!
residential land occupies about 40% of the
– Zhiqi
land in cities, and the average green space
within these cities is about 50% of the cities’
area (Nowak et al., 1996). One researcher
says the combined area of neighbourhood
landscapes is more than the total area
occupied by a single food crop in the US
(Bryne, 2008). In the UK, about a fifth to a
quarter of total land in major cities, including the Greater London
Area, is covered by domestic gardens (Gaston, Warren, Thompson
and Smith, 2005). In Dunedin, New Zealand, private residential
gardens occupy almost half of the total residential area and a third
of the total urban area (Mathieu, Freeman and Aryal, 2007). In
Sydney, Australia, residential land occupies about half of the city’s
area, with vegetation cover constituting 43% of residential areas
(Lin, Meyers and Barnett, 2015). In Singapore, neighbourhood
Book 1.indb 28 4/4/18 12:01 PM

29
landscapes in residential estates account for almost a tenth of total
vegetation cover, more than twice of that contributed by parks, or
the total area of protected nature areas1. Neighbourhood landscapes
clearly constitute a substantial component in the total vegetated area
of cities (Cook et al., 2012). Even though urban residents interact
most immediately with relatively small patches, given the sizeable
overall land uptake, it is logical and responsible to plan and design
these spaces to their fullest potential.
Neighbourhoods landscapes are the “everyday

landscapes” for the large majority of urban

dwellers
Parks, nature reserves, and nature areas are visited as destinations,

but neighbourhood landscapes provide an immediate, frequent and
convenient form of nature experienced by urban dwellers on a daily
basis. That contact with landscapes (also commonly
referred to as connection with nature or greenery)

When we first moved to this
being impactful for urban dwellers is increasingly
island country, we rented a place
supported by a wide range of studies pointing to
at Redhill and were there for a
the positive effects of localised urban green spaces
on well-being (Capaldi, Dopko and Zelenski, 2014), year and a half before we made
community attachment (Arnberger and Eder, 2012), Telok Blangah our home. Our
pro-environmental attitudes and values (Halpenny, new place is centrally located
2006; Stedman, 2002; Vaske and Kobrin, 2001), and to all amenities and so I never
sense of place and identity (Jorgensen and Stedman, had any need to return to our
2006; Stedman, 2003; Proshansky, 1978 ). Despite the old neighbourhood. However,
pervasiveness and potential to impact large segments a year on I wanted to buy new
of the population, neighbourhood landscapes seem plants and so I made a trip to
to be neglected spaces, “space-fillers” in estates which Redhill wet market (it has better
have not been given adequate design consideration, or options for plants and more
afterthoughts once other main features, buildings and reasonable prices). I was happily
infrastructure have been put in place. In other words, surprised that the Uncle there
landscapes are not often given priority in the planning had not forgotten me. He even
agenda. In Singapore, green spaces in public housing remembered the plants he had
residential estates are also unevenly distributed, with sold me previously and asked
large variations between neighbourhoods, suggesting how they were growing. When
intervention is needed earlier in the planning stage. he heard I had come from Telok Blangah only to buy plants from him and that I
Possibly because of the perceived mundaneness of intended bring them back by bus, he told me, “No need la! I can come and make
neighbourhood landscapes and their small size, they delivery to you. You just tell me what you need.” Further, he refused to accept any
receive less attention in landscape design than do delivery charges saying I was his old customer so he was doing this as a friendly
large public parks. gesture. His kindness, unassuming simplicity and willingness to help without any
In this section we illustrate some stories of how residents expectations in return touched my heart. He may own a small shop but his heart
connect with their neighbourhood landscapes. is as big as they come. A rarity in today’s world.
– Anubhooti
1
Mahyar and Tan unpublished data.
Book 1.indb 29 4/4/18 12:01 PM

Neighbourhood landscapes act as a medium that, neighbourhoods also generate a strong sense of belonging to
connecting different stakeholders and forging a the nation. What begins at the local level culminates in something
sense of belonging to place and nation bigger: a sense of national identity. Of course, while Singapore,
The plurality of interpretations of landscape (see Chapter 1) means given its small size, may be exceptional in the relatively easy
different groups relate to a single landscape in different ways. replicability of the neighbourhood form throughout the island, the
Nonetheless, all have a vested interest in influencing, appreciating study underscores the potential of neighbourhoods to deliver on a
or using the landscapes in a fashion that they deem most expedient larger promise — social cohesion at the national scale.
or optimal. As landscapes connect in a literal and conceptual sense,
Neighbourhood landscapes influence the
they can be considered “boundary objects”. Boundary objects
ecological and biophysical conditions of
refer to any objects “which are both plastic enough to adapt to neighbourhoods
local needs and constraints of several parties employing them,
yet robust enough to maintain a common and visible identity By virtue of the proximity of neighbourhood landscapes to
across sites” (Star and Griesemer, 1989). As landscapes integrate residences, their ubiquity and large cumulative land uptake, the
physical spaces and biophysical processes and connect people to the natural processes in these landscapes have the potential to change
visible space, they allow different groups to be engaged and work the ecological and urban climatic conditions of neighbourhoods. For
together through a process of collaboration (Nassauer, 2012). When example, by increasing permeability to allow stormwater infiltration,
neighbourhood landscapes change the surface hydrology; this, in
neighbours work together to decide on neighbourhood matters, the

sense of community between them becomes stronger (Völker, Flap turn, alters the energy fluxes and climatic conditions of urban
and Lindenberg, 2007). Neighbourhood landscapes, given their neighbourhoods. By shading built surfaces from solar heat gain, the
ubiquitous presence and impact, have the untapped potential of vegetation in these landscapes produce a more comfortable thermal
becoming a common medium between disparate parties, a shared environment. An increasing number of studies are suggesting that
object that helps strengthen community bonds between residents. As
a consequence of the forged sense of place and identity, landscapes
can catalyse groups of residents to create a
vision, and lead and manage an inclusive
space, a restorative space, a democratic
space, and a resilient space (Hou, 2017). The
age of interconnectivity and globalisation
notwithstanding, the neighbourhood, as a
locale, maintains high relevance. It is a site
of policy, of place, memories and nostalgia, I love to go around my neighbourhood
and a place to return to after a long day. looking for neighbourhood cats, especially on
The neighbourhood is also a place of my way back home. I pet them whenever I see
social relationships — a place rich in social them. There is this neighbourhood cat I often
support. Landscapes, such as urban green encounter in my void deck that will attempt
spaces, have a significant role in bringing to follow me into the lift whenever I try to
neighbours together in joint activity (Coley, make contact with it. It is an affectionate
Kuo and Sullivan, 1997). cat although her appearance is ugly. I wish
In Singapore, the neighbourhood is a I could bring her home, but my parents do
pivotal site for multicultural policy, and not allow animals in the house.
a rich source of inter-ethnic ties. A study – Bryan
by Ho and Chua (2017) finds that ties
among residents generate a strong sense of
belonging to the neighbourhood. More than
Book 1.indb 30 4/4/18 12:01 PM

31
neighbourhood landscapes have the potential to
support biodiversity by creating wildlife-friendly
habitat areas (Belaire, Westphal and Minor, 2016;
When I was younger, my sisters and
Goddard, Dougill and Benton, 2013; Opdam
I would play badminton in the open
et al., 2013), thus benefitting human well-being
space just beside our block. It was
(Lerman and Warren, 2011). Exposing urban
always a challenge as the wind always
dwellers to natural processes and to a diversity
blew our shuttlecocks away. After
of flora and fauna also fosters environmental
an HDB upgrading, we discovered
awareness, shapes environmental attitudes and
a large high-sheltered area to play
strengthens urban sustainability (Scyphers and
badminton. While the wind was no

Lerman, 2014).
longer an issue, our shuttlecocks now
Neighbourhood landscapes are thus spaces with faced a new ‘problem’: always getting
much potential to contribute to individual and trapped in the ledge of the roof!
community well-being and the ecological quality
We experienced a windfall, however,
of living spaces, as well as to a broader agenda
when my mom one day decided
of the liveability, sustainability and resilience of
to tie two bamboo poles together

cities. In addition, as neighbourhood landscapes
and "harvest" all the shuttlecocks,
represent the local scale at which residents have
including plenty of good quality ones!
the most direct interaction with issues related
to environment, it is the most appropriate scale – Li Fang
to address sustainability (Opdam et al., 2013).
Yet despite its omnipresence and importance,
surprisingly little information exists on how such
landscapes should be conceived, designed and
managed. The book attempts to fill this gap. In
the next sections, we describe the theoretical
foundations and conceptual framework for studying
these important spaces and offer some guidelines
based on the concept of “landscape services”,
with the eventual aim that their performance As a young boy I used to play soccer in an
will enhance the quality of the environment and open court just opposite my block, despite the
ultimately human well-being. dreaded “No playing soccer!” sign. At times,
we would even take it down. Just opposite
the open court were vending machines which
we would turn to whenever we got thirsty.
Once, after loading the vending machine with
coins, we started kicking the ball, aiming for
the button for the drink we yearned for. After
a few attempts, the neighbours launched a
complaint which resulted in us being chased
by the police. Today, when I walk home from
work, I see a new generation playing soccer
in that open court. Sometimes I sit by the
vending machine, watching them play as I
reminisce my childhood.
- Hadi
Book 1.indb 31 4/4/18 12:01 PM

2.3 Typologies of green and
open spaces of neighbourhood
landscape
There is a wide spectrum of neighbourhood landscapes across
cities in the world. These range in size, shape, types of uses and
range of amenities, drawing a variety of users. The images in the

following pages highlight the diversity of neighbourhood landscapes
we alluded to in the preceding sections.
In Figs. 2.7 to 2.10 we see examples of low-rise, single household

units, each with a private front or backyard and fences to demarcate
their private property from the public streets.
Fig. 2.8 Single household residences in Oslo, Norway (a) Private garden space around the
single storey house.
Fig. 2.7 Front porch of single storey houses in Melbourne, Australia. Fig. 2.8 (b) Street view of the gated gardens.
Book 1.indb 32 4/4/18 12:01 PM

33
Fig. 2.9 Street view of two-storey row houses with front porch in Manchester, England.
Fig. 2.10 Rooftop garden and courtyard planting in low-rise residential area in Sydney, Australia. Fig. 2.11 Peripheral planting in single household residence in Tokyo.
Book 1.indb 33 4/4/18 12:02 PM

Fig. 2.12 Low and mid-rise estates in Malmo, Sweden (a) One of the ten retention ponds in
the eco-neighbourhood of Augustenborg.
Fig. 2.11 Aerial photo of residential blocks and landscapes in mid-rise residential estates in
Berlin, Germany.
Fig. 2.12 Low and mid-rise estates in Malmo, Sweden (b) Open stormwater channel in Western
Harbour.
Figures 2.11 to 2.19 are mid-rise residential blocks in European and

Asian cities. These estates are planned with shared open spaces of
varying quality, size and proportion, combining hard landscapes
and vegetated areas. Typologies include a neighbourhood park,
an eco-park located next to a residential block, a detention pond,
an open stormwater channel, a community garden, an interstitial
space and a pond located within an estate.
Fig. 2.13 Neighbourhood park in mid-rise estate in Turin, Italy.
Book 1.indb 34 4/4/18 12:02 PM

35
Fig. 2.14 Mid-rise residential blocks next to an eco-park in Taipei, Taiwan. Fig. 2.15 Rooftop greenery on mid-rise residential blocks in Taipei, Taiwan.
Fig. 2.16 Community garden in mid-rise estate in Taipei, Taiwan.
Fig. 2.17 One of the green open spaces scattered among a mid-rise residential estate in Tokyo,
Japan.
Fig. 2.19 Pond next to a mid-rise residential block in Tokyo, Japan. Fig. 2.18 Neighbourhood landscape of a mid-rise residential estate in Shanghai, China.
Book 1.indb 35 4/4/18 12:02 PM

Fig. 2.21 Overhead bridge with decorative greenery linking two high-rise residential blocks,
Hong Kong.
Fig. 2.22 Sloping green roofs on high-rise residential blocks in Seoul, South Korea.
Fig. 2.20 Thirty-five-storey private residential estate with rooftop terrace, Hong Kong. Fig. 2.23 (a) Communal spaces and landscapes of a high density housing estate in Sejong, South
Korea.
Book 1.indb 36 4/4/18 12:02 PM

37
Figs. 2.20 to 2.26 show residential spaces in the context of high-rise,

high-density cities. The greening methods in high-rise environments

include skyrise greenery such as roof terraces, overhead bridges
and green roofs.
Given the large diversity of green and open spaces in neighbourhood

landscapes, it useful to categorise them. In the next section, we
Fig. 2.23 (b) Communal spaces and landscapes of high-density housing in Sejong, South Korea.
discuss typologies found in high-rise, high-density residential estates,
using public housing in Singapore as an example. The majority of

these typologies can also be observed in the high-density residential
estates of other countries.
Fig. 2.24 High-rise residential blocks located adjacent to a preserved historical hill in Sejong,
South Korea.
Fig. 2.25 Fenced open green space of a high-rise public housing estate in New York City, East Fig. 2.26 Rain garden in a high-rise residential estate in Singapore.
Village, USA.
Book 1.indb 37 4/4/18 12:02 PM

2. Nearby woodland & waterbody
8. Town square & hawker centre
3. Space under elevated structure

9. Institutional green space

14. Community garden
4. Park Connector Network

10. Open plaza
5. Vehicular road
13. Sp
16. Service road
11. S
6. Corner edge buffer
7. Temporary green
15. Vehicular entrance

17. Pedestrian entrance
Fig. 2.27 Aerial photograph of typical mature public housing estate in Singapore.
Book 1.indb 38 4/4/18 12:02 PM

1. Town / Neighbourhood park & waterbody
39
18. Covered linkway

za
12. Interstitial green
13. Space fronting ground floor units
24. Corridor
11. Surface carpark
23. Void deck
Book 1.indb 39 4/4/18 12:02 PM

Typologies of green and open
spaces in Singapore’s public
housing estates
Singapore’s public housing
Today, over 80% of Singapore residents live in Housing and

Development Board (HDB)2 estates (DOS, 2017), making public
housing the overwhelming majority of all housing types in Singapore
(compared to condominium apartments or single household
residences). Public housing estates are categorised as mature, middle-
aged and young towns, based on their built year over five decades
from the 1960s to 2000s. The first HDB town, built in the 1960s, was
based on the “neighbourhood principle” of the New Town Structural 22.

Model. In this model, several neighbourhoods are grouped around
a town centre. Each neighbourhood is a self-contained community
of about 6,000 dwelling units with its own neighbourhood centre,
community facilities and schools within walking distance of 400m
(Hee and Heng, 2004). In the 1970s, the “precinct concept” was
introduced to foster closer connections within the community.
Precincts are sub-divisions of a neighbourhood into smaller clusters
of 400–800 dwelling units sharing common spaces and facilities,
such as playgrounds, hardcourts and precinct gardens (Fernandez,
2011; Wong and Guillet, 2005). The 1980s saw a continued search
for identity and character, while the 1990s featured decentralisation
and the pursuit of a more balanced and integrated development
in the implementation of the Punggol 21 model. In this “estate
model” of town planning, components of housing, education,
shopping and recreation are integrated into compact mixed-use
developments and served by transit nodes (Hee and Heng, 2004).
In the 2000s, decentralisation of the city continued, characterised
by the development of three other main regional centres. As
the residential towns continued to expand, and estates became
characterised by a growing number of high-rise blocks reaching
40 storeys, the focus of HDB took a shift towards environmental
sustainability, and it began to concentrate its efforts on designing
sustainable developments (Fernandez, 2011; Wong, 2005).
2
The Housing Development Board is the national agency responsible for the planning and design of public
residential towns in Singapore. For more information see: http://www.hdb.gov.sg/cs/infoweb/about-us, Fig. 2.28 Aerial photograph of newer typologies of green and open spaces in a high-rise, high-density
and Fernandez (2011). residential estate in Singapore.
Book 1.indb 40 4/4/18 12:02 PM

Book 1.indb 41
20. Green roof
19. Landscape deck
22. Green at basement carpark
21. Sky garden
41
4/4/18 12:02 PM
The transformation of landscape and greenery in HDB estates Thirty types of green and open spaces in neighbourhood landscapes
evolved in tandem with the various developmental phases of its can be identified, and these can be further grouped into five main
housing programme. Minimal tree planting in the 1960s was categories based on scale and relationship to a residential block.
replaced by more natural landscapes accompanying human scale These five categories are:
development in the next decade. In the 1980s–1990s, parks and
• Periphery of neighbourhood – including spaces located outside
open spaces were provided to enhance the visual identity of each
a neighbourhood but accessible by foot from the neighbour-
estate. When the focus shifted towards environmental design in the
hood;
2000s, estates began to see an integration of community greenery
with residential living. The introduction of HDB’s Sustainable • Edge of neighbourhood – spaces commonly found at the
Development Framework in 2011 defined environmental and neighbourhood boundary;
biodiversity considerations as a key thrust in the provision of homes

• Within the neighbourhood – including open spaces and small
for its people (Chong, 2016). Today, agencies and researchers are
patches located in a neighbourhood;
collaborating to develop an integrated design process wherein
landscape and environment are considered holistically at the start • Adjacent to or integrated with building blocks – facilities and
of any new HDB development. spaces located next or connected to or integrated with the
building blocks;
Typologies of green and open spaces
• New emerging typologies – new types of spaces not commonly

The typologies of green and open spaces in neighbourhood found in the current typical neighbourhoods but used in a
landscapes are commonly found in the high-density public housing limited number of projects as pilots or testbeds.
neighbourhoods of Singapore, locally referred to as HDB flats.
Within these five main categories, 30 types of green and open spaces
While the meaning of “neighbourhood” can be ambiguous,
are discernible in most neighbourhoods. These are listed in Table
lacking a precise geographical definition in spatial terms, a national
2.1, their locations are shown in Fig. 2.27 and Fig. 2.28, and an
population survey we conducted on HDB residents showed that most
illustration of each appears at the end of the chapter.
HDB residents consider their neighbourhood to be the area next to
their apartments where they can comfortably walk — although the The main objective of identifying these spaces is to recognise that
walking distance can expand if they are walking a dog. Some define neighbourhood landscapes include numerous types of spaces that
their neighbourhood as the area around their apartments before residents consider part of their neighbourhood and that these
there is a discernible change in land-use, for instance, from public extend over and beyond more formally designated spaces such
as “precinct garden” or “neighbourhood park”. Recognising the
housing to industrial or private estates. According to our findings,
multiple spaces also helps designers to visualise the spaces and
residents regard anywhere within five to 30 minutes’ walk as their
build a common spatial language for different stakeholders. With
neighbourhood, but ten minutes is the most commonly reported
increasing environmental awareness, social initiatives, technological
walking time. In the context of this chapter, “neighbourhood” is interventions, planners’ initiatives and designers’ innovations, new
taken to mean a community of 4,000–6,000 dwelling units, or three typologies will continue to emerge.
to four “precincts” as defined above (Fernandez, 2011).
Neighbourhoods and precincts are planned and designed according

to planning guide and design standards which have gradually evolved
to suit shifting demographics and land use needs in Singapore.
The planning guides and design standards are instrumental in
producing HDB neighbourhood landscapes in Singapore today.
They are highly varied and can include features associated with
areas adjacent to the neighbourhoods, such as remnant patches of
secondary regrowth forests, coastal areas, commercial, industrial
or business areas, as well as the range of green and open spaces
interspersed within the neighbourhood. While varied, such spaces
are recognisable to HDB residents.
Book 1.indb 42 4/4/18 12:02 PM

43
Table 2.1 Typologies of green and open spaces in neighbourhood landscapes
Typology of spaces Description Landscape elements
Periphery of neighbourhood
1. Town / Neighbourhood park Large accessible green space intended for recreational • Extensive lawns • Mounds • Variety of trees and
& waterbody use, serves both public and nearby residents floral species • Designated habitat forest
• Recreational and fitness facilities • Water
features • Jogging and cycling paths • Naturalised
streams • Parking lots
2. Nearby woodland / waterbody Large expanse of forested area or waterbodies that are • Forested area • Habitats • Dense canopy
within sight of and walking distance from residential • Vertically stratified vegetation structure
blocks • Variety of forest species and birds • Edge
(unmanaged and managed) • Walking trails
3. Space under elevated structure Long stretch of space under the length of train tracks, • Turf grass • Small trees / hedges • Vegetation
overhead bridges or highways, can be paved or requiring minimal sunlight • Pedestrian walkway
vegetated
4. Park connector network Network of recreational trails of at least 400m around • Extended walking and cycling path • Large
the island connecting parks and green spaces canopy trees • Roadside green • Green strips
• Open canal • Dog run
Edge of neighbourhood
5. Vehicular road Vehicular road in neighbourhood, usually with a • Four-lane road • Footpath • 3–5m green buffer
centre kerb divider segregating the two-directional on kerb • Canopy trees • Shrubs • Streetscape
travel and flanked by foot paths on each side • Pedestrian crossing • Drains
6. Corner edge buffer Relatively large stretch of green space at the corner • Slope (topographical variation) • Stairs
edge of an estate, usually on elevated ground and • Lawn • Decorative green • Tall trees • Banners
located adjacent to traffic junction • Precinct name • Signage • Footpath
7. Open field / Temporary green Large expanse of green space unoccupied by • Large lawn • Trees located at perimeter
buildings, on generally flat ground; white space for • Signboard with “state land” or “for temporary
community events and recreational activities use”
8. Town square / Hawker centre Large multifunctional space often located adjacent • Paved area • Shelter • Ornamental planters
to the market and cooked food stalls, frequented by • Seating • Playground
nearby residents
9. Institutional green Green or open space within and around a gated • Sports field • Garden • Allotment plots • School
school compound, usually with low integration with fence • Planting verges on both sides of fence
surrounding space • Footpath
Book 1.indb 43 4/4/18 12:02 PM

Within neighbourhood
10. Precinct Garden / Medium scale decorative landscaped area intended • Decorative planting • Canopy trees
Open plaza for recreational use by residents; open paved area for • Playground • Fitness area • Hard court • Soccer
communal activities field • Pathways • Seating • Pergola
11. Surface carpark Large open parking space for residents of surrounding • Paved parking lots with aerated slabs • Wide
flats in mature estates canopy trees at islands • Recycling bins
12. Common green / Fairly large area with decorative landscape and • Play and fitness facilities • Pavilions • Lawn
Interstitial green recreational facilities serving smaller housing estates; • Trees and shrubs • Heritage tree • Pathway
pockets of green spaces between building blocks • Seating with table • Incense / recycling bins
13. Space fronting Small stretch of green or paved area in front of • Potted plants • Shared planting • Gardening
ground floor units ground floor units, usually appropriated by residents tools • Bicycle • Swing • Windmills • Movable
with potted plants and private outdoor equipment tables and chairs
14. Community garden Small gated area gardened by the residential commu- • Productive and medicinal plants • Allotment
nity for recreation, fresh produce or medicinal plants plots • Gardening tools • Makeshift structure for
shade and seats
Adjacent to or integrated with building blocks
15. Vehicular entrance Vehicular ingress and egress to precinct; newer estates • 2-lane road • Gantry • Precinct marker
are designed with drop off porch that is centrally lo- • Pedestrian crossing • Covered linkway
cated and integrated with covered pedestrian network • Signage • Trees and planting
16. Service road Two-lane road for vehicular circulation within the • Two-lane road • Tree planting verge • Trees
precinct leading to multi-storey car park, loading bay, • Distinctive paving (new estates) • Foot path
bin centre and drop-off porch • Turf paved fire engine access
17. Pedestrian entrance Entry points for pedestrians from bus stops and major • Canopy trees • Footpath • Ramps and staircases
traffic junctions to building blocks; one precinct is • Sheltered walkway
served with multiple pedestrian entrances
18. Covered linkway Sheltered footpath from bus stops to residential • Footpath • Lighter construction with
blocks and between blocks, provides protection from aluminium roof in newer estates • Concrete or
sun and rain; ubiquitous feature of HDB estates brick works used in older estates
19. Landscape deck Elevated deck serving as the main recreational space • Shade trees • Decorative planting • Play and
of the precinct, located on multi-storey carpark usual- fitness facilities • Hard court • Benches • Raised
ly 1–2 storeys high; centrally located in the precinct. planter • Pergola with creepers • Pavilions
• BBQ pits
20. Roof garden / Green roof Landscaped area on roof of multi-storey carparks; • Variety of trees and plants • Decorative planting
inaccessible rooftop greenery on shorter blocks or • Raised planters • Allotment plots for gardening
ancillary buildings Play spaces • Open plaza • Seating corners
• Pavilions • Low maintenance planting • Turfing
Book 1.indb 44 4/4/18 12:02 PM

45
Adjacent to or integrated with building blocks
21. Sky garden / Green wall Located on roof or mid-floor of residential blocks, • Intensive green roof • Trees that can withstand
may be connected by link bridges for taller blocks; strong wind • Decorative planting • Trellises
provided in compact building environments for add- • Seating • Walking trails • Open plaza
ed community and recreational spaces • Pavilions • Playground • Fitness area
22. Green at basement carpark Open-to-sky green space(s) at basement carpark of • Ventilation voids • Raised planter • Naturalistic
newer estates, providing ventilation and visual relief; planting • Decorative rocks • Bioswale
can function as stormwater treatment if designed as • Educational signboards • Railings

rain garden
23. Void deck Large sheltered area at ground floor of residential • Pavement • Concrete drains • Sundry shop
blocks, a ubiquitous social space in older estates; • Staircase landing and lift lobbies • Service
functions as space for wedding, community events, rooms • Fixtures, e.g., table and seating, bicycle
funerals and play space for children racks, letterboxes
24. Corridor Circulatory pathway at least 1.2m wide from lift • Lift landing, • Refuse chute • Parapet • Drain
landing to residential units; considered residents’ and outlet • Potted plants • Personal property
semi-private space, usually appropriated by shoe racks
and flower pots
New emerging typologies
25. Planter in residential unit Planter or balcony fitted along living room façade • Decking • Soil • Outlet pipes • Drainage
within flat unit for gardening purposes
26. Open green space with Wetland area with viewing deck • Bioswale • Water playground • Waterfall feature
waterbody • Naturalised streams and canals • Pond
• Wetlands • Rain gardens
27. Edible landscape corridor / Stretch of ground level space with allotment plots for • Vegetables • Tea garden • Fruit trees
Community farmway community farming, accessible to all residents; open • Agriculture land • Farmers’ market • Open
space for residents to sell their produce kitchen
28. Multifunctional open space Large clearing amidst of thick layers of trees, flexible • Lawn area • Dense vegetation • Temporary
uses structures
29. Canopy walk / Sky park Unsheltered bridges connecting residential blocks • Bridge • Tall trees • Habitat forest
at canopy height, bringing residents closer to nature
with minimal intervention
30. Sunken garden Detention pond(s) leveraging on natural mounds and • Vegetated valleys • Ornamental plants species
valleys of a site, shared among several blocks; serves with high water tolerance • Relatively flat slopes
as natural drainage system for stormwater runoff and • Outlet pipes • Vegetated buffer around the
rainwater collection point pond
Book 1.indb 45 4/4/18 12:02 PM

Typologies of green and open spaces in Singapore’s public housing estates
1. Town or neighbourhood park and

waterbody
100m
2. Nearby woodland or waterbody
(a)
(a)
(a)
(b)
100m
(b)
Book 1.indb 46 4/4/18 12:02 PM

47
3. Space under elevated structure

(overhead bridge)
25m
Space under elevated structure

(train track)
25m
4. Park connector network
25m
Book 1.indb 47 4/4/18 12:02 PM

Book 1.indb 48
30m
40m
30m
7. Open field
5. Vehicular road
6. Corner edge buffer
4/4/18 12:02 PM
Book 1.indb 49
30m
35m
40m
8. Town square
10. Precinct garden

9. Institutional green
49
4/4/18 12:02 PM
Book 1.indb 50
10m
15m
35m
12. Common green

11. Surface carpark
13. Space fronting ground floor units
4/4/18 12:02 PM
Book 1.indb 51
15m
30m
25m
16. Service road

15. Vehicular entrance
14. Community garden
51
4/4/18 12:02 PM
Book 1.indb 52
15m
15m
20m
19. Landscape deck
18. Covered linkway
17. Pedestrian entrance
4/4/18 12:03 PM
Book 1.indb 53
10m
20m
25m
21. Sky garden

20. Roof garden
22. Green at basement carpark

53
4/4/18 12:03 PM
Book 1.indb 54
10m
20m
(b)
24. Corridor
23. Void deck
(a)
(a)
(b)
4/4/18 12:03 PM
55
25. Planter in residential unit

10m
26. Open green space with waterbody
70m
27. Edible landscape corridor
40m
Book 1.indb 55 4/4/18 12:03 PM

Book 1.indb 56
70m
65m
100m
29. Canopy walk
30. Sunken garden

28. Multifunctional open space
4/4/18 12:03 PM
57
References Lin, B., Meyers, J., & Barnett, G. (2015). Understanding the potential loss and inequities
of green space distribution with urban densification. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 14(4),
Arnberger, A., & Eder, R. (2012). The influence of green space on community attachment 952–958. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2015.09.003.
of urban and suburban residents. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 11(1), 41–49. doi:http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2011.11.003. Madanipour, A. (2001). How relevant is “planning by neighbourhood” today?. Town
Planning Review, 72(3), 171–191.
Belaire, J. A., Westphal, L. M., & Minor, E. S. (2016). Different social drivers, including
perceptions of urban wildlife, explain the ecological resources in residential landscapes. Mathieu, R., Freeman, C., & Aryal, J. (2007). Mapping private gardens in urban
Landscape Ecology, 31(2), 401–413. doi:10.1007/s10980-015-0256-7. areas using object-oriented techniques and very high-resolution satellite imagery.
Landscape and Urban Planning, 81(3), 179–192. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
Bryne, L. (2008). Ecological landscaping: From scientific principles to public practices and landurbplan.2006.11.009.
policies. Cities and the Environment, 1(2), 1–4.
Menking, W. (2015). Mr Mumford’s neighbourhood. In I. Borden, M. Fraser & B. Penner
Capaldi, C. A., Dopko, R. L., & Zelenski, J. M. (2014). The relationship between nature (Eds.), Forty ways to think about architecture: Architectural history and theory today (pp. 254–258).
connectedness and happiness: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 976. doi:10.3389/ Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
fpsyg.2014.00976.
Nassauer, J. I. (2012). Landscape as medium and method for synthesis in urban ecological
Chong, K. H. (2016). The evolution of HDB towns. In C. K. Heng (Ed.), Fifty years of design. Landscape and Urban Planning, 106(3), 221–229. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
urban planning in Singapore (pp. 101–125). Singapore: World Scientific. landurbplan.2012.03.014.
Coley, R. L., Kuo, F. E., & Sullivan, W. C. (1997). Where does community grow? The Nowak, D. J., Rowntree, R. A., McPherson, E. G., Sisinni, S. M., Kerkmann, E. R., &
social context created by nature in urban public housing. Environment and Behavior, 29(4), Stevens, J. C. (1996). Measuring and analyzing urban tree cover. Landscape and Urban
468–494. Planning, 36(1), 49–57. doi:10.1016/s0169-2046(96)00324-6.
Cook, E. M., Hall, S. J., & Larson, K. L. (2012). Residential landscapes as social- Opdam, P., Nassauer, J. I., Wang, Z., Albert, C., Bentrup, G., Castella, J.-C., McAlpine,
ecological systems: A synthesis of multi-scalar interactions between people and their home C., Liu, J., Sheppard, S., & Swaffield, S. (2013). Science for action at the local landscape
environment. Urban Ecosystems, 15(1), 19–52. doi:10.1007/s11252-011-0197-0. scale. Landscape Ecology, 28(8), 1439–1445. doi:10.1007/s10980-013-9925-6.
Department of Statistics (DOS). (2017). Department of Statistics, Singapore. Retrieved Perry, C. (1929). Neighborhood unit diagram. New York Regional Survey, Vol. 7.
from http://www.singstat.gov.sg/.
Proshansky, H. M. (1978). The city and self-identity. Environment and Behavior, 10(2),
Fernandez, W. (2011). Our homes: 50 years of housing a nation. Singapore: Straits Times Press. 147–169.
Goddard, M. A., Dougill, A. J., & Benton, T. G. (2013). Why garden for wildlife? Scyphers, S. B., & Lerman, S. B. (2014). Residential landscapes, environmental
Social and ecological drivers, motivations and barriers for biodiversity management in sustainability and climate change. In W. G. Holt (Ed.), Sustainable to resilient cities: Global
residential landscapes. Ecological Economics, 86, 258–273. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. concerns and urban efforts (pp. 81–100). Bingley, UK: Emerald Publishing.
ecolecon.2012.07.016.
Star, S. L., & Griesemer, J. R. (1989). Institutional ecology, “translations” and boundary
Hee, L., & Heng, C.-K. (2004). Transformation of space: A retrospective on public objects: Amateurs and professionals in Berkeley’s museum of vertebrate zoology,
housing in Singapore. In K. Stanilov & B. Case Sheer (Eds.), Suburban form (pp. 127–147). 1907–1939. Social Studies of Science, 19, 387–420.
New York: Routledge.
Stedman, R. C. (2002). Toward a social psychology of place predicting behavior from
Halpenny, E. A. (2006). Environmental behaviour, place attachment and park visitation: place-based cognitions, attitude, and identity. Environment and Behavior, 34(5), 561–581.
A case study of visitors to Point Pelee National Park. University of Waterloo: UWSpace.
Retrieved from https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/handle/10012/718. Stedman, R. C. (2003). Is it really just a social construction? The contribution of the
physical environment to sense of place. Society & Natural Resources, 16(8), 671–685.
Ho, K. C., & Chua, V. (2017). The neighbourhood roots of social cohesion: Notes on an doi:10.1080/08941920309189.
exceptional case of Singapore. Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space. doi:https://doi.
org/10.1177/2399654417710659. Sullivan, W. C. (2001). Des the neighbourhood landscape matter? Landscape Journal, 20(2),
198–201.
Hou, J. (2017). Urban community gardens as multimodal social spaces. In P. Y. Tan
& C. Y. Jim (Eds.), Greening cities: Forms and functions (pp. 113–130). Singapore: Springer Vaske, J. J., & Kobrin, K. C. (2001). Place attachment and environmentally responsible
Singapore. behavior. The Journal of Environmental Education, 32(4), 16–21.
Isaacs, R. R. (1948). The neighborhood theory: An analysis of its adequacy. Journal of the Völker, B., Flap, H., & Lindenberg, S. (2007). When are neighbourhoods communities?
American Institute of Planners, 14(2), 15–23. doi:10.1080/01944364808978605. Community in Dutch neighbourhoods. European Sociological Review, 23(1), 99–114.
doi:10.1093/esr/jcl022.
Gaston, K. H., Warren, P., Thompson, K., & Smith, R. (2005). Urban domestic gardens
(IV): The extent of the resource and its associated features. Biodiversity and Conservation. Wong, T.-C., & Guillot, X. (2005). A roof over every head: Singapore’s housing policies in the 21st
doi:10.1007/s10531-004-0513-6. century: Between state monopoly and privatisation. Calcutta: Sampark.
Jorgensen, B. S., & Stedman, R. C. (2006). A comparative analysis of predictors of

sense of place dimensions: Attachment to, dependence on, and identification with
lakeshore properties. Journal of Environmental Management, 79(3), 316–327. doi:10.1016/j.
jenvman.2005.08.003.
Kallus, R., & Law-Yone, H. (2000). What is a neighbourhood? The structure and function
of an idea. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 27(6), 815–826. doi:10.1068/
b2636.
Lerman, S. B., & Warren, P. S. (2011). The conservation value of residential yards:
Linking birds and people. Ecological Applications, 21(4), 1327–1339. doi:10.1890/10-0423.1.
Book 1.indb 57 4/4/18 12:03 PM

Book 1.indb 58
4/4/18 12:03 PM
Book 1.indb 59
Design
A Conceptual
Framework for
Neighbourhood
Liao Kuei-Hsien | Tan Puay Yok

Chapter 3
Landscape
4/4/18 12:03 PM
3.1 Conceptual foundations
W
hat could be a useful framework to guide the way we think about
neighbourhood landscapes? Although they are omnipresent features of our
everyday living spaces, neighbourhood landscapes are often perceived as
physically small, highly fragmented, perhaps unplanned and uncoordinated, and even
unimportant. The monotony, homogeneity, and occasional neglect that we observe in

many neighbourhood landscapes may have been shaped by such perceptions. Over
time, these conditions are tolerated or even accepted as convention.
Despite their small size and apparent irrelevance, neighbourhood landscapes can have
wide-ranging impacts. For instance, a widespread but increasingly criticised practice in
American residential landscapes is the front lawn (Jenkins, 2015). The preoccupation
with the lawn as a norm, even in water-scarce regions, has led to turfed areas being the
largest single “crop” in the US (Milesi et al., 2005). This has obvious adverse consequences
on water conservation, especially in the context of water scarcity and unpredictability
in water supply induced by climate change and environmental degradation. Individual
household decisions on landscapes can influence other ecological qualities as well, such as
biodiversity and energy balance of urban areas (Scyphers and Lerman, 2014). Seemingly
inconsequential decisions on landscapes at the household scale can cumulatively have
enormous consequences on larger social and environmental conditions that belie the
smallness associated with neighbourhood landscapes.
A framework that sheds light on the important roles neighbourhood landscapes play in
promoting urban sustainability, liveability, and resilience must explicitly acknowledge
the multiple and multi-scalar connections these landscapes have with the larger socio-
ecological environment. The connections are ecological, concerned with flows of
materials and energy, flows of organisms, and exchanges of genetic materials. They
are also social, concerned with bonds between humans, and between humans and the
places they live.
Our proposed conceptual framework for neighbourhood landscape design is based

on several key concepts. First, neighbourhood landscapes need to be viewed through
multidisciplinary lenses; second, neighbourhood landscape design and management are
connected to and serve the urban development goals of sustainability, liveability, and
resilience; third, neighbourhood landscapes are urban ecosystems nested within a larger
urban ecosystem; fourth, neighbourhood landscapes generate landscape services which
support human well-being; fifth, neighbourhood landscapes form a value chain linking
ecological processes to benefits for humans; and sixth, landscape design should be a
transdisciplinary process to translate normative goals into spatial plans and design for
neighbourhood landscapes. We elaborate on these concepts in the following segments.
Book 1.indb 60 4/4/18 12:03 PM

CH3 • A Conceptual Framework for Neighbourhood Landscape Design
61
c (c)
1. Neighbourhood landscapes need to be viewed through

multidisciplinary lenses
Neighbourhood landscapes, as both material space and perceived spaces, convey
varied meanings and emphases in different disciplines, with correspondingly different
study approaches. An urban ecologist might be interested in how such landscapes, as

part of the urban matrix or a patch within a patch-matrix model of urban landscapes
(Werner, 2011), can be designed to favour the dispersal of certain species for their
conservation. This researcher takes a landscape ecological approach using spatial
analysis of patterns and ecological functions and meta-population studies to understand
dispersal and persistence of different species across time and space. To an urban
climatologist, however, a neighbourhood landscape is an urban structural unit caught
between “micro” and “local” spatial scales, each with distinct atmospheric boundary
conditions (Cleugh and Grimmond, 2012). A key question for the climatologist will
be how neighbourhood landscapes, because of the distinct properties provided by
vegetation and water, influence the energy, water, and material flows and balances,
and how these in turn, may alter the climatological conditions of this urban structural
unit. The approach to studying these phenomena is distinctively positivist, with the
application of physical or biophysical sciences. A sociologist might be interested in
how neighbourhood landscapes, as social spaces shaped by cultural norms, social
hierarchies, and power structures, might encourage or impede the formation of social
networks, equitable distribution of amenities, individual and community identity, and
connections to place. The approach might be ethnographic or semi-quantitative using
mixed methods. Landscape architects, urban planners, and urban designers are more
interested in designing neighbourhood landscapes as critical spaces that provide spatial
relief in the urban fabric, especially in compact urban forms, for recreation, aesthetics,
psychological relief, and community interactions. The design is usually contextualised
by the need to solve site-specific problems or challenges and manage competing or
conflicting needs by finding creative solutions. The need to manage trade-offs between
competing uses and demands usually takes centre stage, and design is a creative, iterative,
and integrative process of creating negotiated solutions.
It seems clear that if we aim to deliver on the promise of neighbourhood landscapes for
both people and environment, no single perspective can monopolise the approach and
adequately frame our views; a pluralistic approach integrating multiple perspectives is
called for. If we also assume that all disciplines mentioned above are motivated by the
creation of knowledge not for knowledge itself, but to eventually deploy the knowledge to
advance the welfare of humankind, we suggest that our quest for knowledge in different
disciplines can be connected by the common goal of creating a built environment which
supports the well-being of current and future regenerations. We propose that such a
goal can be characterised by the triple aspirations of urban development: sustainability,
liveability, and resilience.
Book 1.indb 61 4/4/18 12:03 PM

2. Neighbourhood landscape design and management are
connected to and serve the urban development goals of
sustainability, liveability, and resilience
Simply stated, neighbourhood landscapes can contribute to the urban development goals
of meeting the diverse social and economic needs of urban dwellers. It is increasingly
recognised that these goals cannot be fulfilled in the long term without considering the
natural environment. Sustainability, liveability, and resilience are important concepts;
they broadly encapsulate the key considerations of and provide guidance on urban
development. As active subjects of investigation and debate, they have generated (and
continue to generate) a large body of literature.
Sustainability, or sustainable development, is concerned with meeting “the needs of

the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs” (Bruntland, 1987). Central to this definition is the need to ensure development
does not deplete finite resources; in most cases, this entails following a developmental
pathway that improves well-being and social equity and that does not degrade natural
ecosystems (Redman, 2014).
Our dependence on nature for well-being is increasingly recognised and conveyed

in the concept of “ecosystem services”, originally proposed by Ehrlich and Ehrlich
(1981). This dependence is also conveyed in the proposition that natural ecosystems
represent a form of capital — “natural capital” — upon which human well-being is
fundamentally built (Wu, 2013). In the long-term, human welfare cannot be sustained
unless we safeguard the integrity of environmental systems that make life possible in
the first place.
Landscape has been proposed as a particularly relevant concept in sustainability and

as a spatial unit for fostering research and sustainable practices. For example, while
sustainability has to be addressed at multiple scales — global, regional (e.g. continental),
and local (e.g. community) — it has also been argued that the local scale, the scale of
landscape at which humans perceive their immediate environment and where decisions
and actions are most immediately experienced, is the most appropriate place for
sustainability research and actions (Wu, 2012). Neighbourhood landscapes should thus
actively contribute to promoting the sustainability of urban regions.
Liveability is a relatively recent but widely-used term in urban planning. Ruth and
Franklin (2014) say the concept emerged along with “sustainability” in public discourse
and city planning and has since become a buzzword. Entire organisations are dedicated
to urban liveability issues, such as International Making Cities Livable, Centre for
Liveable Cities and Liveable Cities Lab; in addition, an array of indexes now benchmark
the liveability of cities, such as Global Liveability Report (Economist Intelligence Unit,
n.d.) and Most Livable Cities Index (Monocle, n.d.).
Book 1.indb 62 4/4/18 12:03 PM

63
Despite its wide usage, there is no widely accepted definition of liveability. The following
components have been associated with liveability: human needs being met, including
both existential and spiritual ones (Tan and Hamid, 2014); the “well-being of a
community and … the characteristics that make a place where people want to live now
and into the future” (Kennedy and Buys, 2010); and more recently, as a “behavioural-
perceptual function of the human-environment interface” (Teo, 2014). Liveability may
therefore be understood as a desirable condition defined by the physical and social
qualities of the built environment and, at the same time, by human perception and
assessment of these qualities.
While liveability may be a recent term, planning urban environments that meet the
basic needs of urban dwellers, such as clean water, sanitation, and green spaces, has a
long history dating back to the Industrial Revolution. This urban development goal is
often described as the development of a “sanitary city” aimed at providing clean water
and basic sanitation (Melosi, 2000). The incorporation of green spaces in cities also has
a long association with health promotion for urban dwellers (Ward Thompson, 2011).
With increasing public health challenges in urban areas (Dye, 2008), there is growing
attention to the nexus between landscapes and health in urban settings. A key part of
liveability should thus be the promotion of human health.
The term resilience has its roots in ecology, but its use now goes beyond describing the
ability of natural ecosystems to absorb changes or disturbances without altering their
basic structure, functions, and identity (Holling, 1973; Walker, Hooling, Carpenter
and Kinzig, 2004). It is increasingly promoted as a concept to guide urban planning in
cities now understood as socio-ecological systems (Pickett, Cadenasso, and McGrath,
2013). It is also used to refer to the ability of communities to withstand and recover
from external shocks related to both natural disasters and social crises (Wu, 2012),
such as financial crises, social unrest, terrorism, etc. In addition, it refers to the ability
of engineering systems, such as transportation networks, buildings and utilities, etc. to
withstand natural hazards such as typhoons, earthquakes, and other effects of climate
change. Increasingly emphasised in the concept of resilience are the qualities of self-
organisation, adaptation to external changes, and transformation to a more desirable
state (Meerow, Newell, and Stults, 2016).
Although they are distinct concepts, sustainability, liveability, and resilience are
interlinked (Tan and Hamid, 2014), with overlapping conceptual underpinnings
(Redman, 2014). Although the conceptual foundations, their interactions, and
suggestions for their application to shape urban areas will inevitably evolve over time, we
suggest the following simplified way to frame them to convey their interconnectedness:
sustainability is primarily focused on conserving Earth’s resources to protect the capacity
of ecosystems and achieve intergenerational equity, to meet the needs of current
Book 1.indb 63 4/4/18 12:03 PM

and future generations; liveability draws on natural, economic, and social capital of
socio-ecological systems to meet present human needs by creating a desirable living
environment; resilience is a requisite condition of achieving sustainability, that is, the
capacity of the city, along with its sub-systems to adapt to changes without losing its
basic structure, functions, and identity.
In other words, cities cannot be sustainable unless they possess a basic degree of
resilience, and cities, even if sustainable, may not achieve a requisite level of liveability
to be attractive places to live, unless human material and existential needs are met.
On the other hand, a highly liveable city whose high consumptive patterns exceed the
capacity of natural systems to provide the resources it draws upon cannot ultimately
be sustainable or resilient. Trade-offs between these three goals of urban development
are inevitable. We need to find a balance.
3. Neighbourhoods are urban ecosystems nested within a larger

urban ecosystem
As we argued in previous chapters, neighbourhoods are urban ecosystems. They
are also socio-ecological systems (SES), i.e., human-dominated ecosystems in which
the natural (or ecological and biophysical) components and human components are
inextricably linked by complex interactions and feedback (Grimm, Grove, Pickett, and
Redman, 2000; Pickett et al., 2011). In studying the state of SES (e.g., sustainability and
liveability), neither natural processes in SES, such as the flow of materials and energy,
trophic dynamics of the biological systems, effects of coarse-scale environment changes,
etc., nor the impact of human decisions, such as land use, economic development, and
governance policies on SES, can be studied in isolation. Their interactions collectively
determine the state of SES, and this, in turn, determines the overall urban sustainability,
liveability, and resilience (Tan and Hamid, 2014).
Neighbourhoods do not exist in isolation, even if they have distinct administrative

boundaries. As urban ecosystems, they are nested within larger spatial units, such as
towns, cities, and surrounding metropolitan areas. Each unit has its own character,
social networks, and mix of commercial, industrial and residential areas, and can be
characterised by land cover features, such as vegetation amount and type, paved areas,
bare surfaces, built structures, height, and density. The spatial units change via vegetation
succession, changes in socio-demographics, migration of social groups, economic
and infrastructure investment, changes in buildings, specific policy interventions, etc.
The units are not independent; they are connected by networks: telecommunication,
communication, social, ecological, watershed-scale hydrology, etc. Some networks are
visible, such as infrastructural networks of roads or drainage systems, but most are
invisible or embedded, such as ecological flows or social networks. This implies that
Book 1.indb 64 4/4/18 12:03 PM

65
planning, design, and management considerations need to recognise the myriad

connections of networks at units smaller and larger than the neighbourhood scale.
4. Neighbourhood landscapes generate landscape services

which support human well-being

A concept that bridges the natural processes in ecosystems and human dependence
on these processes is “ecosystem services”. Natural or ecological processes, which
are biological or biophysical in nature, are responsible for the self-regulation and
other properties of natural ecosystems, but because they also provide benefits to
humans, they are considered “services” for human well-being. Used in this sense,
the concept of ecosystem services emphasises the direct and indirect values of the
natural environment to human needs.
Ecological economists have attempted to articulate and quantify the economic value
of natural ecosystems. Since the use of the term by Ehrlich and Ehrlich (1981), various
definitions of ecosystem services have been advanced, with most definitions referring
to the direct and indirect benefits of ecosystems on human well-being (Braat and de
Groot, 2012). More recently, starting with the seminal paper by Costanza et al. (1997),
there has been a surging interest in quantifying the benefits derived from natural
ecosystems, and studies in ecosystem services have grown exponentially (Hubacek
and Kronenberg, 2013; Potschin and Haines-Young, 2011), reflecting the utility of
the concept and its widespread usage.
Given the wide range of ecosystem services, classification schemes are useful for
fostering a conceptual understanding of ecosystem services and promoting their use
in urban planning and design. A widely-used classification scheme from Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment (MEA, 2003) groups ecosystem services into “supporting
services”, “regulating services”, “provisioning services”, and “cultural services”.
Supporting services are those “necessary for the production of all other ecosystem
services”, such as biomass production, production of atmospheric oxygen, soil
formation and retention, nutrient cycling, water cycling, and provisioning of habitat;
regulating services are “the benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem
processes, such as the regulation of climate, water, and some human diseases”;
provisioning services are “the products obtained from ecosystems, such as food, fuel,
fibre, fresh water, and genetic resource”; and cultural services are “the non-material
benefits people obtain from ecosystems occurring through spiritual enrichment,
cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experience, including
knowledge systems, social relations, and aesthetic values” (MEA, 2005).
Book 1.indb 65 4/4/18 12:03 PM

As not all ecosystem services are applicable to urban regions, a more limited set of
ecosystem services has been concurrently identified and referred to as “urban ecosystem
services” (Bolund and Hunhammar, 1999; Dobbs, Escobedo, and Zipperer, 2011;
Gómez-Baggethun and Barton, 2013; Hubacek and Kronenberg, 2013). There is no
consistent classification of urban ecosystem services deemed applicable to all urban

areas, however, given the great diversity of landscapes in urban regions, including
parks, protected areas, urban forests, and neighbourhood landscapes. Our discussion
of ecosystem services in Chapter 5 notes the need to identify specific ecosystem services
that are applicable to specific contexts.
A recent suggestion in the conceptualisation of benefits derived from ecosystems is that

“landscape services” is a more appropriate term than “ecosystem services” when applied
to human-dominated regions (Bastian et al., 2014; Termorshuizen and Opdam, 2009).

Bastian et al. (2014) define landscape services as “the contributions of landscapes to
human well-being”, with landscape defined “as a part (at various scales) of the earth’s
surface, which is shaped by natural conditions and formed by human influences to
a different extent”. We adopt “landscape services” rather than “ecosystem services”
in this book for the following reasons. First, “landscape” more accurately depicts the
complete human perceptible realm than “ecosystem” (Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, and
Fry, 2007), i.e., it is always local and hence is the most relevant scale within which humans
perceive and experience the environment, especially in relation to the neighbourhood.
Second, as a concept, “landscape” is broader than “ecosystem”, so more disciplines
can be aligned with it. Particularly in the context of the design disciplines, “landscape”
has a more direct spatial connotation and stronger connection to the act of design;
therefore, the term “landscape services” forges a more intuitive link to spatially explicit
design plans. Third, unlike “ecosystem”, “landscape” connotes a space that is a product
of human influence and conceptualisation, especially in the case of neighbourhood
landscapes — human-dominated ecosystems designed by humans. Finally, the term
“landscape services” is more directly aligned with the subject matter of this book, i.e.
neighbourhood landscapes, and hence more coherent as an expression. Landscape
services, simply put, refer to the benefits a designed landscape contributes to human
well-being through ecological processes.
Chapter 5 provides more detailed information on ecosystem services, the need to

consider trade-offs and the landscape services we identify as relevant to neighbourhood
landscapes.
Book 1.indb 66 4/4/18 12:03 PM

67
5. Neighbourhood landscapes form a value chain linking

ecological processes to benefits for humans
Landscape services are derived from ecological processes, sometimes called ecosystem
functions, i.e., “the capacity of natural processes and components to provide goods
and services that satisfy human needs, directly or indirectly (de Groot, Wilson, and
Boumans, 2002). By themselves, ecosystem functions do not suggest how humans
should protect and treasure natural ecosystems. As landscape service is primarily an
anthropocentric concept centred on human benefits, natural ecosystem functions can
only effect attitudinal and behavioural changes in humans to the extent to which humans
derive direct or indirect benefits from them and begin to value them. Thus, we can
identify a series of steps, a chain, in the accumulation of value from landscape services.
The components of such a chain have been variously described as processes, functions,
services, benefits, and values, and there is no consensus on the precise definitions of
each term.
Suffice it to say that a translation process is needed to shift what is produced by nature
into benefits that can be valued by humans. Efforts to do so include definitions of a
cascade linking ecosystem processes to human well-being (de Groot et al., 2010), or
simply “value chains” linking landscape structure to landscape processes and functions
to create value for humans (Swaffield, 2013). In the latter definition, values “are concepts
or beliefs about outcomes that transcend specific situations, guide evaluation, and
action” (Swaffield, 2013) and may be expressed in monetary or non-monetary terms.
This value chain is a useful concept for thinking about the design of neighbourhood
landscapes, as it explicitly recognises the role of design not just in shaping ecological
processes, but also in ensuring the emergent processes are beneficial to human well-
being. This is intimately tied to the fact that values are fundamentally normative in
nature and constructed through social processes (Liu and Opdam, 2014), and thus the
engagement of stakeholders is a necessary part of landscape design, especially for the
neighbourhood landscapes that are constantly and immediately experienced by large
populations of urban dwellers. Put otherwise, simply managing ecological processes is
not enough; the community must be involved for value to be obtained.
6. Landscape design should be a transdisciplinary process

translating normative goals into landscape changes
Neighbourhood landscapes are “designed landscapes”. In the simplest sense of the
term, this means they are the products of design based on purposeful considerations
and actions. Design therefore refers to a both “process” and a “product”1. Design as
1
This is described as “design as a verb” and “design as a noun” by Steinitz (2012) and as a “product” and an “activity” by Nassauer
and Opdam (2008).
Book 1.indb 67 4/4/18 12:03 PM

a product is easy to understand — it is a spatial plan that attempts to encapsulate one
or several goals that can be achieved through implementation of the plan. Design as a
process is tougher to grasp. For instance, using a landscape ecology perspective, Nassauer
and Opdam (2008) define design as “intentional change of landscape pattern, for the
purpose of sustainably providing ecosystem services while recognisably meeting societal

needs and respecting societal values”. In this definition, design is a bridge between
science and landscape change that is built by professionals. Van der Ryn and Cowan
(2013, p. 24) use a more general conceptualisation, defining design as the “intentional
shaping of matter, energy, and process to meet a perceived need or desire”. Musacchio
(2009) uses similar terms, defining design as a process which “intentionally redirects
and reorganises energy and materials in design landscapes”, thus reinforcing the view
that design is a process linking science and practice.
Two key points underpin these definitions. First, design is an integrative process; that
is, it seeks to connect rather than limit multiple goals or needs. As goals and needs often
seem competing or contradictory, for instance, water conservation versus the creation of
lush home gardens in arid landscapes, design is necessarily a creative process deployed
to find solutions that can overcome perceived limitations or incompatible goals. Second,
design seeks to marry the positivist approach used predominantly in science with the
normative process of reconciling individual or community desires or needs. Design
may be viewed as an iterative process that attempts to apply knowledge from science
in multiple domains — climate, hydrology, biodiversity conservation, social sciences,
recreation management, etc. — but the final outcome is tempered by priorities of
stakeholders with a vested interest in the landscape. In an urban setting, stakeholder
groups are necessarily diverse, comprising not just residents who use the landscape, but
also public policy makers, civil society, academia, even businesses. The act of reconciling
multiple goals can be managed as a transdisciplinary process which seeks to identify
common issues and challenges and develop socially acceptable solutions. By socially
acceptable solutions, we refer not just to the achievement of consensus between multiple
stakeholder groups, but also to the process of developing solutions. The involvement
of stakeholders and the act of negotiation between competing interests yields solutions
that are more widely acceptable to most groups, even if not all interests can be met.
This process involves a participatory design approach (see Chapter 4.2.3).
In applying these considerations to neighbourhood landscapes, we draw upon the

integrative and creative processes that take into account different components and
needs and translate those goals into spatial plans.
Book 1.indb 68 4/4/18 12:03 PM

69
3.2. Conceptual framework for neighbourhood landscape design
T
he conceptual framework for neighbourhood landscape design in Fig. 3.1
encapsulates the six conceptual foundations described in the preceding section.
The overarching concept is that neighbourhoods are SES nested within
larger spatial units of towns and cities and within smaller spatial units of precincts
and blocks. These spatial units are connected not just by physical infrastructure,
such as roads and telecommunications networks, but also by ecological networks that
represent movements of energy, materials, and organisms, as well as social networks
forged between humans, communities, and places. At the heart of neighbourhood
landscape design is the creation of an environment that provides the physical,
social, and economic conditions necessary to support human well-being. Unless the
environment has the concomitant capacity to support ecosystem functions, human
well-being cannot be sustained in the long term. Therefore, neighbourhood landscape

design has to take into account both socio-cultural and ecological considerations.
Fig. 3.1 Conceptual framework for neighbourhood landscape design, depicting the inter-relationships between the six conceptual foundations described in Chapter 3.1.
Book 1.indb 69 4/4/18 12:03 PM

Within neighbourhoods, neighbourhood landscapes mediate and facilitate connections
between people, nature, and places in everyday life. The connections are three-fold.
First, landscapes foster connections between people and nature. Humans interact with
nature, harness it, conserve it, and use it as a frame for their activities. Second, landscapes
foster connections between people and people as it is often through the active use of
landscapes that people form bonds with fellow residents and the community at large.
The community garden is a case in point; it is a meaningful green space that brings
residents together in a shared common activity. Third, landscapes foster connections
between people and places. Through the attachment to place and memories, nostalgia
and sentiment are reinforced and recreated.
In engendering such connections, directly or indirectly, landscapes promote an

accumulation of benefits and values to urban dwellers. The bridge between the
ecological processes and values obtained is realised by landscape services. They play
a fundamental role in shaping the extent to which neighbourhoods are sustainable,
liveable, and resilient.
As the quintessential form of nature in residential areas, neighbourhood landscapes

shape and are shaped by human components, by means of individual and household
decisions, institutions and governance structures. For instance, household or institutional
preferences for the types of landscapes influence the design of landscapes. In turn, the
characteristics of neighbourhood landscapes thus implemented determine the types and
amounts of value derived from landscape services, and this influences human well-being.
The integration of ecological knowledge with social approaches, such as participatory

design, reflects an integrated view of neighbourhood landscapes as part of a larger
socio-ecological system. Design is the anchor activity linking multiple domains of
knowledge with the eventual goal of enhancing landscape value. Given the central role
of landscape services in ecological functions and human and community well-being,
we dedicate Part II of the book to describing in detail how landscape services can be
explicitly considered in neighbourhood landscape design.
Book 1.indb 70 4/4/18 12:03 PM

71
3.3 Principles and strategies for neighbourhood landscape design
I
n the preceding sections, we framed neighbourhoods as socio-ecological systems
with ecological and social components that have close interactions and feedback
loops. The interactions are mediated by networks of ecological processes, such
as flows of materials, energy and organisms, and social processes, such as the formation
of social ties and associations with place of living, information flows facilitated by
telecommunication networks and economic transactions. These flows are made more
complex by cross-scale interactions within and beyond the neighbourhood scale, as
well as the involvement of multiple agents and actors at individual, household, and
institutional levels. In an increasingly globalised and connected world, international
drivers are both biophysical, such as climate change, and socio-economic in nature,
such as financial crises, geopolitical developments, popular cultural movements, etc.
Any of these can exert an influence on decisions made at the neighbourhood level.
Neighbourhood landscapes, as an essential space within neighbourhoods and as a

medium connecting people to nature, to each other and to their community, sit at the
crossroads of social-cultural and socio-economic exchanges. For instance, the decisions
influencing the types of neighbourhood landscapes provided are determined by the
value system of policy makers, or in the case of individual household plots, by the home
owners themselves. In the context of densely-populated cities where land uses are always
subject to competing socio-economic needs, neighbourhood landscapes may be a low
priority, given the need to have more space dedicated to dwelling units. Commercial
spaces, which generate rental returns or provide services deemed essential for residents
might also have higher priority than green and open spaces. Even if provided, green
spaces may be highly manicured or dedicated to active recreational uses, if these are
deemed more valuable to residents. Such neighbourhood landscapes will obviously be
less favourable for supporting biodiversity and/or less effective in influencing climate.
Social norms and expectations thus shape neighbourhood landscapes, but social norms
and expectations are malleable; they change with shifting awareness and priorities among
policy makers and with new expectations of landscape users. To cite one example, there
is a growing international movement in urban farming. This is not a random change
but one engendered by growing concerns about sustainability and food security (Hou,
2017). At the smallest scale, the composition of plants used in landscapes is influenced
by the native versus exotic plants debate or by the movement to use xeric landscapes
in drier climates. In short, the provision of neighbourhood landscape services is not
accidental, but shaped by the conscious or unconscious decisions of people and by the
ways values associated with different landscape services are perceived (Ernstson, 2013).
The many social decisions that influence neighbourhood landscapes may be characterised
by “who” decides (actors who exert influences on decisions) and “how” decisions are
made (processes of stakeholder engagement). Decisions are also dependent on the extent
Book 1.indb 71 4/4/18 12:03 PM

to which the design team of the neighbourhood landscape can translate and integrate
interpretations of different facets of ecological and biophysical sciences into spatially
explicit plans. For instance, can a neighbourhood landscape be simultaneously optimal
in managing stormwater runoff, cooling the neighbourhood, and attenuating noise
pollution? When factors such as temporal variations in the production of landscapes

services and variations across spatial scales are introduced, things get even more complex.
To extend the previous example, it may be necessary to go beyond the boundary of the
neighbourhood and consider the factors affecting the hydrology of the watershed which
the neighbourhood is part of when designing for stormwater management.
In short, interacting social and ecological considerations involving multiple agents and
actors dictate the effectiveness of neighbourhood landscapes to meet multiple needs of
stakeholders and achieve optimal ecological processes. We suggest that to understand

and manage complexities, a useful starting point is the use of “principles” (Tan, 2017).
Principles refer to basic assumptions about a system of study. In the context of this
book, it means the socio-ecological systems of neighbourhood landscapes, how they
function and their basic operating premises. As highlighted by Luederitz, Lang, and Von
Wehrden (2013), principles translate a conceptual understanding of complex systems
into concise statements to frame important issues. In so doing, principles generate
insights for a developmental pathway towards an ideal or desired condition.
The use of principles to steer design and planning is not new. Principles have been
applied in ecological landscape and ecological design (see references in Tan, 2017),
including the design of urban areas (Ferguson, Frantzeskaki, and Brown, 2013; Forman,
2016; Luederitz et al., 2015; Spirn, 2011). In this section, we draw on insights from these
earlier studies to suggest a list of principles that can guide the design of neighbourhood
landscapes. These principles are aligned with the perspective that neighbourhoods are
socio-ecological systems.
We identify five principles drawn from an urban ecological perspective of cities. These
are adapted and synthesised from Cadenasso and Pickett (2008), Hwang, Feng, and
Tan (2016), Nassauer (2012), Spirn (2011) and Tan (2017). The list is not exhaustive,
as further refinement of our conceptual understanding of socio-ecological systems
will continue to reshape our views and the applicable principles. Principles can also be
organised as metaprinciples (Pickett and Cadenasso, 2017; Ramaswami et al., 2016),
to create a more hierarchical understanding of socio-ecological systems. Principles and
strategies, in our view, provide a valuable entry point to the design of neighbourhood
landscapes. Below we explain the five principles that can help to identify design strategies
to be incorporated into the design of specific landscapes services. In Part II, we suggest
a more comprehensive set of design strategies for each landscape service.
Book 1.indb 72 4/4/18 12:03 PM

73
Principle 1 — Neighbourhood landscapes are ecosystems

connected to larger ecosystems
This principle was introduced earlier, when we argued that neighbourhood landscapes
are not isolated patches but systems nested within larger ecosystems and interconnected
with complex networks of matter, energy flows, and social networks. An optimal
neighbourhood landscape design seeks the strengthening of networks and flows between
smaller units in the neighbourhood and between many neighbourhoods across a larger
area.
One design strategy derived from this principle is designing neighbourhood landscapes
to promote habitats for biodiversity. Neighbourhood landscapes are typically too small
to sustain viable populations of larger organisms such as avifauna and small mammals,
but they can act as a temporary refuge, provide food sources, and act as stepping stones
to aid the dispersal of organisms across the larger landscapes. However, achieving
this goal requires an assessment of how neighbourhood landscapes may enhance the
ecological connectivity of neighbourhoods across a larger network of green and other
spaces, or in other words, an understanding of the relationship between neighbourhoods
and their larger interconnected surroundings.
Another design strategy pertains to the management of stormwater in urban areas.

Stormwater management is typically considered at the watershed scale, a much larger
scale than neighbourhoods. Therefore, to design for stormwater management of a
neighbourhood, it is important to consider the entire flow path of the stormwater runoff
within and beyond the neighbourhood. This stems from the need to protect the water
quality of a receiving waterbody immediately downstream from the neighbourhood,
which will necessitate the implementation of blue-green infrastructure elements within
the neighbourhood. In the instance where stormwater runoff from the neighbourhood
discharges directly into the sea, it is important to consider the impact of this discharge
on the coastal environment.
Principle 2 — As part of a social-ecological system, social and

ecological processes that interact in concert
determine the character of neighbourhood
landscapes
The character of neighbourhood landscapes (designed forms, ecosystem functions,
uses, and maintenance) is formed not just by the composition of natural elements (e.g.,
vegetation, soil and rocks, water, etc.), but also by human values, social norms, and
institutional policies. Ecosystem functions dictate the potential for landscape services
to be generated, whereas human perception and engagement with the landscape
dictate the extent to which residents derive values from landscapes. Neighbourhood
landscapes thus mediate the feedback between the social and ecological components
Book 1.indb 73 4/4/18 12:03 PM

of neighbourhoods. Both components must be addressed in neighbourhood landscape
design so that neighbourhood landscapes are valuable and enduring.
An example of a strategy derived from this principle is to engage the community in the
design and post-construction management of neighbourhood landscapes. This can be
achieved, for instance, by incorporating “white spaces” in the design. These are spaces
with no predetermined uses or functions; their use is determined by the community
upon completion of landscapes. This is particularly relevant in residential estates created
from scratch, and for which the engagement of future residents in the planning and
design process is difficult, before occupation of the estates. White spaces allow the
community to determine how a landscape could be better aligned to the community’s
needs, engendering a heightened sense of belonging and place attachment.
Principle 3 — Neighbourhood landscapes are dynamic

As functioning ecosystems, neighbourhood landscapes are in constant flux. Some
changes are visible, such as maturation of trees, flowering, and fruiting, while others
are hidden, such as accumulation of organic matter in soils. Social factors add another
level of dynamism; for instance, policy changes, the aging of the community, or
shifting of societal preferences may affect the way landscapes are used and maintained.
Neighbourhood landscapes should be designed to accommodate, not resist change.
A design strategy derived from this principle is to allow the neighbourhood landscape
to “self-design”. The current practice in most neighbourhood landscapes is a strict
maintenance regime to keep them as close as possible to their original design at the time
of completion. In some features of the landscape, such as an activity lawn, the functional
reasons for a strict maintenance schedule are understandable. However, where space
permits, landscapes should be allowed to develop spontaneously and undergo natural
succession. For instance, selected fast-growing trees should be allowed to be planted in
an area which was originally designed with a grove of trees laid out in a regular fashion,
in order to create a suitable microclimate for other species to establish later on. These
trees may be introduced by wind, or brought in by pollinators, or deliberately seeded
at the site. The appearance of the landscape will change over time, whether between
seasons or over a longer time frame. Growth of the vegetation can be affected by periodic
drought, disease or any other natural factors that affect vegetative and reproductive
cycles of growth. Other than the initial interventions, the landscape “designs” itself over
time, demonstrates the natural dynamism of an ecosystem, requires less maintenance
and creates a more interesting contrast (and sometimes complement) to the orderly
look of a neighbourhood.
Book 1.indb 74 4/4/18 12:03 PM

75
Principle 4 — Ecosystem functions remain important, even at the

scale of neighbourhood landscapes
As neighbourhood landscapes are functioning ecosystems, visible and invisible processes
continue to operate in them. Examples include the flux of energy through absorption and
re-radiation of solar radiation, the flux of water through transpiration and infiltration,
and primary productivity supporting the trophic needs of biodiversity, etc. This means
neighbourhood landscapes are capable of functioning as habitats, especially if habitats
are conceived as part of ecological networks connecting remnant habitats and protected
areas at larger spatial scales. Remnant ecosystems are especially valuable if they function
well. Neighbourhood landscape design should aim to enhance ecological flows and
enable multiple natural processes to enhance ecosystem functions for landscape services.
A design strategy derived from this principle is using landscapes to recycle nutrients that
would otherwise be lost through discharge into other ecosystems. For instance, nitrogen
from fertiliser application or atmospheric deposition is easily leached from soils into
aquatic systems. In severe cases, this can lead to eutrophication and degradation of the
receiving waterbodies. Nitrogen is also lost from the system through horticulture waste
from maintenance activities, especially when these waste are incinerated or landfilled.
Such waste can easily be composted, in either off- or on-site composting facilities and
returned to the landscape as mulch, compost, or organic fertiliser, thereby increasing the
fertility of the soil and improving soil structure. In other words, fundamental ecological
and biophysical processes (during composting, nutrient uptake, and biogeochemical flows
of nutrients, etc.) still occur within the urban environment, even if they are not visible.
Principle 5 — Heterogeneity in neighbourhood landscapes

promotes biodiversity and ecosystem functions
Heterogeneity refers to the spatial patchiness of landscapes. Heterogeneity encourages
species presence, abundance, composition, and interactions between species and the
abiotic environment. In other words, the more diverse the landscape types, such as
grasslands, wetlands, forests, swamps, etc., the higher the presence of species found
in different habitats. Heterogeneity of neighbourhood landscapes helps to enhance
species diversity. Neighbourhood landscape design can enhance heterogeneity by
incorporating both managed (such as lawns) and unmanaged or spontaneous (such as
woodlands, grasslands, etc.) vegetated areas, as well as other forms of ecosystems, such
as constructed wetlands.
A design strategy derived from this principle is the incorporating of diverse ecosystem
types into neighbourhoods. Examples of such ecosystems include woodlands,
community farms, natural ponds, constructed wetlands, etc. However, as with
biodiversity enhancement through landscape design, where the aim is not merely to
Book 1.indb 75 4/4/18 12:03 PM

increase the number of species represented in landscapes, increasing Dye, C. (2008). Health and urban living. Science, 319(5864), 766–769. doi:10.1126/
science.1150198.
landscape heterogeneity is not merely to increase the number of
Economist Intelligence Unit (n.d.). Global liveability report 2017. Retrieved
ecosystem types within the neighbourhood. Rather, the goal is to October 3, 2017, from http://www.eiu.com/public/thankyou_download.
incorporate ecosystem types that enhance the overall functioning aspx?activity=download&campaignid=Liveability17.
of the neighbourhood. For instance, natural ponds and constructed Ehrlich, P. R., & Ehrlich, A. H. (1981). Extinction: The causes and consequences of the
wetlands are multifunctional: they create habitats for aquatic species, disappearance of species. New York: Random House.
treat stormwater and supply irrigation water for community farms to Ernstson, H. (2013). The social production of ecosystem services: A framework for
studying environmental justice and ecological complexity in urbanized landscapes.
reduce their use of potable water. In the case of community farms, Landscape and Urban Planning, 109(1), 7–17. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
they can work towards heterogeneity by incorporating a range of landurbplan.2012.10.005.
floral species that support pollinators. Macrophytes in wetlands that Ferguson, B. C., Frantzeskaki, N., & Brown, R. R. (2013). A strategic program for
are used to sequester excess nutrients in runoff can also be harvested, transitioning to a water sensitive city. Landscape and Urban Planning, 117, 32–45. doi:http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013.04.016.
composted, and captured for reuse.

Forman, R. T. T. (2016). Urban ecology principles: Are urban ecology and natural area
ecology really different? Landscape Ecology, 31(8), 1653–1662. doi:10.1007/s10980-016-
0424-4.
References Gobster, P. H., Nassauer, J. I., Daniel, T. C., & Fry, G. (2007). The shared landscape: What
does aesthetics have to do with ecology? Landscape Ecology, 22(7), 959–972. doi:10.1007/
Bastian, O., Grunewald, K., Syrbe, R.-U., Walz, U., & Wende, W. (2014). Landscape s10980-007-9110-x.
services: The concept and its practical relevance. Landscape Ecology, 29(9), 1463–1479.
doi:10.1007/s10980-014-0064-5. Gómez-Baggethun, E., & Barton, D. N. (2013). Classifying and valuing ecosystem services
for urban planning. Ecological Economics, 86, 235–245. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
Bolund, P., & Hunhammar, S. (1999). Ecosystem services in urban areas. Ecological ecolecon.2012.08.019.
Economics, 29(2), 293–301. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(99)00013-0.
Grimm, N. B., Grove, J. M., Pickett, S. T. A., & Redman, C. L. (2000). Integrated
Braat, L. C., & de Groot, R. (2012). The ecosystem services agenda: Bridging the worlds approaches to long-term studies of urban ecological systems. BioScience, 50(7), 571–584.
of natural science and economics, conservation and development, and public and private
policy. Ecosystem Services, 1(1), 4–15. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2012.07.011. Hou, J. (2017). Urban community gardens as multimodal social spaces. In P. Y. Tan
& C. Y. Jim (Eds.), Greening cities: Forms and functions (pp. 113–130). Singapore: Springer
Bruntland, G. H. (1987). Our common future: Report of the 1987 world commission on environment Singapore.
and development. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Holling, C. S. (1973). Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of
Cadenasso, M. L., & Pickett, S. T. A. (2008). Urban principles for ecological landscape Ecology and Systematics, 4(1), 1–23.
design and management: Scientific fundamentals. Cities and the Environment, 1(2), 1–16.
Hubacek, K., & Kronenberg, J. (2013). Synthesizing different perspectives on the value
Centre for Liveable Cities. (n.d.). Retrieved October 3, 2017, from http://www.clc.gov.sg. of urban ecosystem services. Landscape and Urban Planning, 109(1), 1–6. doi:http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.10.010.
Cleugh, H., & Grimmond, S. (2012). Urban climates and global climate change. In A.
Henderson-Sellers & K. McGuffie (Eds.), The future of the world’s climate, 2nd edition (pp. Hwang, Y. H., Feng, Y. Q., & Tan, P. Y. (2016). Managing deforestation in a tropical
47–76). Boston: Elsevier. compact city (Part B): Urban ecological approaches to landscape design. Smart and
Sustainable Built Environment, 5(1), 73–92. doi:10.1108/SASBE-08-2015-0023.
Costanza, R., D’Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limurg,
K., Naeem, S., O’Neill, R. V., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R. G., Sutton, P., & Van Den Belt, M. Jenkins, V. (2015). The lawn: A history of an American obsession. Washington, DC:
(1997). The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature, 387(6630), Smithsonian.
253–260. doi:10.1038/387253a0.
Kennedy, R., & Buys, L. (2010). Dimensions of liveability: A tool for sustainable cities.
de Groot, R. S., Wilson, M. A., & Boumans, R. M. J. (2002). A typology for the Paper presented at Proceedings of SB10mad Sustainable Building Conference, Madrid,
classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Spain.
Ecological Economics, 41(3), 393–408. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(02)00089-7.
Liu, J., & Opdam, P. (2014). Valuing ecosystem services in community-based landscape
de Groot, R. S., Alkemade, R., Braat, L., Hein, L., & Willemen, L. (2010). Challenges planning: Introducing a wellbeing-based approach. Landscape Ecology, 29(8), 1347–1360.
in integrating the concept of ecosystem services and values in landscape planning, doi:10.1007/s10980-014-0045-8.
management and decision making. Ecological Complexity, 7(3), 260–272. doi:10.1016/j.
ecocom.2009.10.006. Livable Cities (n.d.). Retrieved October 3, 2017, from http://www.livablecities.org/.
Dobbs, C., Escobedo, F. J., & Zipperer, W. C. (2011). A framework for developing urban Liveable Cities Lab (n.d.). Retrieved October 3, 2017, from http://www.ramboll.com/
forest ecosystem services and goods indicators. Landscape and Urban Planning, 99(3–4), megatrend/liveable-cities-lab.
196–206. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.11.004.
Book 1.indb 76 4/4/18 12:03 PM

77
Luederitz, C., Brink, E., Gralla, F., Hermelingmeier, V., Meyer, M., Niven, L., Panzer, L., Scyphers, S. B., & Lerman, S. B. (2014). Residential landscapes, environmental
Partelow, S., Rau, A-L., Sasaki, R., Abson, D.J., Lang, D.J., Wamsler, C., & von Wehrden, sustainability and climate change. In R. Hutchinson (Series Ed.), Research in Urban Sociology:
H. (2015). A review of urban ecosystem services: Six key challenges for future research. Vol. 14. Sustainable to resilient cities: Global concerns and urban efforts (pp. 81–100). Bingley, UK:
Ecosystem Services, 14, 98-112. doi:10.1016/j.ecoser.2015.05.001. Emerald Publishing.
Luederitz, C., Lang, D. J., & Von Wehrden, H. (2013). A systematic review of guiding Spirn, A. W. (2011). Ecological urbanism: A framework for the design of resilient cities.
principles for sustainable urban neighborhood development. Landscape and Urban Planning, Retrieved from http://annewhistonspirn.com/pdf/spirn_ecological_urbanism-2011.pdf.
118, 40–52. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013.06.002.
Steinitz, C. (2012). A framework for geodesign: Changing geography by design. Redlands, CA: Esri.
MEA. (2003). Ecosystems and human well-being: A framework for assessment. Millennium ecosystem
assessment. Washington, DC: Island Press. Swaffield, S. (2013). Empowering landscape ecology-connecting science to governance
through design values. Landscape Ecology, 28(6), 1193–1201. doi:10.1007/s10980-012-
MEA. (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being: Synthesis. Washington, DC: Island Press. 9765-9.
Meerow, S., Newell, J. P., & Stults, M. (2016). Defining urban resilience: A review. Tan, P. Y., & Abdul Hamid, A. R. B. (2014). Urban ecological research in Singapore and
Landscape and Urban Planning, 147, 38–49. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. its relevance to the advancement of urban ecology and sustainability. Landscape and Urban
landurbplan.2015.11.011. Planning, 125, 271–289. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.01.019.
Melosi, M. V. (2000). The sanitary city: Urban infrastructure in America from colonial times to the Tan, P. Y. (2017). Perspectives on greening of cities through an ecological lens. In P. Y.
present. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Tan & C. Y. Jim (Eds.), Greening cities: Forms and functions (pp. 15–39). Singapore: Springer
Singapore.
Milesi, C., Running, S. W., Elvidge, C. D., Dietz, J. B., Tuttle, B. T., & Nemani, R. R.
(2005). Mapping and modeling the biogeochemical cycling of turf grasses in the United Teo, S. (2014). Political tool or quality experience? Urban livability and the Singaporean
States. Environmental Management, 36(3), 426–438. doi:10.1007/s00267-004-0316-2. state’s global city aspirations. Urban Geography, 35(6), 916–937. doi:10.1080/02723638.20
14.924233.
Monocle. (n.d.). Retrieved October 3, 2017, from http://monocle.com.
Termorshuizen, J., & Opdam, P. (2009). Landscape services as a bridge between landscape
Musacchio, L. R. (2009). The scientific basis for the design of landscape sustainability: ecology and sustainable development. Landscape Ecology, 24(8), 1037–1052. doi:10.1007/
A conceptual framework for translational landscape research and practice of designed s10980-008-9314-8.
landscapes and the six Es of landscape sustainability. Landscape Ecology, 24(8): 993.
Van der Ryn, S., & Cowan, S. (2013). Ecological design, 10th Anniversary Edition.
Nassauer, J. I. (2012). Landscape as medium and method for synthesis in urban ecological Washington, DC: Island Press.
design. Landscape and Urban Planning, 106(3), 221–229. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
landurbplan.2012.03.014. Walker, B., Holling, C. S., Carpenter, S., & Kinzig, A. (2004). Resilience, adaptability and
transformability in social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society, 9(2), 5.
Nassauer, J., & Opdam, P. (2008). Design in science: Extending the landscape ecology
paradigm, Landscape Ecology, 23(6), 633–644. Ward Thompson, C. (2011). Linking landscape and health: The recurring theme.
Landscape and Urban Planning, 99, 187–195.
Pickett, S. T. A., Cadenasso, M. L., Grove, J. M., Boone, C. G., Groffman, P. M., Irwin,
E., Kaushal, S .S., Marshall, V., McGrath, B. P., Nilon, C. H., Pouyat, R. V., Szlavecz, Werner, P. (2011). The ecology of urban areas and their functions for species diversity.
K., Troy, A., & Warren, P. (2011). Urban ecological systems: Scientific foundations and Landscape and Ecological Engineering, 7(2), 231–240. doi:10.1007/s11355-011-0153-4.
a decade of progress. Journal of Environmental Management, 92(3), 331–362. doi:10.1016/j.
jenvman.2010.08.022. Wu, J. (2013). Landscape sustainability science: Ecosystem services and human well-being
in changing landscapes. Landscape Ecology, 28(6), 999–1023. doi:10.1007/s10980-013-
Pickett, S. T. A., Cadenasso, M. L., & McGrath, B. (2013). Resilience in ecology and urban 9894-9.
design: Linking theory and practice for sustainable cities. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.
Wu, J. J. (2012). A landscape approach for sustainability science. In M. P. Weinstein & R.
Pickett, S. T. A., & Cadenasso, M. L. (2017). How many principles of urban ecology are Turner (Eds.), Sustainability science: The emerging paradigm and the urban environment (pp. 59–77).
there? Landscape Ecology, 32(4), 699–705. doi:10.1007/s10980-017-0492-0. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Potschin, M. B., & Haines-Young, R. H. (2011). Ecosystem services: Exploring

a geographical perspective. Progress in Physical Geography, 35(5), 575–594.
doi:10.1177/0309133311423172.
Ramaswami, A., Russell, A. G., Culligan, P. J., Sharma, K. R., & Kumar, E. (2016).
Meta-principles for developing smart, sustainable, and healthy cities. Science, 352(6288),
940–943. doi:10.1126/science.aaf7160.
Redman, C. L. (2014). Should sustainability and resilience be combined or remain distinct

pursuits? Ecology and Society, 19(2). doi:10.5751/ES-06390-190237.
Ruth, M., & Franklin, R. S. (2014). Livability for all? Conceptual limits and practical
implications. Applied Geography, 49, 18–23. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
apgeog.2013.09.018.
Book 1.indb 77 4/4/18 12:03 PM

Book 1.indb 4
4/4/18 12:01 PM
Book 1.indb 79
PART II:
Guidelines for Neighbourhood Landscape Design
4/4/18 12:03 PM
Book 1.indb 80
4/4/18 12:03 PM
Neighbourhood
Landscape
Development
Process and
Design Approaches
Chapter 4
Hwang Yun Hye | Liao Kuei-Hsien | Agnieszka O. Guizzo
Book 1.indb 81 4/4/18 12:03 PM

4.1 Neighbourhood landscape development process
N
eighbourhood landscape is seemingly a direct product of design, with
design seen as a multi-step, iterative cycle of ideation, and the translation
of ideas into spatial and physical forms. However, as we highlighted earlier,
as neighbourhoods are spaces to be used, they are always subject to both human
modifications and the changes engendered by natural processes over time. They are
not finished products but take on a life of their own after construction. Their evolving
character is defined by their capacity to support ecosystem functions, the state of their
care and maintenance, the level of their use, and the extent of their shared ownership.
The process of neighbourhood landscape development has three main components: (1)
the act of planning and designing the landscape; (2) the implementation of the design plan
to provide neighbourhood landscape services; and (3) managing (including monitoring)
neighbourhood landscapes so that they accrue landscape value for the community. The
design and implementation phases dictate the capacity of neighbourhood landscapes to
deliver landscape services, but the post-construction phase influences the extent to which
such benefits are appropriated by the community and become valued. Figure 4.1 shows a
closed-loop process encapsulating the key steps in managing neighbourhood landscapes
from the conceptualisation and design phases to post-construction monitoring.
In this neighbourhood landscape development process, the planning and design of

neighbourhood landscapes is guided by design principles, design approaches and strategies,
and targets or requirements specified by the client. This is typically a multidisciplinary
process involving landscape architects, policy makers, developers, urban planners,
specialists in engineering, hydrology or horticulture, as well as residents to ensure that
multiple and often-conflicting needs are reconciled. The potential for landscape services
to be actualised is determined by the development of design specifications.
Implementation of the design dictates the extent to which neighbourhood landscapes

provide landscape services, such as retention of stormwater, provision of habitat, capacity
for recreation, etc. to improve the overall performance of neighbourhood landscapes. As
described in Chapter 3, the provision of landscape services is only one step in a cascade
or value chain which transfers what is physically produced by landscapes into benefits
valued by humans. We denote such values as “landscape values” in Fig. 4.1. The key
message is that unless humans are actively engaged in the neighbourhood landscapes,
for instance through active usage, care, or appreciation of benefits received, it is difficult
to forge a sense of ownership whereby neighbourhood landscapes become important
community spaces.
A certain degree of management, such as community-led efforts, is essential.

Management also involves maintenance and retrofitting of the landscape to ensure it
matches community needs and responds to external or broader scale drivers of change.
For instance, if the provision of food by community farms attracts a strong community
Book 1.indb 82 4/4/18 12:03 PM

CH4 • Neighbourhood Landscape Development Process and Design Approaches
83
c (c)
demand over time, and the demand is more than the current neighbourhood landscape
can support, adjustments could be made to accommodate the demand by converting
under-utilised spaces to community farms. Such a change might trigger further landscape
changes, for example, to enhance the capacity of the landscape to retain, recycle, and
treat stormwater to meet the irrigation needs of the expanded farming activities. The
continual processes of monitoring and adjustment are akin to the concept of adaptive
management in natural resources management; they ensure that neighbourhood
landscapes, as community spaces, continue to reflect the dynamism of human-dominated
landscapes. The involvement of multiple stakeholders, not just by the community, but
also policy makers and civil society groups, is essential in this adaptive management
process. The process of adaptive management also provides opportunities for learning
by doing; what is learnt through the active monitoring of completed landscapes yields
new insights and knowledge which can be mobilised as design principles, guidelines,
and new approaches to landscape design.
- Urban ecological principles

- Design approaches
Design guidelines and requirements
Review and revise
Planning & Design
- Adapt to local context

Monitor and adapt “NEIGHBOURHOOD LANDSCAPES” - Implementation
Provision of
Landscape values neighbourhood
Facillitate access to use landscape services
landscape services
Fig. 4.1 Integrated design process of neighbourhood landscape design guidelines.
Book 1.indb 83 4/4/18 12:03 PM

Who, then, should be involved in the continual process of monitoring and adjustment
of neighbourhood landscapes — residents, design professionals, academics or public
agencies? While it is preferable for all of them to be involved, we note that the
perceptions towards these different roles are shifting, and conventional boundaries
and scope of duties among different professions and groups are becoming blurred.
Monitoring of the delivery of landscape services and the physical adjustment of
the neighbourhood landscape as a feedback of changed landscape values could be
carried out by the residents instead of the design professionals. However, our vision
of landscape development process depicted in Fig. 4.1 implies an expanded scope for
design professionals. In the concept of transdisciplinary process of landscape design
we introduced in Chapter 3.1, landscape architects, policy makers and academics are
encouraged to collaborate closely in the whole landscape development process and

challenge the current mode of scientific knowledge being transferred in a linear fashion
to practice and policy making. In this new mode of collaboration, evaluating outcomes
that are generated after construction may become a part of designers’ scope such that
learning from outcomes of constructed projects would contribute to improve design
guidelines. This expanded scope also addresses a common criticism of design practice
— that designed works are rarely monitored to check if the intended design outcomes
are actually achieved. In proposing a closed-loop process of landscape development,
we hope to encourage a more conscious effort to monitor neighbourhood landscapes
to meet community needs and aspirations, while simultaneously providing learning
opportunities to enhance neighbourhood landscape design as a practice over time.
4.2 Design approaches
G
iven the character of neighbourhood landscape as a product of both
social-cultural and ecological processes, it is logical to use design approaches
that explicitly consider both needs. We identify and build on four design
approaches that when taken together could help neighbourhood landscapes contribute
to urban sustainability, liveability, and resilience. The four design approaches are: site-
specific design, integrated design, participatory design, and biophilic design.
Design of neighbourhood landscape needs to be site-specific, addressing the unique

characteristics of the site and meeting the needs and aspirations of the community. It
needs to be integrated, incorporating the knowledge of a variety of professionals from
various disciplines. It needs to be participatory, involving the community to ensure the
design meets their needs and aspirations and that they develop a sense of ownership.
It needs to be biophilic, taking full advantage of landscape to enhance individual
and community well-being. These four approaches are interrelated, not independent.
Book 1.indb 84 4/4/18 12:03 PM

85
In this section, we explain what each entails and its implications for neighbourhood
landscape design.
4.2.1. Site-specific design

Site-specific design here refers to design grounded on the specific biophysical and
socio-cultural characteristics and conditions of the project site, as well as the needs
and aspirations of the user community. “Site” is an important subject in landscape
architecture and other design and planning disciplines, and site-specific design is not
a new concept. Nonetheless, generic landscape designs continue to be applied across
different sites and even across the world, making it necessary to emphasise site-specific
design here. A generic design without site specificity can lead to under-utilisation or at
worst, ecological disasters and social problems.
With the growing consciousness of the environmental impacts of land development

in the late 1960s and 1970s, the meaning of “site” was re-examined and debated,
with critics reaching the following conclusions. Site is not a blank slate. It is more than
the physical space itself. It includes the non-physical sphere, such as socio-cultural,
economic, and political conditions, as well as non-intangible factors, such as sense of
place or collective memories. The consideration of site should go beyond the official
site boundary to include its larger context, because site is affected by and can affect
larger socio-cultural and biophysical processes. Site is dynamic, constantly changing,
even after the completion of construction.
Site-specific design should respect both the limits and the diversity of the context; for
example, design considerations should include the region in which the project site is
embedded. While site is emphasised, site-specific design need not be limited by the site’s
official physical and fixed boundary. Site is better conceived as “the area of control”,
“the area of influence”, and “the area of effect” (Burns and Kahn, 2005). Furthermore,
site is a relational construct: a site interacts with its surroundings and with other sites
(Ewing et al., 2010). Site-specific landscape design should synthesise all of the different
processes and functions (Nassauer and Opdam, 2008).
Site analysis is paramount to site-specific design and should precede any design action
(Hill, 2005). A site only acquires meaning when it is understood intellectually and
experientially. The role of the design team is to reveal a site’s latent character and
quality through design interventions (Meyer, 2005). Landscape architecture has a long
tradition of site analysis. In earlier years, ecologically-driven landscape architects, among
which Ian McHarg, pioneered an alternative design approach involving the rigorous
and comprehensive assessment of a site’s geographical and biological conditions, the
interactions of its different environmental systems and its context (Hill, 2005). Today, the
synthesis of all site-related data is a standard procedure of landscape design. However,
Book 1.indb 85 4/4/18 12:03 PM

it should be noted that site analysis does not automatically lead to site-specific design.
The site analysis needs to transform into a design that responds to and respects the
specific conditions and characteristics of the site.
In recent years, “site-thinking” has gone beyond simply “thinking about site” (Braae
and Diedrich, 2012). For example, site analysis used to involve designers collecting
and interpreting site-related data independently from the community associated with
the site. This is no longer the case. While site-specific design is increasingly understood
as design that responds to the existing biophysical and socio-cultural traits of the site,
it now also addresses the specific needs and aspirations of the community and often
requires the involvement of the community through a participatory design approach,
which is another design approached that will be addressed later.
Site-specific design as a design approach to neighbourhood landscapes implies the

following actions and practices:
• Conduct a comprehensive and thorough site analysis, going beyond the project
boundary of the neighbourhood landscape to include its regional context at multiple
scales; and consider the various biophysical and socio-cultural processes that can
affect and be affected by the neighbourhood landscape.
• Factor in possible future changes in neighbourhood landscape design across multiple
scales in time and space.
• Involve the community in site analysis and design development to take advantage
of local knowledge to better identify unique local issues and concerns and to
understand specific needs and aspirations.
• Respect the intangible aspects, such as sense of place and collective memories.
• Assess the potential socio-economic and biophysical impacts of the neighbourhood
that the design of the neighbourhood landscape might exert.
4.2.2. Integrated design

Integrated design here refers to design that synthesises diverse expertise and perspectives
of different disciplines across the entire landscape development process. In practice, it
is more commonly understood as reconciling and integrating the needs of designers,
specialists in different fields, and landscape contractors, who would otherwise often work
in isolation from one another in a linear fashion at different stages of the landscape
development process.
From the closed-loop neighbourhood landscape development cycle in Fig. 4.1, it is

clear that for the landscape to be sustainable, the integration must also include all
Book 1.indb 86 4/4/18 12:03 PM

87
stages of landscape development. That is to say, in addition to design and construction,

post-construction work, — i.e., maintenance — must also be considered upfront. Yet
maintenance managers have conventionally been left out of the decision-making process
until the completion of the construction (VanDerZanden, 2010), but are subsequently
tasked with maintaining the original conditions of the landscape at minimum cost.
Moreover, most maintenance issues, such as deficiencies in the quality and quantity
of soil quality, dysfunctional irrigation systems or struggling plants, are related to
design and construction but often overlooked during these stages. This highlights the
importance of recognising the integrative nature of all stages of landscape development
from design to construction and maintenance, and the integration should start as early
as in the design stage.
Extending beyond the integration of design, construction, and maintenance, the

meaning of integrated design can also imply integration between different disciplines
within the planning and design profession: planning, architecture, landscape architecture,
and urban design. Ian McHarg was among the first to understand this; his seminal
work Design with Nature started a new tradition in landscape architecture, whereby
the knowledge of ecology, soil science, hydrology, geomorphology, and climatology
was incorporated into design, with these systems treated as “layers of the landscape”
(McHarg, 1969). More recently, the recognition that neighbourhoods, towns, and cities
across the world are increasingly homogenous has led to critical attention to another
aspect of landscape — place identity, a topic more commonly found in psychology and
sociology. It is important to recognise that knowledge of place-making goes beyond
what design and planning professionals are normally equipped to deal with. For a
neighbourhood landscape to function effectively as a place which resonates with the
community, knowledge and insights from the social sciences are needed.
This recognition has led to an interdisciplinary approach to landscape design as a

means of integrating multiple biophysical and socio-cultural considerations into design.
For landscape design, such an approach goes beyond the professionals within the
planning and design profession; it should also include ecologists, sociologists, engineers,
hydrologists, geographers, etc. While the idea of interdisciplinarity is not new, it is
still the exception in practice. We recognise that it is difficult — and often financially
infeasible — to form a design team that contains all the required disciplines. However,
it is not impossible to form a small, focused team that includes people with backgrounds
in social sciences and natural sciences, in addition to landscape architecture. In this
interdisciplinary design team, landscape architects should play the role as a “bridge”
to synthesise the different realms of knowledge.
Integrated design as a design approach to neighbourhood landscapes implies the

Book 1.indb 87 4/4/18 12:03 PM

• Establish an interdisciplinary team, including landscape architects, as well as experts
from architecture, engineering, social sciences, and natural sciences.
• Include all team members as early as possible in the design stage.

• Work with contractors and maintenance managers during the entire landscape
development process to ensure the neighbourhood landscape will be constructed
and maintained in a fashion to provide landscape services as intended.
4.2.3. Participatory design

Participatory design refers to the active involvement of all stakeholders in the design
process and in the post-construction maintenance in order to meet their concerns and
aspirations and increase their sense of ownership. While the importance of stakeholder
or community participation has been advocated for decades, it is arguably still not the
norm; hence the need to emphasise it here as a design approach.
The concept of participatory design is also known as “social architecture” (Hatch, 1984),
“community architecture” (Wates and Knevitt, 1987), and “community design” (Sanoff,
2000). Participatory design is a response to the recognition that inappropriate design
and management of the physical environment lead to socio-economic problems; there
is a better model than “the paternalistic creation and management of the environment
by experts” (Sanoff, 2000, p. ix). The designed environment works better if users and
other affected people are actively involved in the decision-making process and their
concerns, needs, and values are integrated into design (Sanoff, 2000). Stakeholder
participation can improve quality of decisions, minimise costs and delays, improve
consensus building, facilitate implementation, avoid worst-case confrontations, increase
credibility and legitimacy, and foster the development of civil society (Creighton, 2005).
Many advocates are convinced that stakeholder participation is not just a privilege but
a public right (Feldman et al., 2013).
As a design approach, participatory design emphasises two-way communication and

interaction between designers and stakeholders to ensure better design decisions
(Creighton, 2005). Designers play an important role as facilitators, and there is a vast
number of techniques that the designers can draw upon to facilitate participation,
including design charrettes, gaming exercises, visioning, computer simulations, and a
host of feedback instruments, ranging from visual preference surveys to focus groups
to citizen polling (Sanoff, 2000).
A key issue in participatory design is the degree to which stakeholders should participate
in the design process. The International Association for Public Participation (IAP2)
Book 1.indb 88 4/4/18 12:03 PM

89
(2014) uses what it terms a “public participation spectrum” to summarise different

degrees of stakeholder participation along a continuum, taking into account the
diverse roles of designers to inform, consult, involve, collaborate, and empower (Table
4.1). In terms of a neighbourhood landscape design project, to inform is to provide
stakeholders with information about the project and the initial plan; to consult is to
obtain stakeholders’ feedback on the intitial plan; to involve is to work directly with
stakeholders throughout the design process to understand and consider their concerns
and aspirations; to collaborate is to partner with stakeholders in decision-making to
develop a preferred plan that would best meet and balance the needs and aspirations
of the stakeholders; finally, to empower is to place final decision-making in the hands
of stakeholders. Clearly, participatory design is not just about holding public hearings
or simply informing stakeholders about what is already pre-decided.
Table 4.1 Public participation spectrum (IAP2, 2014).
Increasing level of impact
Inform Consult Involve Collaborate Empower
Public To provide public with To obtain public To work directly with To partner with the To place final
participation balanced and objective feedback on analysis, the public throughout public in each aspect of decision-making
goal information to assist alternatives, and/or the process to ensure the decision including in the hands of
them in understanding decisions that public concerns the development of the public
the problem, alternatives, and aspirations are alternatives and the
opportunities, and/or consistently understood identification of the
solutions and considered preferred solution
Promise to We will keep you in- We will keep you We will work with you to We will look for We will
the public formed informed, listen to and ensure that your concerns you for advice implement what
acknowledge concerns and aspirations are and innovation in you decide
and aspirations, and directly reflected in the formulating solutions
provide feedback alternatives developed and and incorporate
on how public input provide feedback on how your advice and
influenced the decision public input influenced recommendations
the decision into the decisions to
the maximum extent
possible
Example • Fact sheets • Public comment • Workshops • Citizen advisory • Citizen juries
techniques • Websites • Focus groups • Deliberate polling committees • Ballots
• Open houses • Surveys • Consensus-building • Delegated
• Public meetings decision
• Participatory
decision-making
Book 1.indb 89 4/4/18 12:03 PM

We stress that participatory design should be understood as a process of empowerment.
In participatory design, the satisfaction of stakeholders is often not associated with the
degree to which their needs are met, but rather with the feeling that they have influenced
decision-making and the outcome (Hester, 1990). Their participation also increases their
local awareness and can trigger a concern for the preservation of the quality of place
(White, 1982). Participation enhances the sense of community, as people are motivated to
improve a place meaningful to them (Hester, 1990; Sanoff, 2008), with community assets,
such as place attachment and social capital, being created through the participatory
process (Kretzman and McKnight, 1993). People involved in a participatory process
report positive feelings, including a sense of accomplishment; they also gain confidence,
develop friendships, and express a sense of belonging (Francis et al., 1984).
Stakeholder participation is particularly necessary to optimise the provision of multiple

landscape services — both biophysical and socio-cultural. But there also are trade-offs
between different landscape services to be reckoned with, especially as certain landscape
services can be mutually exclusive. Since it is not possible to maximise all landscape
services, the design team needs to work with stakeholders to prioritise the range of
landscape services deemed important for the community (see Chapter 5).
Participatory design as a design approach to neighbourhood landscapes implies the

• Inform different stakeholder groups of the neighbourhood landscape design project

and work with them through workshops to understand their concerns, needs and
aspirations.
• Provide stakeholders with easy-to-understand knowledge and information about

landscape services and work with them to prioritise the range of neighbourhood
landscape services to be protected, restored, enhanced, and/or created.
• Work with stakeholders in the design process to develop design objectives and
design schemes for the neighbourhood landscape.
• Leave room for the stakeholders in decision-making to influence the design and
development of their future neighbourhood landscape.
• Design neighbourhood landscape to encourage residents to participate in the care of

their own neighbourhood landscape to ensure the continued provision of landscape
services. Work with maintenance managers to ensure residents have opportunities
to tend their own neighbourhood landscape.
Book 1.indb 90 4/4/18 12:03 PM

91
4.2.4. Biophilic design

Biophilic design refers to design that responds to humanity’s innate connection with
nature and natural processes to enhance mental and physical health. The notion of
biophilic design is derived from the concept of biophilia, which arose from concern
about the disconnection between humanity and nature in an increasingly urbanising

world. Biophilia is defined as humanity’s innate affinity for the natural world (Fromm,
1964; Wilson, 1984). The notion of biophilic design emerged from the recognition
that the design of the built environment can affect the physical and mental well-being
of humans. The aim of biophilic design is thus to enhance the connection between
humanity and nature, particularly in the urban setting, by integrating nature and the
built environment (Kellert et al., 2008).
Biophilic design focuses on fostering two types of connection with nature (Kellert et al.,
2008). The first entails direct experiences with nature, including exposure to natural
elements, such as light, air, water, plants, animals, natural landscape and ecosystems,
weather, and fire. The second entails indirect experiences with nature by mobilising
images of nature, by transforming natural elements (e.g., natural materials and colours,
naturalistic forms), by revealing processes associated with human evolution (e.g., aging,
passing the experience of space and place by creating spatial features characteristic of
the natural environment which promote human health and well-being. These features
include prospect and refuge, organised complexity, integration of part-to-whole,
transitional spaces, mobility and wayfinding, and cultural and ecological attachment
to place (Kellert, 2005).
Successful application of biophilic design offers direct and indirect benefits for human
health and well-being (Clancy and Ryan, 2015), including attention restoration (Clancy
and Ryan, 2015; Van den Berg, Hatig, and Staats, 2007), emotional regulation,
alleviation of stress, and mental fatigue (Barton and Pretty, 2010; Hartig et al., 2003;
Selhub and Logan, 2012), enhanced recovery from illness (Ulrich, 1984), muscle
relaxation, and lowering of blood pressure (Park et al., 2009) and sense of place (Kellert,
2005). Biophilic design is also promoted as an approach to urban sustainability and to
meet humanity’s biological needs (Newman and Jennings, 2012). At the neighbourhood
scale, biophilic design emphasises the creation of restorative or regenerative spaces with
natural elements to mitigate the negative effects of urbanism, such as the Urban Heat
Island (UHI) effect, air pollution, and biodiversity loss (Kellert et al., 2008).
Book 1.indb 91 4/4/18 12:03 PM

Table 4.2 The spatial patterns of biophilic design (Ryan et al., 2014).
Nature in the Space Patterns Natural Analogues Nature of the

Patterns Space Patterns
Visual connection with nature Biomorphic forms and patterns Prospect
Non-visual connection with nature Material connection with nature Refuge

Non-rhythmic sensory stimuli Complexity and order Mystery
Thermal and airflow variability Risk/peril
Presence of water
Dynamic and diffuse light
Connection with natural systems
Can we encapsulate biophilic design? Yes and no. Ryan et al. (2014) summarise 14 spatial
patterns of biophilic design subsumed under three categories (Table 4.2). However, the
descriptions of spatial patterns are somewhat abstract and there are still only limited
examples in the world explicitly manifesting these patterns in designed landscapes. That
being said, the possibilities are open-ended. The descriptions certainly provide room
and latitude for the imagination and creativity of the designer.
Drawing upon the principles proposed by Kellert and colleagues (2008), biophilic design
as a design approach to neighbourhood landscapes implies the following actions and
practices:
• Leave room in the neighbourhood landscape for the later development of nature-
related programmes led by residents to foster a sense of belonging to nature.
• Design neighbourhood landscapes using biophilic patterns as a guide to facilitate

sustained engagement of the community with nature.
• Connect different green spaces within the neighbourhood and connect the
neighbourhood landscape to other green spaces within the region to allow individual
green space to become part of the interconnected whole, such that each green
space serves a larger population.
• Foster emotional attachment to certain natural features of the neighbourhood

landscape, e.g., mature trees and natural streams.
• Allow the designed ecosystems, e.g., certain vegetated area, to evolve naturally over
time with no or minimum intervention.
Book 1.indb 92 4/4/18 12:03 PM

93
References Musacchio, L. R. (2009). The scientific basis for the design of landscape sustainability:
A conceptual framework for translational landscape research and practice of designed
Barton, J., & Pretty, J. (2010). What is the best dose of nature and green exercise for landscapes and the six Es of landscape sustainability. Landscape Ecology, 24(8), 993.
improving mental health? A multi-study analysis. Environmental Science & Technology, 44(10),
3947–3955. Nassauer, J., & Opdam, P. (2008). Design in science: Extending the landscape ecology
paradigm. Landscape Ecology, 23(6), 633–644.
Braae, E., & Diedrich, L. (2012). Site specificity in contemporary large-scale harbour
transformation projects. Journal of Landscape Architecture, 7(1), 20–33. Newman, P., & Jennings, I. (2012). Cities as sustainable ecosystems: Principles and practices.
Washington, DC: Island Press.
Burns, C. J., & Kahn, A. (2005). Why site matters. In C. J. Burns & A. Kahn (Eds.), Site
matters (pp. vii-xxix). New York and London: Routledge. Park, B.-J., Tsunetsugu, Y., Kasetani, T., Morikawa, T., Kagawa, T., & Miyazaki, Y. (2009).
Physiological effects of forest recreation in a young conifer forest in Hinokage Town,
Chong, K. H. (2016). The evolution of HDB Towns. In C. K. Heng (Ed.), Fifty years of Japan, Silva Fennica, 43(2), 291–301.
urban planning in Singapore (pp. 101–125). Singapore: World Scientific.
Pataki, D. E., Carreiro, M. M., Cherrier, J., Grulke, N. E., Jennings, V., Pincetl, S., Pouyat,
Clancy, J., & Ryan, C. (2015). The role of biophilic design in landscape architecture for R. V., Whitlow, T. H., & Zipperer, W. C. (2011). Coupling biogeochemical cycles in urban
health and well-being. Landscape Architecture Frontiers, 3(1), 54–62. environments: Ecosystem services, green solutions, and misconceptions. Frontiers in Ecology
and the Environment, 9(1), 27–36.
Creighton, J. L. (2005). The public participation handbook. New York: Jossy-Bass.
Ryan, C. O., Browning, W. D., Clancy, J. O., Andrews, S. L., & Kallianpurkar, N. B.
Department of Statistics (DOS). (2017). Department of Statistics, Singapore. Retrieved
(2014). Biophilic design patterns: Emerging nature-based parameters for health and well-
from http://www.singstat.gov.sg/.
being in the built environment. International Journal of Architectural Research: ArchNet-IJAR,
Ewing, R., Greenwald, M., Zhang, M., Walters, J., Feldman, M., Cervero, R., Frank, L., 8(2), 62–76.
& Thomas, J. (2010). Traffic generated by mixed-use developments: Six-region study using
Sanoff, H. (2000). Community participation methods in design and planning. New York: Wiley.
consistent built environmental measures. Journal of Urban Planning and Development, 137(3),
248–261.
Selhub, E. M., & Logan, A. C. (2012). Your brain on nature: The science of nature’s influence on
your health, happiness and vitality. Toronto: John Wiley & Sons.
Feldman, R. M., Palleroni, S., Perkes, D., & Bell, B., 2013, Wisdom from the field: Public
Interest Architecture in practice. Retrieved from The American Institute of Architects Steinitz, C. (2012). A framework for geodesign: Changing geography by design. Redlands, CA: Esri.
website: https://www.publicinterestdesign.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Wisdom-
from-the-Field.pdf. Tang, Y., Chen, A., & Zhao, S. (2016). Carbon storage and sequestration of urban street
trees in Beijing, China. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 4(53).
Fernandez, W. (2011). Our homes: 50 years of housing a nation. Singapore: Straits Times Press.
Ulrich, R. (1984). View through a window may influence recovery. Science, 224(4647),
Francis, M., Cashdan, L., & Paxson, L. (1984). Community open spaces. Washington, DC: 224–225.
Island Press.
Van den Berg, A. E., Hartig, T., & Staats, H. (2007). Preference for nature in urbanized
Fromm, E. (1964). The heart of man. New York: Harper and Row. societies: Stress, restoration, and the pursuit of sustainability. Journal of Social Issues, 63(1),
79–96.
Hartig, T., Evans, G. W., Jamner, L. D., Davis, D. S., & Gärling, T. (2003). Tracking
restoration in natural and urban field settings. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23(2), Van der Ryn, S., & Cowan, S. (2013). Ecological design, 10th Anniversary Edition.
109–123. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Hatch, C. T. (1984). The scope of social architecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. VanDerZanden, A. M., & Cook, T. W. (2010). Sustainable landscape management: Design,
construction, and maintenance. Toronto: Wiley Publishing.
Hee, L., & Heng, C.-K. (2004). Transformation of space: A retrospective on public
housing in Singapore. In K. Stanilov & B. Case Sheer (Eds.), Suburban form (pp. 127–147). Velasco, E., Roth, M., Norford, L., & Molina, L. T. (2016). Does urban vegetation
New York: Routledge. enhance carbon sequestration? Landscape and Urban Planning, 148, 99–107.
Hester, R. T. Jr. (1990). Community design primer. Casper/Mendecino: Ridge Times Press. Wates, N., & Knevitt, C. (1987). Community architecture: How people are creating their own
environment. New York: Penguin.
Hill, K. (2005). Shifting sites. In C. J. Burns & A. Kahn (Eds.), Site matters (pp. 131–156).
New York and London: Routledge. White, K. (1982). The community land trust handbook by the Institute for Community Economics.
Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press.
International Association for Public Participation (IAP2). (2014). Retrieved from https://
www.iap2.org/. Wilson, E. O. (1984). Biophilia. Cambridge, MS: Harvard University Press.
Kellert, S. R. (2005). Nature and childhood development. Building for life: Designing and
understanding the human-nature connection (pp. 63–89). Washington, DC: Island Press.
Kellert, S. R., Heerwagen, J. H., & Mador, M. L. (2008). Biophilic design. Retrieved from
http://www.biophilicdesign.net.
Kellert, S. R., Heerwagen, J., & Mador, M. (2011). Biophilic design: The theory, science and
practice of bringing buildings to life. Toronto: John Wiley & Sons.
Kretzman, J. P., & McKnight, J. L. (1993). Building communities from the inside out: A path
toward finding and mobilizing a community’s assets. Evanston, IL: Institute for Policy Research.
McHarg, I. L. (1964). The place of nature in the city of man, Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science, 352, 1–12.
Meyer, E. (2005). Site citations: The grounds of modern landscape. In C. J. Burns & A.
Kahn (Eds.), Site matters (pp. 93–100). New York and London: Routledge.
Book 1.indb 93 4/4/18 12:03 PM

Book 1.indb 94
4/4/18 12:03 PM
Designing
Neighbourhood
Landscapes
with Landscape
Services Chapter 5
Tan Puay Yok | Liao Kuei-Hsien | Hwang Yun Hye |Vincent Chua |
Agnieszka O. Guizzo | Jane Chan
Book 1.indb 95 4/4/18 12:03 PM

L 5.1 Selection of landscape
andscape services refer to the benefits a designed
landscape contributes to human well-being through
services for neighbourhoods

ecological processes. In this chapter, we describe the
landscape services we previously identified as most relevant to
neighbourhood landscapes, integrated design strategies for their To identify the landscape services most relevant in neighbourhood
application, design targets set for the delivery of each service, and landscapes, we refer to key literature (i.e. MEA 2005; De Groot
at the post-construction stage, the performance indicators that can et al., 2010; TEEB, 2011) that have identified and categorised a
be used to monitor the extent to which the landscape service has range of potential ecosystem services. Table 5.1 shows a list of
achieved its goals. ecosystem services (De Groot et al., 2010; TEEB, 2011) following the
Prior to setting design targets and performance indicators as two classification in MEA (2005), which categorises ecosystem services
components of our guidelines, we extracted from journals and other into “provisioning”, “regulating”, “cultural”, and “supporting”
documents existing frameworks, standards and requirements used services, introduced in Chapter 3.
around the world and reclassified them under our landscape services. While the number of studies on ecosystem services has increased
We found that in most cases, proposed targets and indicators often exponentially, most of the current literature pays more attention
did not cite a clear basis, nor were they tested and verified. These to natural or rural ecosystems. Table 5.1 lists a wide variety of
references were winnowed down to those applicable in the urban ecosystem services nature can potentially provide. This long list
context. For items without existing indicators, our indicators were does not entirely fit the book’s focus on neighbourhood landscapes
determined with the added consideration of using more stringent and urban ecosystems, but it serves as a repository of services, from
criteria to challenge current design norms. The information was which we can select those more relevant to the urban context and
synthesised into a draft set of design guidelines that were tested by specific to neighbourhood landscapes. Our selection is guided by
three design teams through application to an actual site. The initial two criteria: impact and amenability to design.
design targets and performance indicators were then revised, taking
into consideration the feedback from the three design teams, other The first criterion is impact, that is, whether the service is impactful
practitioners and academics. However, we recognise that design at the neighbourhood scale, as our main concern is to design for the
targets are seldom applicable to all contexts; therefore, the design well-being of local residents of the neighbourhood. We exclude any
targets specified later in this chapter are aspirational rather than landscape service with an impact observable only at a larger scale
strict targets. but insignificant at the neighbourhood scale. For example, while the
role trees and other vegetation play in carbon sequestration is critical
We also caution that the guidelines introduced here should not for climate change mitigation, the contribution of urban vegetation
be used as a checklist, in which the design team ticks off items to carbon sequestration and storage is insignificant relative to total
as “proof of application”. Rather, the guidelines should serve to greenhouse gas emissions at the city scale (Tang et al., 2016; Velasco
increase the awareness of the range of landscape services that et al., 2016). Therefore, we consider it insignificant as a landscape
can be incorporated into neighbourhood landscapes. In fact, it is service for the neighbourhood or even the city scale. Similarly, while
challenging, if not impossible, for small neighbourhood landscapes the service of soil formation — physical and chemical weathering
to effectively incorporate all landscape services. Determining which of rocks — is critical to maintaining ecosystem productivity, it is
types of landscape services are most relevant requires consideration such a slow process that a thin layer of soil could take hundreds of
of socio-cultural and socio-political contextual factors, along with years to generate, even in a tropical climate where soil formation
the general climate and weather conditions of the site. While there is relatively faster. Simply put, significant amounts of soil cannot
cannot be a one-size-fits-all approach to landscape design, perhaps be formed during the lifespan of a neighbourhood. However, it is
the single unifying aspect of neighbourhood landscapes is that they possible to design landscapes to facilitate the natural processes that
exist to benefit urban dwellers, and the potential to deliver more help to maintain soil quality. Soil quality is an important aspect
benefits can be enhanced by paying more attention to the wide of neighbourhood landscapes to support the growth and health
range of landscape services. of vegetation and to facilitate water cycling. “Maintenance of soil
quality”, rather than the formation of soil, is therefore emphasised
here as a landscape service.
Book 1.indb 96 4/4/18 12:03 PM

CH5 • Designing neighbourhood landscapes with landscape services
97
Table 5.1 The complete list of ecosystem services, with definitions adapted from MEA (2005), De Groot et al. (2010), and TEEB (2011), Gómez-Baggethun, and Barton (2013).
Ecosystem service Explanation
Provisioning services Food The vast range of food products derived from plants, animals, and microbes.
Fibre Materials such as wood, jute, cotton, hemp, silk and wool.
Fuel Wood, dung and other biological materials that serve as sources of energy.
Genetic resources The genes and genetic information used for animal and plant breeding and biotech-
nology.
Biochemical, natural medi- Medicines, biocides, food additives, such as alginates, and biological materials de-
cines, and pharmaceuticals rived from ecosystems.
Ornamental resources Animal and plant products, such as skins, shells and flowers, used as ornaments:
whole plants are also used for landscaping and ornaments.
Freshwater Freshwater extracted directly from waterbodies and used for drinking and other
human purposes after proper treatment.
Regulating Services Air quality regulation The extraction of chemicals from the atmosphere, to improve air quality.
Climate regulation Ecosystems influence climate both locally and globally. At a local scale, for example,
changes in land cover can affect temperature and precipitation. At the global scale,
ecosystems affect climate by either sequestering or emitting greenhouse gases.
Water regulation Watershed hydrology can be strongly influenced by changes in land cover, such as
the conversion of wetlands or forests into croplands or urban development.
Erosion regulation The retention of soil by vegetation.
Water purification and waste The removal of pollutants in the water by ecosystems, such as wetlands; and the
treatment decomposition of organic wastes.
Noise mitigation Sound waves can be absorbed and deflected by vegetation and water.
Disease regulation The control of disease vectors, such as mosquitos, through predator-prey relation-
ships to reduce human pathogens.
Pest regulation The control of crop livestock pests and diseases through predator-prey relationships.
Pollination Natural pollination is controlled by the distribution, abundance, and effectiveness of

different polinators, such as bats, birds, bees and other insects.
Natural hazard mitigation The presence of coastal ecosystems, such as mangroves and coral reefs, can reduce
the damage caused by hurricanes or storm surges.
Carbon sequestration and As trees and plants grow, they remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and lock
storage it away in their tissues, thus acting as carbon storage.
Book 1.indb 97 4/4/18 12:03 PM

Ecosystem service Explanation
Cultural services Mental and physical health Recreation in green space can be a form of physical exercise and helps people relax.
The role that green spaces play in maintaining mental and physical health is increas-
ingly recognised, despite difficulties in measuring the exact roles.
Cultural diversity The diversity of ecosystems influences the diversity of cultures.
Knowledge systems Ecosystems are major sources of knowledge in many different cultures.
Sense of place Many people value the “sense of place” that is associated with recognised features of
their environment, including aspects of the ecosystem.
Aesthetic values Many people find beauty or aesthetic value in various aspects of ecosystems, as
reflected in the support for parks and scenic drives and in the selection of housing
locations.
Social relations Ecosystems influence the types of social relations established in particular cultures.
Fishing societies, for example, differ in many respects in their social relations from
nomadic herding or agricultural societies.
Educational values Ecosystems and their components and processes provide the basis for both formal
and informal education in many societies.
Recreation and ecotourism Natural areas or green spaces are often places where people spend their leisure time.
Cultural heritage values An ecosystem or a certain species is not only considered “natural” but also “cultural”
in many cases and therefore with cultural significance.
Spiritual and religious values Many religions attach spiritual and religious values to ecosystems or their compo-
nents. Ecosystems often can provide for spiritual and transcendental experiences.
Inspiration for culture, art and Ecosystems provide a rich source of inspiration for art, folklore, national symbols,
design architecture and advertising.
Supporting Services Soil formation The weathering of rocks over time to form soil.
Habitat for species Habitats provide everything that an individual plant or animal needs to survive: food,
water, shelter. Each ecosystem provides different habitats that can be essential for a
species’ life cycle. Migratory species, including birds, fish, mammals and insects all
depend upon different ecosystems during migration.
Photosynthesis Photosynthesis produces oxygen necessary for most living organisms.
Primary production The assimilation or accumulation of energy and nutrients by plants.
Maintenance of genetic Genetic diversity distinguishes different breeds or races, providing the basis for
diversity locally well-adapted cultivars and a gene pool for developing commercial crops and
livestock.
Nutrient cycling Approximately 20 nutrients essential for life, including nitrogen and phosphorus,
cycle through ecosystems and are maintained at different concentrations in different
parts of ecosystems.
Water cycling The storage and circulation of water between the biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere
and hydrosphere. The hydrological processes that are affected by ecosystems include
interception, evapotranspiration, detention, retention, infiltration, and percolation.
Book 1.indb 98 4/4/18 12:03 PM

99
Flora & Fauna Outdoor

Comfort
F1 Provision of
wildlife habitat C1 Heat mitigation
F2 Mosquito control C2 Noise abatement
F3 Fresh produce
Soil Water People

S1 Nutrient cycling W1 Water cycling P1 Sense of place

S2 Maintenance of W2 Flood hazard P2 Aesthetic values
soil quality mitigation P3 Social relations
W3 Stormwater P4 Education values
S3 Erosion control and domestic
wastewater P5 Recreation
treatment
W4 Water for irrigation
Fig. 5.1 Neighbourhood landscapes services categorised by key elements of a designed landscape.
The second criterion is amenability to design. It concerns whether After applying the above two criteria to the list of ecosystem
landscape design can influence the delivery of the landscape service. services in Table 5.1, we identify 17 ecosystem services applicable
Some landscape services cannot be enhanced or optimised by to neighbourhood landscape design. This suite of urban ecosystem
neighbourhood landscape design alone. For instance, a common services forms the “neighbourhood landscape services” for which
perception is that trees and other vegetation help to purify the air. we provide detailed guidelines in this chapter.
However, there are many uncertainties in how the vegetation in the
These landscape services are classified in a manner we deem to
neighbourhood can regulate local air quality. There are also many
fit more directly with landscape design as practice. Although the
uncertainties in the regulation of local air quality outside the auspices
classification scheme by MEA (2005) using provisioning, regulating,
of neighbourhood landscapes. For one, the level of air pollution is
cultural and supporting services is popular and meaningful for
influenced not only by sources at the local scale but also by those at
people seeking to understand the nature of an ecosystem service
the mesoscale. Moreover, other environmental conditions, such as
and its fundamental role in enhancing human well-being, such a
wind flow patterns, anthropogenic activities, even transboundary
classification scheme is less relevant for landscape design. Landscape
pollution, could have stronger effects on local air quality than local
design is fundamentally about shaping an environment to achieve
vegetation alone. There is a high level of uncertainty associated with
certain goals, and the entry points for landscape architects are
the role of vegetation in air quality (Pataki et al., 2011). Even if large
often the key elements or systems of the environment: soil, water,
amounts of vegetation are present in the neighbourhood landscape,
flora and fauna, outdoor comfort and the people who will use and/
there is no guarantee that the vegetation will reduce air pollution
or benefit from the designed landscape. The landscape services
because design can do little to influence external conditions. Another
we discuss in this book are therefore grouped into five categories
example is the landscape service associated with the inspiration for
that pertain to soil, water, flora and fauna, outdoor comfort and
culture, arts and design. Since inspiration is highly personal, there
people (Fig. 5.1). The design professionals, particularly landscape
is no guarantee that a particular landscape design will be a source
architects, often need to explicitly work with these dynamic systems.
of inspiration to one and all. Conversely, any landscape may be a
This categorisation is more consistent with the systematic way — a
source of inspiration, making it difficult to pinpoint which designs
legacy of Ian McHarg (1969) — through which landscape architects
can or cannot provide inspiration.
understand a site and design the landscape by using map layers or
Book 1.indb 99 4/4/18 12:03 PM

diagrams to illustrate the different working systems of the site and riparian zone could also enhance the aesthetic value of the river
the designed landscape. or stream. A trade-off is a win-lose situation. For example, the
increase of provisioning services, such as food, timber and fresh
The first four — soil, water, flora and fauna and outdoor comfort —
water, may lead to undesirable declines in other types of services,
are environmental elements, interdependent and interacting systems
such as nutrient cycling, flood hazard mitigation, pollination and
operating on the landscape. Neighbourhood landscape services in
recreation, often in unexpected ways (Raudsepp-Hearne et al.,
these categories include supporting, regulating and provisioning
2010). Therefore, in neighbourhood landscape design, a narrow
services. The delivery of these services depends heavily on well-
focus on certain landscape services can result in unexpected or
functioning, healthy ecosystems. In a neighbourhood landscape
sudden losses of other services that are equally important to human
that is part of a larger social-ecological system, these services
well-being. Trade-offs between landscape services call for the
constitute “the ecological part” of the system and contribute to the

creativity, skill, and experience of the design team, along with the
physical foundations upon which the services in the people category
stakeholders, to make the best decision to deliver an optimal suite
are built. The services in the people category can be identified as
of landscape services.
cultural services in MEA (2005). They constitute “the social part”
of the social-ecological system of neighbourhood landscapes. The In designing neighbourhood landscapes, attention should
landscape services, their MEA category and their definition are particularly be paid to the possible trade-offs between landscape
shown in Table 5.2. services. It is important to understand different forms and aspects of
trade-offs (Rodríguez et al., 2006). A trade-off could be in the form

Our categorisation of neighbourhood landscape services reflects
of mutual exclusiveness; that is some services just cannot coexist at
how design operates differently from simply understanding
the same place or time. There are trade-offs in space; that is, the
ecosystem services. Just as soil, water, flora and fauna, outdoor
provision of a service at one place can compromise other services
comfort and people are interrelated in the environment, each
at other places. There could also be trade-offs in time, with the
group of neighbourhood landscape services should be considered
provision of a service in the present compromising the same service
a system interacting with other systems. Services within a category
or other services in the future. Some trade-offs could be reversible,
are similarly interdependent and interrelated.
and the negatively affected service may return to its previous state
and functionality; however, others may not be reversible (Rodríguez
5.2 Trade-offs and synergies et al., 2006). Finally, trade-offs can occur between stakeholders; that
is, some stakeholders could capture or benefit more from a particular
of neighbourhood landscape service at the cost of others (Howe et al., 2014).
It is necessary to understand the different forms and aspects of trade-
services offs to manage them in design and post-construction maintenance

and monitoring. Given the existence of trade-offs, it is not possible,
When designing for neighbourhood landscape services, it is desirable nor realistic for the neighbourhood landscape to provide all
important to understand that these services can interact in non- the landscape services listed in Table 5.2. Given its small scale and
linear, dynamic and complex ways. Design interventions that its permeability to external factors, the neighbourhood landscape
purposefully enhance one service could affect others as well, and should not over-promise and over-deliver.
there are trade-offs and synergies between certain ecosystem services
While multi-functionality of the neighbourhood landscape is
(e.g., Bennett et al., 2009). A synergy refers to the simultaneous
preferable, the goal of neighbourhood landscape design should
enhancement of two ecosystem services; a trade-off refers to the
not be to maximise the number of landscape services. A more
increase of one ecosystem service at the cost of the provision of
desirable and realistic goal is to provide a combination of selected
another (Bennett et al., 2009; Raudsepp-Hearne et al., 2010).
landscape services that most benefit the well-being of local residents,
A synergy can be considered a win-win situation (Haase et al., yet without compromising the others. Regardless of the exact form
2012). For example, wetland creation or restoration for wastewater of landscape service trade-off, it often involves not meeting all the
treatment could also enhance flood hazard mitigation and provision needs of every individual and stakeholder group. Therefore, the
of wildlife habitat. Enhancing nutrient cycling by restoring the exact landscape services to be designed and delivered — what to
Book 1.indb 100 4/4/18 12:03 PM

101
Table 5.2 Neighbourhood landscape services
Category Landscape Service MEA category Explanation

Soil Nutrient cycling Supporting Decomposition of organic matter by microbes into inorganic constituents as
nutrients and their return into terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems to support
vegetative growth at the base of a food chain; this, in turn, supports other
organisms higher in the food chain.
Maintenance of soil quality Supporting Maintenance of the physical, biological and chemical properties of soil to sup-
port other ecosystem processes, such as plant growth and water and nutrient
retention.
Erosion control Regulating Retention of soil through vegetation root matrix and soil biota.
Water Water cycling Supporting Interception, evapotranspiration, infiltration, retention of water by the land-
scape to regulate surface runoff, river discharge, and groundwater recharge.
Flood hazard mitigation Regulating Mitigation of flood hazards by the landscape through interception, infiltra-
tion, detention/retention of stormwater and floodwater, and buffering of flood
waves by the riparian zone.
Stormwater and domestic Regulating Removal of water-borne pollutants by soil and vegetation.
wastewater treatment
Water for irrigation Provisioning Provision of irrigation water by the waterbody or by rainwater harvesting on
site.
Flora & Fauna Provision of wildlife habitat Supporting Urban landscapes serve as habitats to support diversity of species by providing
food, water and refuge.
Mosquito control Regulating Control of mosquito population through predator-prey relationships.
Fresh produce Provisioning Provision of space and suitable conditions for plant growth for communities
or individual residents to grow their own food.
Outdoor Heat mitigation Regulating Ability of vegetation to produce favourable microclimate conditions through
comfort shading and evapotranspiration.
Noise abatement Regulating Use of urban soil, landform and plants to attenuate noise pollution through
absorption, deviation, reflection and refraction of sound waves.
People Sense of place Cultural Interaction between people and the place shaped by socio-cultural processes,
natural and cultural heritage, connectedness with the land towards creation of
the space familiarity and meaning, referred to also as a place attachment place
meaning, place identity, place dependence, genius loci, spirit of place, etc.
Aesthetic values Cultural Visual quality of a landscape that stimulates the senses and allows people to
derive pleasure from it.
Social relations Cultural Ability of landscapes to promote neighbour and other relationships with the
cultivation of pro-social attitudes and behaviours.
Education values Cultural Potential of neighbourhood landscapes to impart knowledge and to increase
awareness of the environment and its processes.
Recreation Cultural Provision of outdoor green open spaces to support solitary, group, active or
passive leisure activities.
prioritise — should be thoroughly discussed in a participatory design by Saaty (2001); the AHP is widely used for complex decision
process including all stakeholders. You will recall our inclusion of making in numerous disciplines. It uses pairwise comparisons of
“participatory design” as one of our design approaches. quantitative or qualitative variables according to a standard scale.
One way of managing the trade-offs between competing priorities To prioritise multiple landscape services, stakeholders can be asked
of multiple stakeholders is to develop a hierarchy of priorities to to make pairwise comparisons between different pairs of landscape
guide decision making. A useful tool for multi-criteria decision- services according to their perceptions of their relative importance.
making is the Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) developed Note that stakeholders should include not only the design team
Book 1.indb 101 4/4/18 12:03 PM

Relative score
0.14
0.12
Heat
mitigation
0.10 Sense of place
Flood hazard
mitigation Mosquito control
0.08
Nutrient cycling Stormwater and
domestic Social relations
wastewater Noise
treatment abatement Aesthetic values
0.06
Erosion control Water for Recreation
irrigation
Provision of Environmental
0.04 habitat for education
Maintenance of biodiversity Fresh
soil quality produce
Water cycling
0.02
0.00
S1 S2 S3 W1 W2 W3 W4 F1 F2 F3 C1 C2 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
Landscape Services
Fig. 5.2 Identification of landscape services deemed most important to multiple stakeholder groups identified through AHP (Relative score – the residents evaluation; size of the bubble – the average
evaluation of all actors). S:Soil, W:Water, F:Flora & Fauna, C:Outdoor Comfort, P:People
but also various community members. The AHP process follows

a computation process to derive the prioritised list of landscape
5.3 Guidelines for neighbour-
services representing the aggregated preferences of all stakeholders.
An example of how results of prioritisation can be represented is hood landscape services
shown in Fig. 5.2. The vertical axis shows the relative importance
This section offers guidelines for designing neighbourhoods with
of each service, while the size of the bubble illustrates the overall
landscape services. For each landscape service, we describe the
score of all stakeholders. The larger and the higher the bubble,
aim and applicability of the landscape service to neighbourhood
the more important the landscape service based on the aggregated
landscapes. Integrated design strategies inspired by the six design
assessment of all stakeholders.
principles given in Chapter 3 are also included to guide design
In this hypothetical example, based on the aggregated preferences concepts. Even though we believe these principles and strategies
of stakeholders covering policy makers, residents, practising are widely applicable across different climatic conditions and socio-
professionals, academics and NGOs, the landscape services deemed cultural contexts, we place greater emphasis on their application in
more important are regulating services, such as heat mitigation, flood tropical conditions and, as highlighted earlier, on publicly accessible
hazard mitigation, storm and waste water treatment, vector control or common neighbourhood landscapes in high-density conditions.
etc., based on the conditions in Singapore. Provisioning services, As argued in Chapter 4, neighbourhood landscapes should not be
such as the production of fresh produce and water for irrigation, treated as finished products; they are always subjected to biophysical
as well as cultural services, such as aesthetic values, and spiritual and human influences at the post-implementation stage. We
and religious fulfilment, are deemed less important. Through the provide design targets to drive design, but these should be treated
systematic process of identifying priorities by different stakeholder as aspirational targets; the achievable level is always dependent
groups, it is possible to narrow to the top few landscape services on the physical, socio-economic and socio-cultural context of the
deemed most important to all. Evidently, it is also important to site. We therefore include a set of performance indicators to guide
respect the prevailing conditions of the site, context and project performance monitoring of the landscapes. A series of boxes of
budget in determining which landscape service will eventually be additional information and resources are also provided in the
implemented. guidelines.
Book 1.indb 102 4/4/18 12:03 PM

103
5.4 Soil
S
oil is the critical element of the landscape
which enables the provision of other
landscape services. Yet it is the most hidden
part of the landscape and often the element that
is most neglected. As soil formation is a very
slow process, designing for soil in neighbourhood
landscapes emphasises the protection of existing
high quality soil, prevention of loss through
erosion, and improving poor quality soil. As soil,
together with water and vegetation, enable the
cycling of nutrients in the landscape, another
emphasis is to design landscapes that enable the
use, movement and recycling of nutrients, such as
nitrogen and phosphorus in closed-loop processes
within the landscape.
Book 1.indb 103 4/4/18 12:03 PM

Book 1.indb 104

Fig. 5.3 Nitrogen cycle in the urban landscape; modified from Alberti (2008).
4/4/18 12:03 PM
105
S1 Nutrient cycling Tan Puay Yok
T
he cycling (use, movement and recycling) of key chemical concerns about scarcity and the global management of phosphorus
elements on Earth, such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, as a non-renewable resource (Elser and Bennett, 2011) as the
sulphur, etc. is a fundamental process that supports life generation of natural phosphorus is an extremely slow process
on Earth, and one which supports all other ecosystem services. occurring on geological time scales. Other nutrient cycles, such
Nutrient cycling is thus typically classified as a “supporting” sulphur and heavy metal cycles, are also altered by human actions
ecosystem service (Hassan, Scholes, and Ash, 2005). Such cycling, (Vitousek et al., 1997).
also known as “biogeochemical cycles”, takes place via the
With their distinctive land cover and high concentration of
atmosphere, soils and water, and involves geological, chemical
anthropogenic activities, cities have nutrient cycles that are quite

and biological processes. The extent of human influences, such
different from those in natural areas. The differences are observed
as agricultural activities, land clearing, extraction of minerals
in the urban climate, hydrology and atmospheric chemistry (Kaye et
and production of fertilisers and urbanisation, on the disruption
al., 2006), and are inevitably linked to human well-being, directly or
of nutrient cycling is increasingly better understood, and it is
indirectly. For instance, in Bangkok, only a small fraction of nitrogen
becoming clear that key nutrient cycles for nitrogen, phosphorus,
and phosphorus in the food supply is recovered, with the majority
sulphur and carbon, have been substantially altered by humans
discharged into the Chao Phraya River (Færge et al., 2001). These
with important consequences for humans through the effects on
losses represent large quantities of nutrients which could otherwise
other ecosystem processes (Berhe et al., 2005; Vitousek et al.,
have been used in various types of landscapes in the city.
1997).
While such gross-level changes are known and can be generalised
The best-recognised change in nutrient cycling is the dramatic
to some extent as typical urban phenomena, more specific and
alteration in the flux of carbon, a main cause of global warming;
important questions remain unanswered. For instance, how
this will not be discussed here. Changes in the flux of other
does urban design and morphology, including the role of urban
nutrients are relatively less recognised, but are equally severe. For
landscapes and the suite of urban activities, affect nutrient recycling?
instance, the use of synthetic nitrogen fertiliser, the deposition of
More specifically in relation to neighbourhoods, how and to what
atmospheric pollutants containing nitrogen and the production of
extent does the design of neighbourhood landscapes affect nutrient
leguminous crops which fix nitrogen have created an additional flux
cycles? How significant is the impact of neighbourhood landscapes
of 200 teragrams of nitrogen per year over the natural flux (Berhe
compared to other anthropogenic activities, such as industrial
et al., 2005). While the use of nitrogen fertiliser has substantially
production, human consumption patterns and lifestyle changes
increased food production directly benefiting humans, its increased
associated with the advent of a shared economy and technological
deposition in aquatic systems causes eutrophication and an increased
advancement? More importantly, how do changes in urban nutrient
emission of nitrous oxides, leading to air pollution and climatic
cycles affect the ability of urban ecosystems to provide landscape
changes (Vitousek et al., 1997). Similarly, the flow of phosphorus,
services for urban dwellers?
a key limiting factor of plant growth in crop production, has been
drastically altered by human activities. It has been suggested that
the global mobilisation of phosphorus is about three times its
natural flow (Smil, 2000). While phosphorus is used to enhance
crop production, its leakage into the aquatic environment causes
eutrophication. The rapid extraction of phosphorus is also causing
Book 1.indb 105 4/4/18 12:03 PM

Fig. 5.4 Neighbourhood landscape designed to recycle valuable nutrients. Fig. 5.5 Floating wetlands to remove excessive nutrients in aquatic systems and provide
habitats for a wide range of biodiversity.
A limited number of studies, such as those cited in Alberti (2008), important nutrients through uptake by biological processes and
are beginning to unravel the effect of urban patterns on urban decomposition by microbes. The intended outcome could be
nutrient cycles. A recent study reports that urban agriculture’s direct, such as in the recycling of nutrients and uptake by plants,
role in recycling phosphorus represents a very small proportion or indirect through education and raising awareness to trigger
of the total phosphorus consumed as food in the city (Metson and behavioural changes.
Bennett, 2015). However, urban agriculture has the potential to
educate residents on nutrient cycles and trigger behavioural changes, Integrated design strategies
for instance, in the encouragement of composting. Actions and Overall, design should aim at minimising the input of nutrients
behavioural change at localised levels could be important. Another into neighbourhood landscapes, reducing the leakage of nutrients
example is the simple action of recycling leaf litter and using it as and reusing nutrients. One strategy is the protection and proper
mulch in neighbourhood landscapes. Instead of removing leaf litter management of soil resources, as soil is the principle environment
as “yard waste”, recycling it can be important in recycling carbon for the uptake and recycling of nutrients. The capacity to retain and
and nitrogen back to the urban environment to enhance plant recycle nutrients is strongly influenced by the physical, chemical
growth (Templer et al., 2015). In other words, a key strategy for the and biological properties of soils, and the relevant strategies are
maintenance of the nutrient cycle in neighbourhood landscapes is closely related to the strategies for the maintenance of soil quality
to encourage actions that reduce the external input of nutrients and (discussed later in the chapter). The next two strategies are related
retain and reuse them within the landscapes. to management of water flow and management of aquatic systems
While many aspects of nutrient recycling in urban areas require as a medium in which nutrient flow and recycling may occur. A
clarification, small steps can still be made to close the nutrient cycle key strategy is to minimise the discharge of nutrients carried in
at the scale of the neighbourhood. Design for the provision of the stormwater by using blue-green infrastructure, a collection point
service of nutrient cycling should aim to promote the cycling of for biological uptake of nutrients. An associated strategy is to
Book 1.indb 106 4/4/18 12:03 PM

107
harvest nutrients collected in the plants growing in different types Design targets
of blue-green infrastructure, such as rain gardens and constructed The first two targets pertain to the re-use of topsoil in vegetated
wetlands, compost these materials and return the nutrients back to sites affected by development and the re-use of leaf litter for mulch
the landscape. or feedstock for compost. The third target concerns the use of
blue-green infrastructure for nutrient management; 80% of the
Another strategy is to install composting facilities in the
landscapes should be designed as part of a water catchment area,
neighbourhood landscapes to return nutrients to the soil. Compost
with stormwater directed to blue-green infrastructure systems,
and other forms of mulch, such as leaf litter, also serve to reduce
such as rain gardens, bio-swales, constructed wetlands, etc.
water loss from evaporation, reduce soil temperature fluctuations,
reduce rain-induced soil compaction and create humic substances
Performance indicators
for generating good soil texture. The improvement of soil biological

An ideal method for monitoring the extent of nutrient recycling is
function through addition of organic matter is particularly
a nutrient budget which reports on inflow, retention and outflow
important, not just for creating good soil structure, but also for
from the system of interest. However, as nutrient budgets are
supporting the soil biota important for the decomposition and
challenging and time-consuming to develop for the respective
nutrient cycling processes provided by healthy soils. Feedstock
nutrients of interest, their use is not recommended at this stage;
for compost could be horticulture prunings, leaf litter, vegetation
unfortunately, suitable proxies are still not proven or readily
periodically harvested from blue-green infrastructure, as well as
available.
domestic food waste.
Benefits Integrated design strategies

• Release and uptake of nutrients by vegetation for higher 1. Protect existing healthy soil resources and maintain soil
plant growth to provide other landscape services, such as quality to maintain capacity to support vegetation and
production of fresh produce and food sources for other nutrient cycling.
biodiversity. 2. Use green infrastructure to limit stormwater runoff.
• Removal of nutrients from aquatic bodies to prevent 3. Use green infrastructure to enhance plant uptake of
eutrophication, and maintenance of water quality to nutrients that would otherwise be drained by stormwater.
support other landscape services, such as creation of 4. Integrate composting facilities in the landscape to return
aesthetic values and use of water as a recreational resource. nutrients back to the soil.
Targets
1. 100% of topsoil of native vegetated area or healthy topsoil
affected by land development should be reused.
2. 100% of leaf litter should be retained on site for use as
mulch or in composting facilities.
3. ≥80% of vegetated areas should be designed for stormwater
infiltration, detention and/or retention.
4. 100% of vegetated materials harvested from such areas
should be used for composting.
Book 1.indb 107 4/4/18 12:03 PM

Book 1.indb 108

Fig. 5.6 Degradation and erosion of topsoil through land clearing and changes in topography.
4/4/18 12:03 PM
109
S2 Maintenance of soil quality Tan Puay Yok
S
oil is the “unconsolidated mineral or organic material on The aim of designing neighbourhood landscapes to provide the
the immediate surface of the earth that serves as a natural service of maintenance of soil quality is to allow and facilitate the
medium for the growth of land plants”1. Its role in terrestrial natural regeneration of soil quality. The existence of healthy soil
ecosystems is so fundamental that without a healthy soil, much
organisms (edaphon) and nutrient cycles help the regeneration

of the ecosystem services we expect from natural and urban process. Soil quality refers to the complete suite of the biological,
ecosystems would not be possible. Soil anchors and stores water physical and chemical properties of soils that dictate the extent to
and nutrients to support plant growth, the primary source of food; which soils can support vegetation and nutrient cycling. The ideal
soil provides the habitat for soil macro- and micro-organisms that properties are described by a set of “soil quality indicators”, as
in turn, supports other fundamental ecological processes, such as illustrated in Box 5.1. There are numerous soil quality standards2; in
decomposition and nutrient recycling; soil filters surface water, any given case, the most relevant reference should be determined by
an important source of drinking water; soil modifies the climate
site-specific requirements pertaining to climate and geography. The

through absorption and release of dust and gaseous compounds. adoption of localised rather than generalised standards is preferred.
In urban areas, soil also acts as a construction material and as a
foundation for built infrastructure (Baveye et al., 2016).
The formation of soil through biological and biophysical processes Box 5.1
is a fundamental supporting landscape service critical for other
regulating and provisioning ecosystem services (de Groot, Wilson, Assessment of soil quality based on soil
and Boumans, 2002). But soil formation is a very slow process quality indicators in CUGE Standards CS
and hence not a directly relevant service of designed landscapes, 03:2013
especially as these are often retrofitted or entirely revamped • pH: 5.5–7.5.
after a certain period of time. Therefore, our emphasis on soil in • Electrical conductivity: less than 2 dS/m.
neighbourhood landscapes points to its provision and maintenance • C:N ratio: 12:1–25:1.
so that its key functions, such as support of plant growth and
• Organic matter: minimum 10% by dry weight.
recycling of nutrients, can be achieved.
• Cation Exchange Capacity: greater than 10 meq/100 g
Soil is often neglected in landscape design and management, mainly soil by dry weight.
because it is hidden once the vegetation has been established. Soil • Permeability: unsaturated hydraulic conductivity 50–100
also attracts negative connotations, such as “dirt” and “mud”. The cm/h.
role soil plays in the delivery of ecosystem services was relatively
• Bulk density: greater than 0.8 g/cm3.
neglected in the early documents on ecosystem services (Baveye et
al., 2016). Nonetheless, it plays a key role. A direct consequence • Organic contaminants: to comply with national standards
of poor soil management is poor growth of vegetation. This could under public health and pollution control regulations.
perpetuate for many years after planting (Craul, 1992, p.2), resulting • Pathogens: faecal coliforms: 1000 MPN per g of total
in reduced provision of other landscape services. For instance, a poor solids.
quality soil can be easily compacted, leading to reduced infiltration
of water and nutrient recycling, and increased stormwater runoff,
which leads to erosion, and increased flood risk.
1
As defined by the Soil Science Society of America, https://www.soils.org/files/about-soils/soils-overview.pdf, accessed on May 15, 2017.
2
For instance, see (1) Australian Standard — AS 4419-2003 Soils for Landscaping and Garden Use, https://infostore.saiglobal.com/
store/PreviewDoc.aspx?saleItemID=381575.; (2) British Standards BS 3882:2015 Specification for Topsoil, https://www.thenbs.com/
PublicationIndex/documents/details?Pub=BSI&DocID=310320, accessed May 15, 2017.
Book 1.indb 109 4/4/18 12:03 PM

Integrated design strategies
For the delivery of this landscape service, the overall goal of design is to create the
conditions to protect existing high-quality soil and rehabilitate degraded soils to an
acceptable level. The foremost design strategy is to conserve the topsoil of areas with
existing vegetation and protect these areas from development as far as possible. Topsoil,
typically designated as the horizon in a soil profile, is enriched by the decomposition of
organic matter deposited on the soil surface over a very long period of time; it therefore
possesses biological, physical and chemical properties that favour plant growth. Topsoil
degradation is a major environmental concern; the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organisation reports that about 25% of the earth’s surface is already degraded3. The
protection of this nutrient-rich and friable layer of soil by conserving the undisturbed
vegetated areas, such as old secondary forests, from development is of paramount
importance.
Healthy soils are likely to be found in areas that have not been significantly disturbed by
previous land development (e.g. cash-crop farming or construction). Healthy soils can
be protected by minimising earthwork, e.g. cut and fill operations, which destroy soil
structure and dramatically affect the hydrology and ecology of undisturbed adjacent
sites. If development is unavoidable, topsoil should be harvested and stored for reuse,
preferably in the original location to minimise transportation.
A variety of methods should be explored to rehabilitate degraded on-site soils to a

condition that can better support vegetation growth. For instance, for soils deficient in
nutrients and organic matter, adding compost to return nutrients to the soils should be
a standard practice. Compost and other forms of mulch, such as leaf litter, also serve
to reduce water loss from evaporation, reduce fluctuation of soil temperature, reduce
rain-induced soil compaction and create humic substances to generate good soil texture.
The improvement of soil biological function through the addition of organic matter is
particularly important, not just for creating good soil structure, but also for supporting
the soil biota that are important for decomposition and nutrient cycling processes. Leaf
litter plays a crucial role in encouraging the formation of soil organic matter and should
be retained on site (FAO, 2015). Other soil rehabilitation measures include the use of
physical methods like deep water jetting and air injection to relieve soil compaction. In
situations where a new soil mixture needs to be introduced rather than using in-situ soils,
the soil mix should be tested and evaluated to meet requisite soil quality standards. Many
publications and online resources discuss soil rehabilitation (see Box 5.2).
Design targets and performance indicators

The design targets for the maintenance of soil quality include the re-use of topsoil from
areas affected by development and the re-use of leaf litter as mulch or as feedstock for
composting. We suggest targets of 100% harvesting of topsoil in areas affected by land
development and 100% reuse of leaf litter on site. To gauge the performance of a
3 The UN FAO suggests there are only 60 years left for conventional farming given the speed of topsoil degradation, http://www.fao.org/
soils-2015/events/detail/en/c/338738/, accessed May 15, 2017.
Book 1.indb 110 4/4/18 12:03 PM

111
Fig. 5.7 Poor soil quality has long-term negative impacts on landscape performance and ability of landscapes to provide ecosystem services.
Book 1.indb 111 4/4/18 12:03 PM

neighbourhood landscape in delivering the maintenance of soil, soil
quality should be monitored over time, using visual observations of
plant growth and soil tests. Many soil quality indicators have been
developed and can serve as performance indicators for periodic
monitoring. The soil quality indicators given here are drawn from
soil standards developed by the Centre for Urban Greenery and
Ecology in Singapore.
Benefits
• Support the growth of vegetation and formation of
ecosystems.
• Contribute to nutrient recycling and breakdown of
pollutants.
• Contribute to water infiltration and storage, leading to
reduced stormwater discharge into drainage systems.
Box 5.2
Soil Rehabilitation Resources
• Craul, P. J. (1992). Urban Soil in Landscape Design.
New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
• Trowbridge, P. J., and Bassuk, N. L. (2004). Trees in
the Urban Landscape. Site assessment, design and
installation. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
• Permaculture Research Institute (https://
permaculturenews.org/).
• Pennsylvania Stormwater Best Management Practices
Manual, Chapter 6 — Soil Amendment and
Restoration.
• US Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Publication
No. 905R1103. Evaluation of Urban Soils: Suitability
for green infrastructure or urban agriculture.
Book 1.indb 112 4/4/18 12:03 PM

113

1. Conserve topsoil of existing vegetated areas and
protect ecologically-sensitive areas.

2. Minimise earthwork and conserve natural topography.
3. Harvest and reuse topsoil collected from native vegetated
areas affected by land development.
4. Rehabilitate degraded soil in areas designed as vegetated
areas.
5. Integrate composting facilities in the landscape.
Targets
1. 100% of topsoil of native vegetated area or healthy topsoil
affected by land development should be reused.
2. 100% of leaf litter should be retained on site for use as
mulch or in composting facilities.
1. Soil quality indicators (see Box 5.1)
Fig. 5.8 Compost or leaf litter used as mulch to reduce evaporation, reduce soil erosion and
return nutrients for maintenance of soil fertility and soil structure.
Book 1.indb 113 4/4/18 12:03 PM

Book 1.indb 114

Fig. 5.9 Vegetated slopes are protected from soil erosion; paved slopes experience higher water runoff.
4/4/18 12:03 PM
115
S3 Erosion control Tan Puay Yok
A
s highlighted in the section on the maintenance of soil urbanisation rate. Soil erosion consequently carries a high economic
quality, soils support fundamental ecosystem processes, cost (Pimentel et al., 1995).
which are, in turn, critical in supporting other types of
Given the high level of human activities in urban areas, soil erosion
landscape services, such as water infiltration, nutrient recycling,
should also be a concern. The extent of erosion would logically
vegetative growth, etc. The processes of soil formation, soil
depend on the nature and extent of soil surfaces in urban areas.
retention (through prevention of erosion) and their management
Areas which are already predominantly built-up should only face
to prevent degradation or losses are critical if soils are to deliver
about the same or slightly more erosion than vegetated natural
these functions in the first place. The landscape service of erosion
areas (Forman, 2014 , p. 99). However, urban areas still undergoing

control is about the role of landscapes, primarily provided by roots
higher levels of construction will experience far higher level of
and soil macro- and micro-organisms, in the retention of soils.
erosion. This has been documented in early studies in the 1970s
Soil erosion is the “accelerated removal of topsoil from the land and 1980s in the US and Australia (Hart, 1982; NACRF, 1970),
surface through water, wind or tillage” (FAO and ITPS, 2015). and during rapid urban development in Malaysia (Leigh, 1982).
The erosion agents — water, wind or tillage — act under certain Eroded soil materials will be carried by erosion agents, primarily
soil conditions. Wind erosion is primarily driven by strong winds water, and deposited in low-lying aquatic areas. The primary effects
over bare soils that are dry and that contain loose particles. Water arising from construction activities are thus excessive sedimentation
erosion occurs when surface water flow carries soil particles that are in urban streams and channels, and accelerated bank erosion,
loosely held at the soil surface — for instance, when soil surface is leading to increased flood risks and degraded water quality as well
exposed because of a low amount or absence of vegetation cover, as the consequential ecological impacts on urban rivers and other
and after soil aggregates are broken down by rain drops. Soil erosion waterbodies. In severe cases, soil erosion leads to landslides, which
by tillage occurs when soil is redistributed through the action of can have catastrophic consequences on loss of human lives and
tillage equipment on the soil and downward movement of soil by properties.
gravity, leading to soil loss on the upper slope and accumulation
There is a surprising lack of more recent studies on soil erosion
at the lower slope. This is not common in urban landscapes as
in urban areas worldwide. Nevertheless, we suggest that in urban
vegetated areas in urban landscapes seldom get repeatedly tilled
regions undergoing rapid development, such as in Asia, soil erosion
unlike agriculture land.
is an environmental concern, with associated consequences such as
Soil erosion is a major cause of loss of topsoil in the world. Soil the deposition of sediments and nutrients in urban waters carried
erosion on agriculture land induced by anthropogenic activities is by erosion agents. The impact of soil erosion on the water resources
estimated to be 100–1000 times higher than the natural, background of urban regions is more important than the actual loss of soil
rate of soil erosion (FAO and ITPS, 2015). This, coupled with a resources.
much lower rate of soil formation, which occurs over thousands
of years, essentially means that soil has become a non-renewable
resource that is being consumed excessively. It has been estimated
that the human-induced component of soil erosion was about 60%
of total soil erosion, and the erosion problem is most severe in
Southeast Asia (Yang et al., 2003), an area experiencing very high
Book 1.indb 115 4/4/18 12:03 PM

The design and management of neighbourhood landscapes should
seek to use vegetation to reduce the risk of soil erosion. Vegetation
provides this function by (1) binding soil particles to the ground
through dense root networks and organic soil compounds, (2)
intercepting raindrops and protecting the soil from erosion by rain
splash, (3) absorbing surface water to prevent soils from becoming
saturated and more prone to failure, (4) encouraging infiltration
of surface water by the effects of roots and organic matter on
maintaining soil porosity, thereby reducing surface runoff, and (5)
reducing speed of surface runoff by increasing the roughness of
surfaces through stems and roots. Neighbourhood landscapes can

contribute to this soil retention function.
The aim of designing for this landscape service is to promote the

capacity of neighbourhood landscapes to retain soil, i.e. to reduce
the extent of soil erosion occurring in urban areas, as this will impair
the bioproductivity of the landscapes and put a strain on drainage
and aquatic systems, such as urban streams, and receiving water

Fig. 5.10 Bare soil increases risk of erosion and slope failures.
bodies, such as ponds, urban wetlands and reservoirs.
Integrated design strategies topography into neighbourhood design, the existing vegetation
serves as an erosion control strategy. This obviously requires
The set of design strategies included here is aimed at creating
existing vegetation on slopes to be conserved. Where earthworks
conditions in neighbourhood landscapes to reduce the risks of soil
are unavoidable during landscape or construction work, a key
erosion. The first strategy calls for minimisation of earthworks,
construction management strategy is to develop a silt control
especially those causing the alteration of natural topography; these
plan that emphasises reducing the extent and time of exposure of
types of cut-and-fill construction activities create exposed soils that
bare earth during construction activities. Some examples of best
then become prone to wind and soil erosions. The susceptibility
management practices are shown in Box 5.3.
to water erosion is especially high in tropical areas experiencing
high and frequent rainfall. Sedimentation is therefore a significant Where artificial slopes 4 are created or need to be protected,
risk under tropical conditions. By incorporating the existing vegetation can be used in bio-engineering techniques for slope
stabilisation. The use of vegetation for soil retention is generally
considered a cost-effective method for erosion control (Hagen et
Box 5.3 al., 2002; Hamner et al., 1999). A key advantage of vegetation
over conventional engineering techniques for slope stabilisation
Best Management Practices for Silt is the facilitation of regeneration of vegetation on slopes; this, in
Management in Construction Sites turn, encourages regeneration of natural ecosystems. It is thus
• Provide adequate silty water treatment capacity concurrently a means towards the ecological restoration of degraded
• Provide adequate holding pond sites. There are numerous guidelines on bioengineering techniques
• Provide cut-off drain around site boundary for slope stabilisation (see Box 5.4 for some examples).
• Isolate bare earth areas with silt fences In designing neighbourhood landscapes, the incorporation of bare
• Cover soil stockpile soil areas should be avoided. Where unvegetated areas, such as sand
• Pave up access path or road pits in children’s play areas are provided, these can be contained in
horizontal planters and protected from water erosion.
• Cover bare earth area after work
4 Slopes are defined here to have a gradient more than or equal to 15° (Source: USGBC, 2017. Leed v4
In areas of the landscapes not used for recreational or social
for neighbourhood Development) functions, the vegetated areas should be planted with multi-tiered
Book 1.indb 116 4/4/18 12:03 PM

117
layers of canopies to mimic the canopy structure of forests to Box 5.4
enhance the ability of vegetation to intercept and infiltrate rainwater,
thereby reducing compaction by rainfall and reducing surface runoff. Resources for Slope Stabilisation Using
Bioengineering Techniques
Design targets • Guidelines for Soil Bioengineering Applications on
Natural Terrain Landslide Scars. Geo Report No. 227.
The targets for this service pertain to setting the desirable extent in
Geotechnical Engineering Office. Civil Engineering and
the use of vegetation for soil retention functions in neighbourhood
Development Department. The Government of the Hong
landscapes and to minimising the potential for soil erosion in the
Kong Special Administrative Region.
first place. A key target requires that where areas are exposed to
high rainfall or wind, especially on sloping terrain, there must be • Resource Manual on Flash Flood Risk Management:
no bare soil anywhere in the landscape. We also recommend using Module 3 — Structural Measures. Chapter 4 —
bioengineering techniques for revegetation and slope protection. As Bioengineering. Published by International Centre for
high value aquatic systems confer numerous important landscape Integrated Mountain Development.
services, we recommend protection of the full-length of the banks • Bioengineering Techniques for Streambank Restoration.
of natural streams with a riparian zone. The last target requires A Review of Central European Practices. Watershed
that where sections of neighbourhood landscapes are not designed Restoration Project Report No. 2. Ministry of Environment,
for recreational or social functions (i.e., fairly open landscapes such Lands and Parks and Ministry of Forests, British Columbia.
as lawns), 70% of these areas should be planted with multi-tiered
canopies to enhance the ability of the landscape to intercept and
infiltrate water to reduce surface runoff.
The extent to which this landscape service is achieved can be mon-
itored by the number of soil erosion incidences as a performance
indicator.
Fig. 5.11 Land development retaining original topography to reduce cut-and-fill construction activities that create opportunities for soil erosion, (credits: Dongsimwon Design Corp.).
Book 1.indb 117 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Benefits
• Prevent excessive sedimentation which impairs the capacity
of drainage systems, the ecological state of aquatic systems
and the water quality of receiving water bodies.
• Conserve soil as a non-renewable resource and maintain its
bioproductivity to support other landscape services.
• Stabilise land and slopes and reduce risks of landslides.


1. Minimise earthwork, such as by conserving natural
Fig. 5.12 Existing terrain and retained vegetation serve multiple socio-ecological functions,
topography in construction of neighbourhoods.
including the conservation of original ecosystems and enhancing the sense of place.
2. Preserve existing vegetation as much as possible during
planning and design.
3. Avoid designs with high levels of exposed soil in landscapes.

4. Maximise vegetation cover and use multi-tiered vegetation
structure to facilitate rainwater interception and infiltration.
5. Use vegetation or bioengineering techniques to stabilise
slopes.
6. Develop a silt control plan that encourages adoption of best
management practices (during construction).
Targets
1. No exposed soil in areas exposed to high rainfall or wind.
2. 100% of slopes (gradient >15%) should be covered by
vegetation. Fig. 5.13 An earth retaining cover system for stabilising residual soil slopes at steep
angles.
3. 100% of length of any natural stream bank should be
protected by a riparian zone.
4. ≥70% of vegetated area not used for recreational purposes
should be covered by multiple layers of vegetation (i.e., a
canopy layer, understory shrub layer, herbaceous cover).
1. Yearly average number of soil erosion events.
Fig. 5.14 Bare soil increases risk of soil erosion, slope failure and surface runoff.
Book 1.indb 118 4/4/18 12:04 PM

119
5.5 Water
W
ater is widely considered to be the most
important environmental element in landscape
design. The reasons are obvious: water is

needed for survival of all living organisms in the landscape,
and water is effective in attracting people to landscapes and
providing restorative benefits. In urban landscapes, designing
for water takes on an added significance, as neighbourhood
landscapes can serve as important spaces with which to
restore the watershed hydrological functions that have been
severely compromised by urbanisation. Neighbourhood

landscapes can be designed to promote water infiltration,
retention, detention and evapotranspiration to mimic the
natural water cycle. Design strategies for promoting water
cycling can also be coupled with the other landscape services
such as water provision, flood hazard mitigation, and water
treatment.
Book 1.indb 119 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Fig. 5.15 Pre-existing natural waterbody protected from development; freshwater stream in Windsor Nature Park, Singapore.
Book 1.indb 120 4/4/18 12:04 PM

121
W1 Water cycling Liao Kuei-Hsien
W
ater, as Chahine (1992, p.373) asserts, “has always lakes and oceans, it alters the hydrology, degrades the water quality
had, and will continue to have, a controlling influence and compromises the health of the aquatic ecosystems (Walsh et
on the earth’s evolution”. Water is essential to the al., 2005).
well-being of both human and non-human beings, as no life can
The problem of the urban water cycle has been recognised and
survive and develop without water. The quality and quantity of
addressed by new stormwater management approaches, such as Best
different forms of water and the way through which natural water
Management Practices (BMPs) and Low Impact Development (LID)
becomes available is controlled by the hydrological cycle, or water
in the US, Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) and Sustainable
cycle. “Water cycle” generally refers to “the storage and circulation
Urban Drainage System (SUDS) in the UK, the ABC (Active,

of water between the biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere and
Beautiful, Clean) Waters Programme in Singapore, and Sponge
hydrosphere” (Marsalek et al., 2007). Here, water cycling as a
City in China. While having different names, they share a common
landscape service is defined as the interception, evapotranspiration,
intent: to take advantage of natural hydrological processes to tackle
detention, retention, infiltration and percolation of water by the
the quantity and quality of stormwater runoff at source, instead of
landscape to regulate stormwater runoff, river discharge and
quickly draining it away through pipes and drains. Urban green and
groundwater recharge. Whether a landscape can perform the
open spaces play an important role in the application of the new
above hydrological functions affects the quantity and quality of
paradigm. They can be designed as “blue-green infrastructure”,
water; therefore, water cycling underpins other water-related
e.g., rain gardens, bioswales, retention and detention ponds and
landscape services, including flood hazard mitigation, stormwater
constructed wetlands, so that stormwater runoff can be infiltrated
and domestic wastewater treatment and water for irrigation.
and filtered on site (Liao et al., 2017).
As water moves through landscape, the extent to which hydrological
Neighbourhood landscapes can encourage hydrological processes
processes — interception, evapotranspiration, detention, retention,
to promote healthier water cycling to reduce flood risks, replenish
infiltration and percolation — will occur depends on the land cover.
the aquifer and protect aquatic ecosystems from stormwater
As each landscape has a unique composition of land covers, each will
pollution and hydrologic disturbance. To do so, landscape design
have a different capacity for water provision, water treatment and
should aim to mimic the natural pattern of water cycling of the
flood hazard mitigation. The typical urban landscape, dominated
pre-development landscape, or what can be called “hydro-mimicry”,
by impervious surfaces of buildings and sealed roadways, has
that is, using the pre-development natural landscape as a model.
a drastically disrupted water cycle (Arnold and Gibbons, 1996;
For example, when the High Point neighbourhood in Seattle, USA,
Alberti et al., 2007). The typical urban landscape has lower rates of
one of the earliest cases of large-scale sustainable urban stormwater
interception, evapotranspiration and infiltration (Booth and Jackson,
management systems, was undergoing redevelopment, the goal of
1997; Walsh et al., 2005) than a rainforest, which has undisturbed
drainage design was to have the landscape behave hydrologically
soils and a dense and multi-layered vegetation structure consisting
like a forest meadow; the design was called a “natural drainage
of the emergent, canopy, understory and herbaceous cover. A major
system”5. In the tropical context, for example, in Singapore, the
characteristic of the urban water cycle is the much lower retention
model for water cycling should be the rainforest.
of rainfall and greater amount of stormwater runoff. Consequently,
groundwater recharge is reduced and flood risk increased (Paul and
Meyer, 2001). As urban stormwater runoff is loaded with pollutants 5 Seattle Public Utilities website: http://www.seattle.gov/util/EnvironmentConservation/Projects/
and is conveyed quickly by the drainage system to rivers, streams GreenStormwaterInfrastructure/CompletedGSIProjects/HighPointNaturalDrainageSystem/index.htm,
accessed June 24, 2017.
Book 1.indb 121 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Mimicking the natural water cycle assumes that nature has “the drainage code, blue-green infrastructure should be the primary
best design” for hydrological functions. The key is to preserve the measure. This can be achieved by designing vegetated areas as rain
natural flow pathways as much as possible in the site plan and to gardens, bio-swales and/or constructed wetlands that are capable
facilitate interception and evapotranspiration through vegetation of receiving stormwater runoff from adjacent impervious surfaces
cover, detention and retention through multifunctional space for for infiltration, detention and/or retention. To further reduce
water, and infiltration and percolation through healthy soils. stormwater runoff, green roofs should be used as much as possible,
and permeable paving should be used where appropriate. Where
Integrated design strategies necessary, restore the soil that has become compacted in order to
The foremost design strategy is to preserve any existing natural increase infiltration and percolation; better yet, avoid compaction in
the first place by preventing the occurrence of bare ground, using
waterbody, such as streams, ponds and wetlands, to ensure that

the natural capacity of flood conveyance and storage is not soil mixes with good soil texture and avoiding working with heavy
compromised by development. Adjacent natural floodplains (the flat machinery, especially under wet conditions.
area immediately adjacent to a river or a stream that is subject to
periodic flooding) should also be left undeveloped because they play Design targets
an important role in flood attenuation during high-flow events by Since urban development disrupts water cycling mainly through
accommodating a great amount of floodwater; they also contribute the sheer amount of impervious surfaces, mimicking natural water
to groundwater recharge. Prominent topographic depressions cycling requires minimising impervious surfaces in the first place. An
where water naturally tends to accumulate should not be filled. important design target should be the total coverage of permeable
With creative design, the waterbodies, floodplains and natural surfaces. Based on past experiences in the design of Singapore’s
depressions can still function for social-cultural purposes, such as public housing estates, it is possible to have at least 70% of a site
recreation. To facilitate infiltration and percolation, existing healthy covered by permeable surfaces. These include green roofs on
soils and vegetation should be preserved as much as possible, and buildings and hard surfaces with permeable paving.
the use of impervious surfaces should be minimised. To increase
interception and evapotranspiration, the vegetation area should A second design target is vegetation structure, a key design factor
be maximised, and the planting design should mimic the natural controlling water cycling, as it affects interception, evapotranspiration
vegetation structure. and infiltration. A vegetated area in the neighbourhood landscape,
depending on whether it is used directly, can be divided into two
However, hard paving is inevitable in neighbourhood landscapes general types. One is used for “active recreational activities”, i.e.,
for socio-cultural functions. To tackle the stormwater runoff from activities taking place directly on the surface of the vegetated area.
impervious surfaces and meet the design requirements of the An example is a lawn used for picnic or community events. The
other type is not used for active recreational activities. As direct
human access is not necessary, the vegetation structure of this type
of vegetated area should mimic the pre-development ecosystem as
much as possible. For example, in Singapore, in most cases, it should
mimic the structure of a rainforest, to at least include a canopy layer,
understory shrub layer and herbaceous cover.
It is possible for 70% of the total vegetated areas not used for active
recreational activities to have a vegetation structure similar to that
of the pre-development ecosystem. We are not proposing 100%
compliance because some vegetated areas may be too small to
accommodate vegetation with a natural structure, such as bioswales
and rain gardens.
A third target pertains directly to the hydrological functions of a

Fig. 5.16 Permeable paving of an open parking space. neighbourhood landscape. Since the vegetated area is by nature
Book 1.indb 122 4/4/18 12:04 PM

123
Fig. 5.17 Blue-green infrastructure for stormwater management; Tanner Springs Park in Portland, Oregon, USA.
permeable, it is not difficult to design it to be capable of infiltrating, areas multifunctional. For example, a sports field can be graded
detaining or retaining stormwater runoff from nearby impervious lower than the adjacent area to function as a detention basin, where
surfaces in order to reduce or delay peak flow in the waterbody that water will be drained and human access restored after the rain stops.
eventually receives stormwater runoff.
The design team should strive for at least 80% of the total
vegetated area to be designed with these functions for stormwater Theoretically, the more the pattern of water cycling of the
management. Not only can rain gardens, bioswales and constructed neighbourhood landscape approaches that of the pre-development
wetlands function for stormwater management, but other types of ecosystem, the better the performance. However, it is not realistic
vegetated areas can also contribute to it. The key is to make vegetated to expect continuous monitoring of the full suite of relevant
Book 1.indb 123 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Fig. 5.18 Vegetation structure mimicking predevelopment ecosystem; bioswale in Botanic Gardens parking lot, Singapore.
Box 5.5 hydrological functions in a neighbourhood landscape. We therefore

propose a variable as a performance indicator to capture a major
Rainfall Retention Rate (RRR) calculation: result of water cycling: rainfall retention rate (RRR).
RRR = 1-TRO/TR
RRR represents the percentage of the total rainfall volume retained
where TRO is total volume of stormwater runoff flowing out
in the landscape during a certain period (Box 5.5). As the significant
of the neighbourhood, and TR is the total volume of rainfall
increase of stormwater runoff is a major characteristic and a concern
received within the neighbourhood during the calculation
of the typical disrupted urban water cycle, it is reasonable to focus
period.
on the capacity of the neighbourhood landscape to retain rainfall
TRO can be measured at the outlet(s) of the site as a drainage
to prevent it from turning into stormwater runoff and entering the
area. RRR is dimensionless, similar to the idea of runoff
municipal drainage system. The greater the RRR is, the better the
coefficient. However, RRR is proposed as a measure of actual
hydrological performance of the neighbourhood landscape. The
rainfall retention. While RRR is new as a hydrologic indicator,
performance of neighbourhood landscapes in water cycling can be
the underlying logic pertaining to the reduction of stormwater
indicated by average weekly, monthly or yearly RRR, depending
runoff is widely used to assess the effectiveness of BMP/LID/
on the pattern of precipitation.
WSUD facilities (e.g., Rosa et al., 2015).
Book 1.indb 124 4/4/18 12:04 PM

125
Benefits Targets
• Maintenance of an optimal urban water balance as a result 1. >70% of the total site area should be permeable surfaces.
of reduced stormwater runoff by encouraging interception,
2. ≥70% of the total vegetated areas not used for active
evapotranspiration, detention, retention, infiltration and
recreational activities should have vegetation structures
percolation. This supports other water-related services,
similar to that of the pre-development ecosystem.
including flood hazard mitigation, stormwater and
wastewater treatment, water for irrigation, as well as other 3. ≥80% of the total vegetated areas should be designed
services, including heat mitigation and nutrient cycling. for stormwater infiltration, detention and/or retention
to reduce or delay peak flow in the receiving waterbody.
• Protection of aquatic ecosystems from hydrological
disturbance by reducing the amount and frequency of Performance indicators

stormwater runoff discharged directly and quickly to the
waterbody. 1. Rainfall retention rate.

1. Preserve any pre-existing natural waterbody and

topographic depression to maintain the natural capacity
of flood conveyance and storage.
2. Leave the natural floodplain of the waterbody undeveloped
for flood attenuation during high-flow events.
3. Minimise the disturbance to original healthy soils and
vegetation.
4. Minimise the impervious surfaces to facilitate infiltration
and percolation.
5. Maximise the vegetated areas to reduce the occurrence of
stormwater runoff in the first place.
6. Where stormwater runoff would inevitably incur, use blue-
green infrastructure as the primary measure to meet the
(a)
design requirements of the drainage code.
7. Mimic natural vegetation structure to facilitate rainwater
interception, evapotranspiration, infiltration, and perco-
lation.
8. Install green roofs on buildings and other rooftops.
9. Use permeable paving where appropriate.
10. Restore compacted soils where necessary and prevent soil
compaction in the future.
(b)
Fig. 5.19 (a) and (b) Vegetated areas designed as sunken rain gardens to accommodate
stormwater runoff to reduce flooding of adjacent buildings and roads; Tåsinge Plads,
Copenhagen, Denmark.
Book 1.indb 125 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Book 1.indb 126

Fig. 5.20 A flood detention pond that is designed to be multifunctional; Sejong, Seoul, South Korea.
4/4/18 12:04 PM
127
W2 Flood hazard mitigation Liao Kuei-Hsien
A
neighbourhood is subject to fluvial flooding if it is located The landscape service of flood hazard mitigation refers to the
near a stream or river and to coastal flooding if located interception, infiltration, and detention/retention of stormwater and
in the coastal area. In addition, all urbanised areas floodwater, and the buffering of flood waves by riparian zones and
where impervious surfaces dominate the land cover are subject of storm surges by coastal forests. If the neighbourhood landscape
to pluvial flooding because of excessive stormwater runoff. The is capable of delivering this service, not only the neighbourhood
conventional approach to flood hazard mitigation is to resist the itself but also its downstream area would benefit from reduced flood
flood and drain the water elsewhere as quickly as possible. Urban risks. The provision of this landscape service could also help to
rivers and streams are often channelised and the riparian zone reduce the cost of building new or enhancing existing flood control
cleared to increase drainage efficiency; in many cases, levees and/or infrastructures and urban drainage systems.
floodwalls are erected to avoid the overflowing of the river. Urban
The aim of designing for flood hazard mitigation is to create as
coastlines are often armoured by sea walls or dikes. Furthermore,
much space as possible to accommodate floodwater and stormwater.
cities would often build a network of drains and pipes to collect
It is possible to do so in densely populated urban areas. It should be
and remove stormwater runoff as efficiently as possible.
understood that water and urban activities are not always mutually
In recent years, the focus of flood hazard mitigation has shifted exclusive (Liao et al., 2016). The key is to make green and open
from an engineering approach that relies solely on resistance and spaces multifunctional so that besides recreation, they also function
drainage. Much more attention has been paid to “nature-based” or for flood hazard mitigation during a storm event.
“ecosystem-based” solutions (Vignola et al., 2009), or what is called
“soft-engineering” (French, 2006). For example, the important role Integrated design strategies
of a natural floodplain in flood hazard mitigation by accommodating Since the landscape service of flood hazard mitigation is contingent
a large amount of floodwater is now widely recognised. The upon healthy water cycling, all the integrated design strategies for
Netherlands has instituted a “Room for the River” programme along the landscape service of water cycling are applicable here (see the
the Rhine River by setting back the levees and returning farmland previous section for explanations of most of the strategies listed
that had been cultivated for centuries back to natural development. here). In addition, the conservation or restoration of the riparian
Also well-recognised is the ability of mangrove forests and coral reefs zone along both riverbanks is necessary. The riparian zone not
to buffer against storm surge. And in stormwater management, as only acts as a filter to maintain the water quality of the river; it can
mentioned in the previous section on water cycling, we have seen a also dissipate the energy of flood waves. To further mitigate fluvial
paradigm shift towards blue-green infrastructure. flooding, another strategy is river restoration or rehabilitation, if
In sum, to reduce flood risks, taking advantage of natural feasible. If the existing river or stream has been channelised, it
hydrological processes (e.g., detention, retention, and infiltration) can be rehabilitated by restoring its natural planform, instream
and the buffering capacity of the ecosystem is increasingly habitat, riparian zone and floodplain to allow the aquatic ecosystem
advocated. For neighbourhood landscape design, this ecosystem- to behave more naturally and absorb its own flood waves and
based approach to flood hazard mitigation implies making space floodwater. To mitigate coastal flooding, the pre-existing mangrove
for water and ecological restoration of coastal forests. Urban green forest should be preserved; if the mangrove forest is degraded or
and open spaces play a critical role in accommodating floodwater has diminished, it should be restored if possible.
and stormwater to reduce the flooding of more intensively used
spaces, such as buildings and roads.
Book 1.indb 127 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Design targets to be sunken, so as to function as emergency flood detention basins,
where water can be drained and normal function restored soon
Since most integrated design strategies are the same as those for the
after the event. We recommend a target of 50% of the total area
landscape service of water cycling, three of the design targets are also
of green and open spaces (the area not occupied by buildings) to be
the same: permeable surfaces, vegetation structure and hydrological
designed to function as emergency flood detention basins during an
functions (see section on water cycling for an explanation of the
extreme storm event. Second, to address the buffering capacity of
first three targets).
the landscape against storm surge and flood waves, we recommend
There are two additional targets. First, to reduce flood risks during a design target of at least 70% of the total length of coastline to be
extreme storm events, such as typhoons or hurricanes, it is important covered by coastal forests that are either natural or that resemble
to prepare extra space for a lot more water. Green and open spaces the natural vegetation structure. The design team should also target
that are not designed primarily to receive floodwater or stormwater for at least 70% of the total length of riverbank to be covered by
on a regular basis, i.e., spaces other than rain gardens, bioswales, riparian buffers that are either natural or that resemble the natural
constructed wetlands, etc., need to anticipate flooding in the case vegetation structure and width.
of an extreme storm event (Liao et al., 2016). For example, sports
fields, outdoor basketball courts and paved plazas can be designed Performance indicators
The most straightforward indicator of the performance of flood
hazard mitigation is its result: whether the neighbourhood remains

safe during storm events. We recommend two indicators. The
first pertains to the occurrence of floods — the annual average
number of damaging flood events — and the second pertains to
the magnitude of flood damage — the annual total economic loss
caused by flooding.
However, we note that these indicators need to be interpreted with

caution. The fact that there is no flood and no direct economic loss
due to flooding in any given year does not necessarily mean the
neighbourhood landscape performs well in the landscape service
of flood hazard mitigation. It may be due to the “engineering
(a)
service” of the conventional drainage system and flood control
infrastructure. Even if there is no flood control infrastructure on
site, the neighbourhood might still be located within a larger area
collectively protected by flood control infrastructure, such as a
flood-control dam upstream. If flood disasters regularly occur and
economic loss is incurred frequently, even during storm events
that are not necessarily extreme, the neighbourhood landscape
is obviously doing little to mitigate flood hazards. Therefore, the
two indicators are only capable of indicating poor performance.
The indicator of “rainfall retention rate” for the landscape service
of water cycling could be used as an indicator for flood hazard
mitigation, but it can only indirectly indicate the performance in
mitigating pluvial flood hazards.
While it is possible to assess the performance of neighbourhood
landscapes in delivering the landscape service of flood hazard
(b) mitigation by the result, it requires comparing the neighbourhood
to another one with similar hydrological conditions. Unfortunately,
Fig. 5.21 (a) and (b) Green and open spaces in the neighbourhood can be designed to
accommodate water; Augustenborg, Malmo, Sweden. the assessment may be too complicated to be feasible.
Book 1.indb 128 4/4/18 12:04 PM

129
Benefits Targets
• Reduce local and downstream flood risks. 1. ≥70% of the total site area should be permeable surfaces.
2. ≥70% of the total vegetated area not used for active
• Reduce the cost to build new and/or enhance existing
recreational activities should have vegetation structures
drainage system and flood control infrastructure.
similar to that of the pre-development ecosystem.
3. ≥80% of the total vegetated area should be designed
Integrated design strategies for stormwater infiltration, detention and/or retention
to reduce or delay peak flow in the receiving waterbody.
1. Preserve any pre-existing natural waterbody and topo-
graphic depression to maintain the natural capacity of 4. ≥50% of the total area of green and open spaces (area not
flood conveyance and storage. occupied by buildings) should be designed to function as
emergency flood detention basins during extreme storm
2. Leave the natural floodplain of the waterbody undeveloped events.
for flood attenuation during high-flow events.
5. ≥70% of the total length of the coastline within the site
3. Preserve or restore the riparian zone along both river- should be covered by coastal forests that either are natural
banks to buffer against flood waves. or resemble the vegetation structure of a natural forest.
4. Preserve or restore the forest along the coastline to buffer 6. ≥70% of the total length of the riverbank within the site
against storm surges. should be covered by riparia that either are natural or
resemble the natural vegetation structure and width.
5. Minimise the disturbance to original healthy soils and
vegetation. Performance indicators
6. Minimise the impervious surfaces to facilitate infiltration 1. Annual average number of damaging flood events.
and percolation.
2. Annual total direct economic loss due to flooding.
7. Maximise the vegetated areas to reduce the occurrence
3. Rainfall retention rate.
of stormwater runoff
8. Where stormwater runoff will inevitably occur, use blue-

green infrastructure as the primary measure to meet the
design requirements of the drainage code.
9. Mimic natural vegetation structure to facilitate

rainwater interception, evapotranspiration, infiltration
and percolation.
10. Install green roofs on buildings and other rooftops.
11. Use permeable paving where appropriate.
12. Restore compacted soils where necessary and prevent

soil compaction in the future.
13. Rehabilitate the channelised river or stream by restoring

its natural planform, instream habitat, riparian zone and
floodplain.
Fig. 5.22 Even a small roadside planter can be designed to accommodate stormwater runoff;
SE Clay Green Street, Portland, Oregon, USA.
Book 1.indb 129 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Fig. 5.23 Utilise natural processes to slow down and treat stormwater runoff on site before it is discharged into the receiving waterbody; sedimentation basin in Clementi, Singapore.
Book 1.indb 130 4/4/18 12:04 PM

131
W3 Stormwater and domestic wastewater treatment Liao Kuei-Hsien
W
astewater treatment to improve or maintain the water
and involves the natural processes of sedimentation and nutrient

quality of the receiving waterbodies is a major water- uptake by plants. Constructed wetlands are the most studied type of
related urban challenge. Good water quality underpins natural wastewater treatment system; they are reportedly effective
many aspects of human well-being and the delivery of other in removing a range of pollutants and are cost-effective (Gross et
water-related landscape services. In the neighbourhood landscape, al., 2007).
the water quality of the local waterbody affects public health,
Stormwater runoff, particularly the first flush, requires treatment
environmental aesthetics, water recreation and water provision (for
before being discharged into the waterbody because as it
irrigation). In cities of the developed world, wastewater treatment is
flows through different surfaces of the watershed, it picks up

carried out predominantly by a “centralised wastewater treatment
various pollutants, including sediment, nutrients, bacteria and
system”, consisting of a network of sewers and a treatment plant
other pathogens, heavy metals, hazardous contaminants, etc.
at the end of the pipe (Libralato et al., 2012). However, there is
Furthermore, stormwater runoff often has a higher temperature
great interest in the alternative “natural wastewater treatment
and could increase the temperature of the receiving waterbody,
system”, which depends on passive biological-physical-chemical
thereby affecting the growth or survivability of aquatic organisms.
treatment by soil and vegetation (Crites et al., 2014). This type
In some cities, stormwater runoff is treated in a combined sewer
of “decentralised wastewater treatment system” treats raw
system, along with domestic wastewater. But such systems often
wastewater next to the source (Wilderer and Schreff, 2000), instead
come with the problem of combined sewer overflow (CSO)
of transporting it a long distance for treatment.
when a heavy precipitation event overwhelms the capacity of the
Neighbourhood landscapes, of which soil and vegetation are system, resulting in the discharge of raw sewage in the receiving
two major components, can assist in wastewater treatment. The waterbody. The CSO problem has prompted the new paradigm of
maintenance of the water quality of a waterbody is associated with stormwater management and has given rise to increasingly popular
the landscape service of nutrient cycling and water cycling. Up sustainable stormwater management practices such as Low Impact
to a certain limit, a healthy aquatic ecosystem can regulate water Development (LID) and Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD),
quality for itself when it receives polluted discharges from upland as mentioned earlier in the section of water cycling.
and upstream areas. This regulation mechanism, a service provided
In the new paradigm of stormwater management, instead of flowing
by healthy rivers and streams, is largely associated with the riparian
directly into storm drains at high-velocity, stormwater runoff will
zone or riparian buffer as the “first defence” against pollutants from
flow into a rain garden, bioswale or constructed wetland, where
the catchment (Naiman and Decamps, 1997). Therefore, water
the flow is dampened to allow sediments to be trapped and settled
quality in the waterbody requires a healthy aquatic ecosystem
and nutrients to be taken up by the microbes in the roots of the
with a riparian zone, in addition to the planned prevention of the
vegetation.
discharge of untreated stormwater runoff and domestic wastewater.
Domestic wastewater has two streams: blackwater and greywater.
Here, we focus on stormwater runoff and domestic wastewater, two
The former refers to faecal matter and urine from toilets and the
major streams of wastewater generated by urban neighbourhoods.
latter to effluents from kitchen and bathroom sinks, showers, and
The landscape service of stormwater and domestic wastewater
clothes and dish washing machines (Maimon et al., 2010). While
treatment refers to the removal of water-borne pollutants by soil
natural wastewater treatment systems are capable of effectively
and vegetation to improve water quality. This service is particularly
treating both streams of wastewater, we focus on greywater, as on-
associated with nutrient cycling (discussed later in the chapter)
Book 1.indb 131 4/4/18 12:04 PM

site treatment of blackwater might be less acceptable to the public.
Furthermore, as greywater accounts for 50–70% of domestic water
consumption, treated greywater, along with rainwater, has been
considered an alternative water source for non-drinking purposes
(Maimon et al., 2010; Leong et al., 2016). Cities around the world
have increasingly used reclaimed water, mainly treated greywater, for
landscape irrigation. Therefore, treated greywater can potentially
be an additional water source for irrigation in neighbourhood
landscape. Treating greywater on-site would also reduce the burden
on the existing municipal wastewater treatment system.

The aim of designing for stormwater and domestic wastewater
treatment is to make neighbourhood landscape a “self-cleansing
system”, thereby minimising the output of wastewater treated
elsewhere. This aim, however, is challenging to achieve in practice;
nevertheless, the design team could aim to achieve a partial level

of self-cleansing. Given the large number of studies supporting the
effectiveness of wastewater treatment by using natural elements and
processes, the design strategy is simple: use blue-green infrastructure
for stormwater and domestic wastewater treatment.
For stormwater runoff, except for green roofs, most blue-green

infrastructural systems, including rain gardens, bioswales,
constructed wetlands, retention and detention basins, can remove
toxic chemicals, filter sediments, break down bacteria and neutralise
acidic waters (Liao et al., 2017). For greywater, constructed wetlands
are the most used natural treatment systems (Leong et al., 2016),
although other types of natural treatment systems have also been
explored in recent years, for example green walls (Prodanovic et
al., 2017). Some hybrid systems combine rainwater harvesting and
greywater recycling (Leong et al., 2016). In other words, there is
a variety of solutions for integrating wastewater treatment into
neighbourhood landscape design.
Design targets
For stormwater treatment, we recommend a design target of at
least 50% of the total vegetated area to be designed to improve
the quality of stormwater runoff. You might recall that for the
landscape service of flood hazard mitigation, we suggest a target of
at least 80% of the total vegetated area be designed for stormwater
infiltration, detention and/or retention to reduce or delay peak flow
in the receiving waterbody. However, it should be noted that meeting
this target using blue-green infrastructure does not mean that the
entire 80% of the vegetated area will function for stormwater quality Fig. 5.24 Constructed wetland is a type of decentralised, natural treatment system; wetland for
stormwater treatment in Eunpyong, Seoul, South Korea.
Book 1.indb 132 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Book 1.indb 133

133
4/4/18 12:04 PM
treatment. This is because some blue-green infrastructural systems
are designed only for conveyance (e.g., a grass swale) or temporary Benefits
detention (e.g., a sports field functioning as an emergency detention • Protection of local aquatic ecosystems from stormwater
basin). While sedimentation may occur, and hence some degree of runoff pollution by treating it before it eventually makes
water quality treatment might take place, these systems should not its way to the receiving waterbody.
be considered natural wastewater treatment systems. • Reduction of the burden on the existing municipal
Although our recommended target, i.e., 50% of all vegetated area, wastewater treatment system.
to be designed to improve the quality of stormwater runoff seems
high, it is not necessarily difficult to achieve, as most blue-green
infrastructural systems are capable of removing pollutants in the Integrated design strategies
stormwater runoff, as mentioned earlier. This target means the 1. Reduce the need for stormwater quality treatment in
design team should strive to make more than 60% out of the 80% the first place by minimising the alteration of natural
of the total vegetated areas required for stormwater management watershed hydrology. Consider the watershed scale,
function for stormwater quality treatment. upstream-downstream connection, drainage pathway
and locations of sensitive aquatic systems in the design.
In domestic wastewater treatment, a target that is based on the
amount of wastewater to be treated may not be practical because 2. Avoid the use of landscape materials containing heavy
there are multiple considerations when implementing an on- metals, wood preservatives and pesticides to reduce
site greywater treatment system of a certain design capacity; pollutant load in the stormwater treatment systems.
these include potential public resistance, difficulties in meeting 3. Use blue-green infrastructure for stormwater and domestic
municipal code requirements, and overall cost-effectiveness of a wastewater treatment.
decentralised treatment system. Therefore, it is difficult to require
all neighbourhoods to implement a decentralised wastewater Targets
treatment facility. Nevertheless, decentralised domestic wastewater 1. ≥50% of the total vegetated area should be designed for
treatment systems have been successfully implemented in many stormwater quality treatment.
cities and integrated with the green and open spaces around the
buildings. In any case, the design team should try to work with the Performance indicators
community and incorporate natural wastewater treatment systems
1. Percentage of reduction of major pollutants in stormwater
in neighbourhood landscape design whenever the conditions allow.
runoff.
2. Percentage of reduction of major pollutants in greywater.
The performance of this landscape service pertains to the actual
capacity of the neighbourhood landscape in reducing major
pollutants in stormwater runoff and domestic wastewater. For
stormwater treatment, we suggest using the reduction rates in levels
of TSS (total suspended solids), TN (total nitrogen), and TP (total
phosphorus) as indicators. These indicators are also frequently
used to assess the effectiveness of blue-green infrastructure in
stormwater quality treatment. Similarly, for greywater treatment,
we recommend using the reduction rates of TSS, TN, BOD
(biological oxygen demand), COD (chemical oxygen demand) and
faecal coliforms.
Book 1.indb 134 4/4/18 12:04 PM

135
Fig. 5.25 Decentralised wastewater treatment system integrated into open space; wastewater treatment system near a commercial building in Portland, Oregon, USA.
Book 1.indb 135 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Fig. 5.26 On-site rainwater harvesting for irrigation in a community garden; rainwater harvesting cisterns in the Cascades P-Patch in Seattle, Washington, USA.
Book 1.indb 136 4/4/18 12:04 PM

137
W4 Water for irrigation Liao Kuei-Hsien
W
hen natural rainfall is insufficient for the maintenance prevented by, for example, preventing the discharge of untreated
and growth of vegetation in the neighbourhood wastewater and stormwater runoff.
landscape, irrigation is necessary. Since irrigation

While irrigation water does not need to meet the higher standards
water does not require the quality standards of drinking water,
of drinking water, it still requires decent quality. As mentioned in the
alternative sources should be used to conserve potable water.
previous section on stormwater and domestic wastewater treatment,
There are several potential sources of irrigation water within the
a healthy aquatic ecosystem, particularly a healthy riparian zone,
neighbourhood landscape. The freshwater of the waterbody, if
is important in the maintenance of the water quality. It is critical
there is one on site with decent water quality, can be extracted and
to preserve the riparian zone of the existing waterbody and restore
used directly as a source of irrigation water. The waterbody could
it, if degraded. In designing a constructed wetland or other types
be a natural river, stream, lake, pond or wetland, or it could be

of waterbody, it is important to include a riparian zone that is as
artificial, such as a detention or retention pond, or a constructed
wide as possible.
wetland. Stormwater runoff could also be considered an indirect
source for irrigation water, since it will eventually reach the receiving Minimising the disturbances from the watershed in the first
waterbody, after being cleansed by blue-green infrastructure. Water place is equally important for a healthy aquatic ecosystem. In the
from the on-site natural water treatment system, if it includes an urban areas of developed cities where industrial and domestic
open waterbody at the end of the treatment process, can also wastewater is largely controlled, disturbances from the watershed
be used for irrigation. On-site rainwater harvesting is another are associated with the direct discharge of untreated stormwater
mechanism to provide irrigation water. Here, water for irrigation runoff. It degrades the water quality and dramatically alters the
as a landscape service refers to the direct provision of irrigation natural flow regime of the river or stream to the harm of aquatic
water by the waterbody or by rainwater harvesting on site. organisms (Poff et al., 1997; Walsh et al., 2005). To minimise such
disturbances, the impervious surfaces should be minimised to reduce
On-site rainwater harvesting for irrigation is not new; it has been
stormwater runoff; the disturbance of existing healthy soils and
practiced in small-scale agriculture and private gardens throughout
vegetation should also be minimised to maintain the capacity of
history and is now practiced in many urban community gardens.
water cycling and nutrient cycling. Furthermore, sediment input into
Using the water directly from neighbourhood landscape not only
the waterbody should be prevented during construction. Blue-green
conserves potable water but also reduces the water bill. Using the
infrastructure can prevent stormwater runoff from being flushed
local water for irrigation requires an unconventional design of the
quickly into the waterbody, as well as treat it before it eventually
urban irrigation system. The aim is to make water, either from the
enters the waterbody.
waterbody or the rainwater harvesting system, readily available
and easily used. For rainwater harvesting, rainwater cisterns could be strategically
placed at locations near the vegetated area. It is also possible to
Integrated design strategies design a rainwater harvesting facility that is better integrated into
To make water available from the waterbody, the fundamental the landscape and that may even be a form of public art. To increase
thing to do is to protect any existing waterbody from development the capacity of rainwater harvesting, larger tanks can be installed
and from any disturbance that might compromise its water quality in the basements of buildings or underneath paved open spaces.
and quantity. If the existing waterbody is degraded, it should be Placing a tank underneath the vegetated area is not recommended
rehabilitated to a healthy state and its future degradation should be as it will compromise water cycling.
Book 1.indb 137 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Design targets track of the amount of harvested rainwater and/or water extracted
from the waterbody used each time. If a waterbody does not exist
To achieve water conservation, the design team should strive to
and rainwater is the only on-site water source, an indicator that is
make on-site water sufficient for irrigation without the need to use
relatively easier to measure is the total monthly or yearly amount
potable water, except during a drought. To achieve such a target,
of rainwater harvested for irrigation.
it may be necessary to select native plant species that have adapted
to the local precipitation pattern to reduce the need for irrigation
in the first place.
Since the purpose of using on-site water is to reduce the need for
Benefits
potable water, the performance of neighbourhood landscapes in 1. Reduction of potable water consumption to directly
this landscape service can be assessed by the ratio of actual usage contribute to water conservation and indirectly to energy
of on-site water to total usage of irrigation water. The higher the conservation.
ratio, the better the performance. This use of irrigation water can 2. Reduction of the water bill.
be monitored on a weekly or monthly basis. However, this indicator
is challenging to measure, as the maintenance personnel must keep

1. Protect any existing waterbody.
2. Rehabilitate the degraded waterbody and prevent future
degradation.
3. Preserve and/or design a wide riparian zone between the
waterbody and development.
4. Minimise disturbance from the watershed to the aquatic
ecosystem of the waterbody by:
(a) minimising the disturbance of original healthy soil and
vegetation;
(b) minimising the impervious surfaces.
5. Use blue-green infrastructure to reduce the impact of
stormwater runoff.
6. Provide an on-site rainwater harvesting system.
Targets
1. 100% of the irrigation water should be supplied by
rainwater harvesting and/or the freshwater directly from
the waterbody on site.
1. Percentage of actual usage of on-site water out of the total
usage of irrigation water.
2. Total amount of rainwater harvested for irrigation.
Fig. 5.27 Dying epiphytes during a dry spell in Singapore.
Book 1.indb 138 4/4/18 12:04 PM

139
5.6 Flora and fauna

V
egetation is the most visible component
of the neighbourhood landscape and
when used appropriately, supports a
wide range of landscape services, such as provision
of food and support of other living organisms.
These organisms in turn, can help to regulate
pests and support pollination. A key emphasis
of neighbourhood landscape design is therefore
to create conditions which support a high level
of biodiversity. Importantly too, vegetation can
be used to create a favourable microclimate in
neighbourhoods, increase aesthetic values and
provide restorative benefits to urban dwellers.
Book 1.indb 139 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Fig. 5.28 Lush vegetation along a naturalised stream running through a high-density residential estate in Seoul function as habitat for wildlife in the urban environment.
Book 1.indb 140 4/4/18 12:04 PM

141
F1 Provision of habitat for biodiversity Tan Puay Yok
I
t is widely acknowledged that urbanisation, urban population just a matter for conservationists or planners concerned with
growth and urban lifestyles have had and continue to have the management of protected nature areas or rural landscapes.
an immense impact on both urban and natural ecosystems. Unabated loss of biodiversity arising from human activities
Such drivers of change affect human well-being and have led to a has reciprocal effects on humans in urban areas that are now
loss of biodiversity, i.e., the “variety of life forms from the genetic better understood. This has led to global advocacy over the past
to species and community levels” (McDonald, Marcotullio, and two decades to promote biodiversity in urban areas, or “urban
Güneralp, 2013). At a global scale, biodiversity loss has occurred biodiversity” (Muller, 2010), as an essential component of urban
at an unprecedented rate, and the drivers of biodiversity loss have living. These are directed at conserving biodiversity as an ethical
continued to intensify (Butchart et al., 2010). response (Dearborn and Kark, 2010) and at providing direct and
indirect benefits to humans.
The consequences of biodiversity loss are numerous. First,
biodiversity loss reduces ecosystem functions, such as resource One direct benefit is that biodiversity promotes human well-being.
capture, biomass production, decomposition and nutrient cycling. A There is evidence that exposure to greater diversity of microbes
recent review (Cardinale et al., 2012) points to increasing evidence present in green spaces can lead to positive immunological benefits
that this statement is applicable across different natural ecosystems for improved human health (Hough, 2014; Rook, 2013). Exposure
and groups of organisms. Second, global biodiversity loss is now to higher biodiversity in urban green spaces is also associated with
recognised as a major environmental driver of change. While positive psychological responses (Dallimer et al., 2012; Fuller et
climate change as a global environment stressor has been a focal area al., 2007).
of scientific and policy studies, recent evidence points to biodiversity
An indirect benefit is that urban biodiversity can promote ecological
loss as a key environmental driver in its own right (Cardinale et
functions in urban areas. As a city is also an ecosystem, albeit
al., 2012). The effects of biodiversity loss on primary productivity
an ecosystem with highly altered ecological and biogeochemical
rivals that of other global environmental drivers, such as climate
processes compared to a natural ecosystem, its attributes can be
warming, drought, elevated CO2, fire, etc. Third, biodiversity is
defined using the same set of state factors used to characterise
not just a result of ecosystem processes; it also governs ecosystem
natural ecosystems (Pickett et al., 2011; Tan and Hamid, 2014). The
processes, and its loss reduces the stability of ecosystems to shocks
interactions between urban biodiversity and other factors, such as
or stress. There is also evidence that a high level of biodiversity
soil, time, climate, human and the built component, etc., influence
is needed to prevent ecosystems from being adversely affected by
the state of ecological functions. This is supported by studies
natural and anthropogenic stresses, e.g., those arising from temporal
demonstrating that higher biodiversity can enhance ecological
and spatial variation of temperature, precipitation, human activities,
functions of urban landscapes (cited in Chen, 2017; Lundholm,
disease outbreak, etc. (Cardinale et al., 2012; Naeem et al., 2012;
2015). Another important aspect is the role of urban habitats, such
Steudel et al., 2012). It is therefore prudent to treat conservation
as urban farms, to support pollinators (Lin et al., 2017). However,
of biodiversity as crucial to maintaining urban ecosystems’ ability
more empirical studies are needed to generalise the dependence of
to deliver benefits for humans (Naeem et al., 2012).
ecological functions on urban biodiversity.
Given the important roles of biodiversity in ecosystem functioning,
the provision of habitats for biodiversity is considered a main
supporting ecosystem service. Biodiversity loss, however, is not
Book 1.indb 141 4/4/18 12:04 PM

The heightened urgency for global action to conserve biodiversity
is illustrated by the formation of the United Nations Convention
on Biological Diversity and its recent efforts to encourage cities
to monitor their biodiversity conservation efforts using the Cities
Biodiversity Index (Chan and Djoghlaf, 2009). A wide range
of programmes and organisations, including The Economics
of Ecosystems and Biodiversity, ICLEI-Local Governments for
Sustainability, and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization,
are directed at the promotion of urban biodiversity worldwide
(Wilkinson, Sendstad, Parnell and Schewenius, 2013). Urban
biodiversity has gained “converts” in many cities worldwide

(Blaustein, 2013).
Neighbourhood landscapes should obviously play a role in

enhancing biodiversity. The aim of designing habitats for
biodiversity in neighbourhood landscape is to support the capacity
of neighbourhoods to contribute to biodiversity conservation or
enhancement goals of the city. While neighbourhood landscapes

are generally too small to support viable populations of large
organisms, their role in contributing to overall biodiversity should
not be underestimated. Current scientific evidence points to the
Fig. 5.29 Long-grass areas maintained in an urban park in Portland, Oregon, create habitats
role of both large and small green spaces in supporting biodiversity,
for birds.
with each type of green space playing different roles within a city
Box 5.6 (Werner and Kelcey, 2017).
Spatial patterns of green spaces in cities can be represented by

Landscapes as the concept of “patch-matrix” (Norton, Evans, and Warren,
Mosaic of Patch- 2016; Werner and Kelcey, 2017) (see Box 5.6). In this model, the
Corridor and Matrix neighbourhood landscapes are small green areas embedded in the
Landscapes in urban or urban matrix. Recent studies now support the notion that enhancing
metropolitan regions can be the quality of habitats of such small green spaces within the matrix,
viewed as consisting of green and enhancing the physical and functional connectivity between
areas of various shapes and green patches are ways to support biodiversity at the city scale.
sizes (patches), and linear These approaches should be conceived as part of a city-wide strategy
patches (corridors) may connect two or more larger patches. and physical plan, such as the ecological network currently being
The patches are embedded in an inhospitable or less hospitable developed in Singapore (Hamid and Tan, 2017). A neighbourhood
matrix which generally does not function as habitat. This landscape that is rich in biodiversity provides direct benefits to urban
concept has been useful in generating strategies for increasing dwellers by exposing them to a variety of life forms, and indirect
biodiversity, namely, increasing habitat quality of patches or benefits by supporting species that perform ecological functions,
corridor, fostering connectivity between patches or increasing such as bees for pollination for urban agriculture or plants in rain
the permeability of the matrix by the increasing presence of gardens that help to treat stormwater runoff.
vegetation (such as green roofs, green walls, pocket green spaces,
street plantings, etc.). Small neighbourhood landscapes can be Integrated design strategies
conceived as “stepping stones”; as patches in closer proximity Overall, design should aim to create conditions in neighbourhood
allow organisms to move across the landscape in the absence landscapes to function as habitats to support biodiversity within
of a contiguous corridor. the neighbourhood and in areas adjacent to the neighbourhood.
Book 1.indb 142 4/4/18 12:04 PM

143
The foremost strategy is to protect existing green spaces with
high habitat quality and biodiversity. Information on areas with
biodiversity conservation importance can be obtained from
national biodiversity or conservation authorities, or if necessary,
determined from biodiversity impact assessments conducted for
large developments or sensitive areas. Site analysis should include
an evaluation of the neighbourhood landscape’s potential to be
part of a larger ecological network, if such a network has already
been developed. If the potential is high, it should be designed to
facilitate movement of flora and fauna across the larger landscape.
That is, the neighbourhood landscapes should become “stepping Fig. 5.30 Nest boxes on a green roof in Stockholm, Sweden to act as habitat for birds.
stones” (see Box 5.6), improving the permeability of the urban
matrix for movement.
Design should also undertake the ecological restoration of remnants

of ecosystems to increase their habitat quality. These remnant
ecosystems could include maturing secondary forests, riparian
vegetation, woodlands, mangroves or natural wetlands. Related to

this strategy is the protection of specimens, such as mature trees, or
keystone species such as Ficus species in the tropics. Such specimens
should be conserved and incorporated into the design to allow their
ecological functions to be sustained. In considering the composition
of the landscape, whenever possible, a diverse vegetation structure
Fig. 5.31 Fruiting tree in winter in Tokyo, Japan attracts birds.
which mimics the natural habitat should be provided. For instance,
in the rainforest, such a structure will consist of a tree canopy with
a shrub layer and ground cover. Such tiered structures and the mix Box 5.7
of trees, shrubs and ground cover of herbaceous species have been
shown to favour higher biodiversity in urban green spaces. Related Resources for Selection of Flora to Support
to this strategy is the use of diverse plant species in the landscapes Different Faunal Groups
rather than a standard palette of common ornamental species. An There are numerous online resources for selecting urban
additional strategy is to increase the heterogeneity of ecosystem plants to support different fauna types. For instance, see:
types to support a wider range of biodiversity in neighbourhoods.
For instance, it is possible to insert wooded areas, stream or riparian • Flora and Fauna Web. Provides information on tropical
vegetation, or constructed wetlands within neighbourhoods to plants attracting birds, butterflies and caterpillars.
increase the diversity of ecosystems. https://florafaunaweb.nparks.gov.sg/Home.aspx,
accessed May 15, 2017.
To support the resource needs of organisms identified as important,
the deliberate use of plant species which are food sources for fauna, • World Bee Project — Advisory Sheets. Provides
including those that are specific for supporting a wide range of information on creating habitats for bees. http://
pollinators like bees, birds and small mammals, is recommended. worldbeeproject.org/advisory-sheets/, accessed May
See Box 5.7 for the resources available for species selection. 15, 2017.
Additional strategies include designing landscapes to allow natural • City of Vancouver. Bird Friendly Design Guidelines
succession to take place, such that the composition of plants within Explanatory Note (2014). http://vancouver.ca/
the landscapes changes organically over time. This means allowing files/cov/bird-friendly-strategy-design-guidelines-
spontaneous vegetation to develop and be part of the natural draft-2014-09-01.pdf, accessed May 15, 2017.
succession processes. Such landscapes can also avoid the intensive
Book 1.indb 143 4/4/18 12:04 PM

maintenance needed to maintain the originally planted landscape as a high priority, maximising the total amount and diversity of
composition, or landscapes designed with geometric patterns. unaltered land cover, especially that near water. These studies
Recent studies also suggest that spontaneous urban vegetation support the long-standing understanding that species number is
supports higher biodiversity. However, low maintenance does not strongly influenced by habitat area (Rozensweig, 1995). Therefore,
imply “no maintenance”, as all designed landscapes require periodic large remnant patches of vegetation of high biodiversity value
maintenance. This is especially important to prevent invasive species should be left as intact as possible.
or those which are fire-prone from overwhelming a landscape. See
Box 5.8 for suggestions on establishing low maintenance landscapes.
At the city scale, there are numerous questions on the most Box 5.8
important determinants of biodiversity in urban areas, including the

area of native vegetation to be protected, the reduction of barriers
Resources for Designing Low Maintenance
to the movement of species within the urban matrix, the efficacy
Landscapes and Managing Spontaneous
of ecological corridors, the role of microclimatic conditions, the
Vegetation
proximity to water sources, the effects of roads, etc. • Hwang, Y. H. (2015). Vegetation: Transforming
manicured lawns into selectively maintained biodiverse
A common question concerns the threshold conservation level of gardens. Sustainable Landscape Maintenance.
a vegetated area for biodiversity conservation to be effective. There
Singapore: Centre for Urban Greenery and Ecology,

does not appear to be consensus, but recent studies by Beninde, pp. 108–113.
Veith and Hockkirch (2015) and Gagné et al. (2015) suggest the most
• Low Maintenance Plants for South Florida. http://
important factors for biodiversity within cities are vegetation patches
miami-dade.ifas.ufl.edu/fyn-publications/index.shtml,
and ecological corridors, supported by appropriate vegetation
accessed May 1, 2017.
structures favourable to biodiversity. Gagné et al. (2015) highlight,
Fig. 5.32 Fruiting shrub on a street planting verge is a source of food for urban birds. Fig. 5.34 Common palm in a high-rise apartment in Singapore is a nesting site for urban birds.
Fig. 5.33 Green linkway links patches in a high-density neighbourhood in Seoul, South Korea. Fig. 5.35 Spontaneous vegetation creates a meadow-like effect in a newly developed district in
Turin, Italy.
Book 1.indb 144 4/4/18 12:04 PM

145
Design targets
The targets for designing neighbourhood landscapes to support Integrated design strategies
biodiversity are related to conservation of existing biodiversity-rich 1. Conserve areas with high habitat quality and biodiversity.
areas and creating favourable conditions for biodiversity in newly 2. Evaluate the potential of neighbourhood landscapes as
designed landscapes. A key target is to ensure the conservation of part of a larger ecological network, and if feasible, design
all remnant vegetation patches identified as having high biodiversity neighbourhood landscapes as stepping stones or part of a
value based on regional, national or city level biodiversity plans. corridor to link neighbourhood landscapes with regional
A second target is to reduce the inhospitable nature of the biodiversity hotspots to enhance landscape connectivity
urban matrix by using neighbourhood landscapes as habitats for for flora and fauna movement.
biodiversity. Where neighbourhood landscapes are not used for 3. Enhance habitat quality of remnant ecosystems.
recreational functions, for instance, buffer zones at the peripheral of
4. Protect individual plant specimens, such as keystone
residential estates, inaccessible green roofs, etc., they can be designed
species, or landscape features which have high habitat value
as habitats for wildlife. We recommend that 70% of the landscapes
and incorporate them into the planting scheme.
not designed for active recreational uses can be deliberately designed
5. Design the vegetation structure to mimic the natural
with plant types supporting biodiversity. This design consideration
habitat.
should be considered together other landscape services, such as
water cycling, storm and domestic wastewater treatment, etc., to 6. Diversify plant species, avoid invasive species and, where
deliver multiple services in the same space. appropriate, use native species.
7. Diversify types of ecosystems.
Performance indicators 8. Use plant species that are food sources for fauna (see Box
Performance indicators should monitor the diversity of landscape 5.7).
types (forested, open field, constructed wetlands, grassland, etc.), 9. Use plant species that support pollinators (see Box 5.7).
as well as the diversity of flora and fauna observed in them. These 10. Provide adequate spaces to allow growth of spontaneous
indicators will need to be compared over time, or to the same vegetation and natural succession.
indicators in similar landscapes.
11. Design a planting scheme that requires minimal mainte-
nance.
Targets
1. 100% of the areas identified as having high habitat
values based on biodiversity conservation objectives or
biodiversity impact assessment should be protected from
Benefits development.
• Provide direct benefits for urban dwellers, as a higher level 2. ≥70% of vegetated area not used for recreational purposes
of biodiversity in the everyday living environment can lead should be designed to function as wildlife habitat.
to improved physical and mental well-being.
• Improve ecological functions and landscape services of Performance indicators
neighbourhood landscapes by supporting pollinators, 1. Index for diversity of landscape types (e.g. Shannon
managing urban hydrology and enhancing educational diversity index).
quality of the landscapes. 2. Diversity of species in the landscape.
Book 1.indb 145 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Book 1.indb 146

Fig. 5.36 Dragonflies are predators of mosquito larvae.
4/4/18 12:04 PM
147
F2 Mosquito control Hwang Yun Hye
A
n important ecosystem service provided by natural changes in environmental conditions, such as cultivated swamps
ecosystems is the regulation of pest and diseases. There with warmer temperature in the highlands (Lindblade et al., 2000).
is mounting evidence that richness of wildlife has a role
in influencing productivity of agriculture and in decreasing the Integrated design strategies
spread of wildlife pathogens to humans (Diaz et al., 2005). For A strategy for mosquito control through neighbourhood landscape
this service, we focus on the role of neighbourhood landscapes in design is to provide habitats for mosquito predators, such as
regulating the population of mosquitoes. larvivorous fish, dragonflies, insects, amphibians, birds, bats
Urbanisation and land-use change cause significant terrestrial and copepods (Murdoch et al., 1985). Dragonflies, in particular,
environmental changes, and these changes are often accompanied have received considerable scientific investigation, and there is
by the proliferation of new larval habitats and mosquito-borne growing scientific support for their role in the biological control
disease transmissions in anthropogenically-modified environments of mosquitoes (Singh, Dhiman, and Singh, 2003; Shaalan et al.,
(Norris, 2004). Mosquito bites are more than a nuisance for urban 2009). To create habitats for dragonflies, ponds in neighbourhood
dwellers, as mosquito-borne infectious diseases, such as malaria, landscapes can incorporate a variety of aquatic plant types to attract
dengue haemorrhagic fever, Zika, Chikungunya, yellow fever, etc., dragonflies (Goertzen and Suhling, 2013). Enhancing the diversity
pose serious threats to human health (Reiter, 2001). These diseases of other functional groups of predators such as larvivorous fish
are considerable public health problems in many cities worldwide, will also help diversify the food web to regulate mosquito density
especially in the tropics, leading to considerable efforts by public (Knight et al., 2003).
health agencies to manage them. Methods that have been used Although not strictly considered a neighbourhood landscape service,
include chemical means, such as large-scale open area fogging a logical approach to mosquito control is to avoid creating conditions
and larvicides, non-chemical means to reduce mosquito breeding which lead to mosquito breeding in the first place. Various studies
grounds, such as oiling and the prevention of water ponding, have identified a wide range of factors affecting the abundance of
and biological means, such as the use of predatory species and adult mosquito and mosquito larvae in urban areas, such as types of
pathogenic microorganisms. land use and extent of vegetation cover (Ferraguti et al., 2016), water
The aim of designing neighbourhood landscapes to control the quality (Gratz, 1999), hydrological patterns, vegetation structures
mosquito population is to create conditions in landscapes that (Knight et al., 2003) and microclimatic characteristics (Wong and
support biological control by encouraging predatory species of Jim, 2017). For instance, wetland conditions, such as the proportion
mosquitoes. This may seem counter intuitive, as there is a perception of the area that is shaded, the proportion with vegetation, the depth
that landscapes, especially those with high vegetation density, are and area of the wetland, and the bacteria and pH level, influence
associated with growing mosquito populations. In reality, however, the presence of mosquitoes (Leisnham et al., 2005). Within the
native forests have, on average, lower mosquitoes densities than urban landscape, features such as vegetation structure, amount of
urban areas (Leisnham et al., 2005), and urban green roofs have impervious surfaces and microclimatic conditions, are associated
been shown to have fewer mosquitoes than bare roofs (Wong and with adult mosquito abundance (Landau and van Leeuwen, 2012).
Jim, 2016). Rather, the mosquito population rises in areas with Where waterbodies are created in neighbourhood landscapes, it is
poor sanitation (Carlson and Knight, 1987), in homogeneous urban critical to ensure that stagnant conditions do not develop, and a
habitats with fewer predators (Gratz, 1999), or in the context of healthy aquatic system that can support fish and dragonflies should
Book 1.indb 147 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Fig. 5.37 Dragonfly in rain garden in residential estate
be a priority in the designing of waterbodies. More precisely, it is Performance indicators

important to prevent the condition where mosquito populations
increase in shallow wetlands with stagnant water (Greenway et al., To monitor the performance of this landscape service, the
ultimate outcome is the mosquito population abundance in
2003), degraded storm sewer systems with stagnant water, dense
the neighbourhood, including male and female composition,
canopy vegetation (Knight et al., 2003), homogeneous dense short
and temporal or seasonal changes in population. However, in
shrubs, vegetation detritus and tree holes that are container habitats
urban conditions, mosquito abundance is also dependent on
(Gardner et al., 2013). A related strategy is to avoid the use of plants anthropogenic factors, such as the role of individual habits (e.g.,
with receptacles or thick axils that may trap water. littering) and the prevalence of breeding sites in households,
construction sites and other non-vegetated spaces. Therefore, it
is difficult to attribute mosquito population figures directly to the
effectiveness of landscapes, or the lack of them, in providing the
landscape service of mosquito control. Nevertheless, at a minimum,
mosquito abundance can be monitored within the neighbourhood
landscape.
Book 1.indb 148 4/4/18 12:04 PM

149

• Reduce population of mosquitoes, which are a nuisance, 1. Provide habitats for species that prey on mosquitoes, such
and vectors of mosquito-borne diseases. as fish, insects and amphibians.
• Provide educational opportunities for residents to learn 2. Avoid designing stagnant water in the landscape.
biological control of mosquito populations. 3. Avoid plants that have receptacles or thick axils to trap
• Healthy aquatic system adds biodiversity conservation value water.
and stormwater management functions in landscapes.
1. Mosquito population in neighbourhoods.
REPELLENTS PREDATORS HABITAT

1. Serai 8. Dragonfly
Cymbopogon citratus Anisoptera
2. Curry tree 9. Mosquitofish

Murraya koenigii Gambusia affinis
3. Neem tree 10. Common

Azadirachta indica hourglass tree frog
Polypaedates cruciger
4. Milkbush 11. Salamander

Euphorbia tirucalli (larvae)
Caudata
5. Holy Basil 12. Mangrove Blue Pisang raja Tube sedge Alligator flag
Ocimum tenuiflorum Flycatcher Musa acuminata Lepironia articulata Thalia genticulata
Cyornis rufigastra
Preferred roost of whisk- Provides perch for Provides perch for
ered myotis bat dragonflies; helps dragonflies; helps young
young dragonflies climb dragonflies climb out of
6. Catnip 13. Cyclopoid out of the water the water
Nepeta cataria copepod
Megacyclops viridis
Bat box Water lily Golden bamboo
(Man-made roost) Victoria amazonica Schizostachyum brachycladum
Mounted on tall trees or nearby Provides perch for Preferred roost of bamboo bats
7. Lantana 14. Whiskered buildings to provide roost for frogs and other (Tylonycteris robustula/
Lantana Myotis microbats such as Asiatic Yellow amphibians Tylonycteris pachypus)
Myotis muricola House Bat (Scotophilus kuhlii
castaneus)
Fig. 5.38 Plant repellents, predators and design recommendation for mosquito control.
Book 1.indb 149 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Book 1.indb 150

Fig. 5.39 HDB community garden, Jalan Damai, Singapore.
4/4/18 12:04 PM
151
F3 Fresh produce Hwang Yun Hye
F
ood is a tangible benefit that ecosystems provide for Food production is thus evolving to form a relationship with urban
humanity. More than 40% of the earth’s land surface is settlements, with physical, social, economic and political impacts
used for agriculture, and crops collectively constitute a at various scales (Imbert, 2015). Results from a growing volume
large terrestrial biomass (Foley et al., 2005). However, urbanisation of research is now promulgating best practices to advance urban
and suburban expansion have led to the loss of agricultural lands agriculture, including more sustainable practices with an ecological
and decoupled natural resources from food production (Godfray approach to increase the biodiversity of urban food systems
et al., 2010), which, when combined with climate change, can (Lawson, 2005; McClintock, 2010), and integrate food production
threaten food production to the extent that a global food shortage into sustainable urban land management goals by converting
may develop by 2050 (Nelleman et al., 2009). Exacerbating the underutilised spaces into edible backyards, productive rooftops,
problem is the fact that about 30% of food is now wasted because multi-community gardens and productive schools (Gorgolewski,
of distributional inequalities or mismatched food preferences Komisar, and Nasr, 2011; Specht et al., 2014).
Deutsch, Dyball, and Steffen, 2013). Such global trends in food
The relative importance of the various benefits of urban agriculture
production and distribution, along with concerns about food
depends on the socio-cultural and socio-economic context of
security and the impacts of agriculture on the environment,
cities. In the context of high-density, developed cities, the need
have led to more interest in producing food in urban regions,
to contribute a significant percentage of the total volume of food
or “urban agriculture”. Urban agriculture has also been driven
consumed may not be the prime driver. Education (Tate, 2001),
by a range of other motivating factors, such as improving yields
biophilic benefits (Beatley, 2011), cultivation of a healthy lifestyle,
by intensifying land use, ensuring the physical proximity of food
and community building (Lyson, 2012) are likely to be the more
production to urban consumers or markets, increasing cropping
important considerations.
efficiency, integrating multiple functions of space, reducing waste
and minimising the environmental impacts of food production
(Lovell, 2010).
Urban agriculture is now suggested to be able to complement local

urban economic conditions and ecosystems in different positive
ways with many cities promoting them actively (see Box 5.9). For
instance, while a decline in biodiversity is often linked to intensive
agricultural production in the rural context (Butler, Vickery, and
Norris, 2007), urban agriculture can enhance urban biodiversity
(Brussaard et al., 2010; Lin, Philpott, and Jha, 2015) and contribute
to carbon sequestration and storage in urban areas (Lal, 2010).
Urban agriculture in the form of community gardens also provides
numerous social services; they can act as convivial spaces, cultural
spaces, inclusive spaces, restorative spaces and democratic spaces
creating a resilient community (Hou, 2017).
Book 1.indb 151 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Box 5.9
Seoul as an Agro-City
http://english.seoul.go.kr/policy-information/economy/
economy-for-the-people/2-seoul-city-agriculture/, accessed
November 1, 2017.
Seoul has developed a comprehensive plan to promote urban

agriculture, including plans for integrating urban agriculture

with the green economy, creating space for agriculture and
holding educational, training and promotional events to bring
the masses closer to urban agriculture.
Urban Agriculture in Japan

https://unu.edu/publications/articles/japan-s-urban-
agriculture-what-does-the-future-hold.html, accessed
November 1, 2017.
Although it is a highly industrialised country, Japan has a

long history of urban agriculture. It accounts for one-third
of the country’s agricultural output. Urban farmers comprise
25% of all farming households. Even in Tokyo, one of
the densest cities in the world, local agriculture produces
enough vegetables to feed about 700,000 urban dwellers.
The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan
recognises multiple roles of urban agriculture for the city, and
develops new concepts and innovations to promote urban
agriculture, including technological innovations, financing
mechanisms, and the integration of urban agriculture into
urban renewal plans for cities.
Community in Bloom Initiatives, Singapore

https://www.nparks.gov.sg/gardening/community-in-
bloom-initiative, accessed November 1, 2017.
The Community in Bloom Initiatives (CBI) of Singapore

aims to foster a community spirit through gardening activities
across the city island. As of now, over 1,000 community
gardens have been established, mainly in public housing
estates or school campuses, and over 20,000 residents, young
and old alike, are engaged in cultivating fresh produce, whilst
enjoying healthy activity.
Book 1.indb 152 4/4/18 12:04 PM

153

Overall, designs for the landscape service of fresh produce should
seek to provide spaces for communities or individual residents to
grow and exchange edible plants. Such spaces include ground-level
community gardens, balcony gardens, street markets and edible
corridors. The purpose of providing an opportunity to cultivate
edible plants is not only to grow food to consume but also to foster
community bonds.
Design strategies include incorporating habitats that support

pollinators, such as using fruiting and flowering species as materials
for neighbourhood landscapes. In addition, in a high-density
neighbourhood where urban dwellers cannot intensively manage
farming, it is necessary to choose spatially efficient and cost-efficient
edible plants that require less labour and space.
Given the multiple social benefits of community gardens,

neighbourhood landscapes should incorporate them whenever
possible to provide opportunities for the appreciation of the
productive landscape, foster social well-being and enhance
community cohesion for all residents, not just for those interested in
food production. To support community gardens, developing in-situ
organic composting, reducing chemical fertilisers and setting up a
rainwater harvesting system to minimise the use of potable water
are fundamental strategies of ecologically sustainable management
practices (SITES, 2014). Another strategy is to draw a plan for
the operation of the productive landscape, including manpower
allocation and resource management. For example, getting skilful
advisors involved at the initial set-up stage would ensure basic
knowledge is delivered to individual gardeners, increasing their
ability to manage edible plants in the long run. It is also preferable
to locate food production spaces near individual housing units to
allow the space to be accessible and to support farming activities
as a part of everyday life. The last strategy is to provide ancillary
facilities, such as farmers’ markets and outdoor kitchens, for
residents to share, exchange, or sell fresh produce, to encourage
the participation in farming.
Fig. 5.40 Resident gardeners, HDB community garden, Jalan Damai, Singapore.
Book 1.indb 153 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Fig. 5.41 Farmers’ market in a neighbourhood, (creadits: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl).
Fig. 5.42 Urban farming in a neighbourhood, (credits: Dongsimwon Design Corp.).
Book 1.indb 154 4/4/18 12:04 PM

155
Design targets
Benefits
There are two targets for this service. While some landscape
• Contribute to nutritional needs of urban dwellers and to
projects in the low-density residential context can dedicate a
food security of cities.
minimum of 10% of the vegetative area to food production (SITES,
2014), under high-density conditions, a more achievable target • Provide a source of income and contribute to developing
is having community gardens in more than 5% of the vegetated a green economy in cities.
area. The second target, allocating a food growing space to every • Provide a range of social services, such as fostering
neighbourhood, is intended to promote active gardening to achieve individual and community well-being by encouraging a
a healthy lifestyle. The size of a gardening area may be subject healthy lifestyle and community interactions.
to neighbourhood size and structure, but we suggest a minimum • As a type of urban green space, enhance urban biodiversity
target of one dedicated area per neighbourhood under high-density and provide other forms of landscape services, such as
conditions. There should also be proper infrastructure to support supporting pollinators.
food growing, including an accessible water source for irrigation,
proper drainage system and composting facilities, as well as trainers,
resources and other facilities in the community.
Possible performance indicators include the annual yield of fruits
and vegetables that are produced within the site and the number
of people or households who are active in food production.
Fig. 5.43 Green roof at Chinese University of Hong Kong, AIT. Fig. 5.44 Community farm in a residential estate in Tokyo, Japan.
Book 1.indb 155 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Integrated design strategies Targets
1. Incorporate fruit trees in landscape to support pollinators. 1. >5% of the vegetated area should be dedicated for
2. Select edible plants that require minimal maintenance community gardening.
(e.g. perennial vegetables/fruits) and provide other 2. ≥1 dedicated area per neighbourhood.
functions (e.g. shade, medicinal, aesthetic, etc.).
3. Design community gardens integrated in the surrounding Performance indicators
landscape.
1. Annual yield, e.g., fruit and vegetables generated within
4. Design to promote ecologically-friendly farming practices the site in tons/year.
in the community garden.

2. Number of residents active in growing food within
5. Establish initial operational plan for a community neighbourhoods.
garden, including identification of lead gardeners and
managers, plot allocation, maintenance and sharing plan.
6. Provide space within and adjacent to individual housing
units for fresh produce.
7. Design ancillary spaces and facilities (e.g. farmers’

markets) to encourage urban farming.
Fig. 5.45 Composting facility at P-Patch community garden, South Lake Union Cascade, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Book 1.indb 156 4/4/18 12:04 PM

157
5.7 Outdoor comfort
O
utdoor comfort refers to the overall atmospheric
conditions of the environment that can affect
people’s state of physical well-being. It is strongly

influenced by the urban climate, which refers to atmospheric
conditions encountered in urban areas in contrast to the
surrounding less built-up or rural areas. Outdoor comfort
is determined by environmental conditions consisting of
temperature, wind, air quality, and humidity, which are
influenced by numerous factors including urban landscapes,
primarily through the influence of vegetation and water. The

emphasis here in designing for outdoor comfort is to leverage
on natural processes of shading and evapotranspiration to
mitigate the occurrence of warmer conditions in built-up
areas of the neighbourhood. Neighbourhood landscapes can
also be designed through the use of vegetation and landscape
forms to mitigate noise pollution.
Book 1.indb 157 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Book 1.indb 158

Fig. 5.46 People resting in the shade provided by trees in Jamison Square, Portland, Oregon, USA.
4/4/18 12:04 PM
159
C1 Heat mitigation Hwang Yun Hye
T
he higher temperatures experienced in cities compared in cities. For smaller sites, the strategic placement of trees within a
to the surrounding less built-up areas, a phenomenon park in association with activity areas to improve thermal comfort
known as the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect, is a well- (Hwang, Lum, and Chang, 2015), and use of tree shades to reduce
recognised urban phenomenon. The UHI effect is augmented by the cooling loads of buildings (Balogun, Morakinyo, and Adegun,
changes in land use and land cover during urbanisation, especially 2014) have also been suggested. These studies all point to the
the replacement of vegetated areas with hard surfaces and a dense positive effects of greenery; despite some remaining uncertainties,
matrix of buildings (Akbari, Pomerantz, and Taha, 2001), the the effects of vegetation, at least at the local scale, seem strong
dense urban morphology which restricts natural ventilation and (Bowler et al., 2009).
net loss of long-wave radiation (Erell et al., 2011) and the high
The aim of designing neighbourhood landscapes for heat
anthropogenic heat from motorised vehicles, air conditioners,
mitigation is to leverage on the positive benefits of vegetation in
factories and other industrial activities.
mitigating temperature increases in the built-up environment of
The UHI effect has many adverse consequences, including direct neighbourhoods. As there are two distinct mechanisms responsible
human health impacts due to reduced thermal comfort, reduced for the effects of greenery in heat reduction, i.e., shading by vegetation
personal activity, and increased heat stress (Yang, Wong, and Jusuf, canopies, and evaporative cooling during evapotranspiration (Oke
2013), and indirect effects, for example, on air pollution (Filleul et et al., 1989), specific design strategies can optimise their use.
al., 2006). UHI may even be associated with crimes and aggression,
as these are associated with higher ambient temperatures (Anderson,
1989). Finally, UHI increases energy consumption because of the
need to cool buildings; this, in turn, contributes to increased carbon We propose eight design strategies, with a focus on a high-density
emission from fossil fuel combustion (Akbari et al., 2001). residential context. A key strategy is to assess and take advantage of
existing wind corridors to allow good ventilation. Wind corridors are
Coping with high temperatures in urban areas is now recognised important for improving thermal comfort in hot and humid cities
as one of the most serious environmental challenges facing cities, (Mochida and Lun, 2008), and the assessment of wind corridors, for
particularly from the perspective of high temperature effects instance through computational fluid dynamics assessment, suggests
on human health in developing countries and cities (Campbell- the appropriate placement of buildings or tall and dense vegetation
Lendrum and Corvalán, 2007). As a result, cities are making (Yu and Hien, 2009). A wind corridor can also be a multifunctional
considerable efforts to alleviate UHI and mitigate its impacts. space supporting fauna movement, a recreational space for residents,
Several approaches have been suggested, such as using light coloured and an area for water catchment and trade.
surfaces and cool pavements (Santamouris, 2013) or vegetation.
As shade is the most critical factor in reducing temperatures in
The last approach, vegetation, is widely advocated, and its use has hot climates (Wang, Zhao, Yang, and Song, 2016), areas in the
been supported by numerous empirical studies. For instance, large- neighbourhood with high usage, such as resting spots or playgrounds,
scale urban greening efforts (Erell, Pearlmutter, and Williamson, community gathering areas, carparks or pedestrian pathways, should
2011), strategic provision of green spaces (Ong, 2003), use of urban be provided with ample shade as the second design strategy. The
parks (Yu and Hien, 2006), roadside plantings (Norton et al., 2015), provision of constant shade could include a variety of landscape
and greening of rooftops and remnant open spaces (Wang, Berardi, features: trees, large shrubs, vegetated trellises, walls and other
and Akbari, 2016) have positive effects on temperature reduction exterior structures (SITES, 2014).
Book 1.indb 159 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Existing large patches of vegetated areas should be preserved as
a priority, in conjunction with other landscape services, such as
habitat provision for wildlife, stormwater mitigation, etc., as large
green areas are more effective if the microclimate is regulated
(Gartland, 2012). In addition to green spaces, the preserving of
water bodies can contribute to urban cooling, although the effects
are dependent on the size of the water surface, volume of water
and adjacent land uses around the waterbody (Taleghani et al.,
2014). Species with specific functional traits, such as broad canopies,
high leaf areas, dense canopies or high transpiration rates, found
to be effective in cooling effects, can be preferentially used in

the landscape where needed (Shashua-Bar and Hoffman, 2000).
To optimise the evapotranspiration of vegetation, it is useful to
consider stormwater movement in the neighbourhood. As trees need
Fig. 5.47 Sheltered walkway with vegetation mitigates urban heat, Japan.
adequate soil moisture to achieve high transpiration rates, especially
at midday, we suggest diverting a certain amount of storm water
into planting areas to support water use by trees; this will lead to
higher evaporative cooling (Moreno‐garcia, 1994). A related design
strategy is to ensure adequate soil moisture by providing sufficient
volume of soil to support trees’ water needs (Monteith, 1981). In
addition to vegetation alone, porous surface materials can be used
to allow water infiltration and storage, as this helps reduce urban
heat (Li, Harvey, Holland, and Kayhanian, 2013). For example,
50% pervious materials with an open-grid system on a vegetated
roof can reduce air temperature (Wang et al., 2016).
Design targets
There are different targets for the amount of shading required
for foot paths and open spaces, understandably so because of Fig. 5.48 Thermal image (top) and photo (bottom) of Ulu Pandan Connector Network,
climatic differences. SITES for instance, suggests a target of 40% Singapore shows surface temperature differences between green infrastructure and paved path.
of footpaths to be shaded, whereas the Building for Ecologically
Responsive Design Excellence Green Building Rating Scheme
stipulates a target of 50% of site hardscape to be shaded by
vegetation (BERDE, 2013). Where there is considerable exposure to
solar radiation throughout the year, such as in the tropics, we suggest
a target of shading 70% of paths and open spaces. Note that the
shading requirement is to be assessed at the hottest time of the day,
likely midday. In addition, it is necessary to consider the time taken
for trees to reach maturity (Hwang, 2017); the shading requirement
to be achieved is suggested as five years after construction in the
tropical context. This will be longer in the temperate zone. Given the
substantial amount of roof space in neighbourhoods, these should
be protected from solar exposure as much as possible; we suggest
a target of 50% of the total roof area to be covered by vegetation.
Fig. 5.49 Urban fountain not only mitigates urban heat, but also provides recreational
function, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
Book 1.indb 160 4/4/18 12:04 PM

161
Fig. 5.51 Rooftop covered by vegetation contributes to reduce heat,, The Camp, Costa Mesa,
California, USA.

1. Design to create wind corridors.

2. Design to provide continuous shading.
3. Include/preserve natural planting and water bodies to
Fig. 5.50 Tree shades (top) and air temperature (bottom) along East Coast Park Connector, optimise microclimate.
Singapore.
4. Select plant species with higher rates of evapotranspiration,
and with wide canopies.
5. Channel stormwater into tree planting area to encourage
Thermal conditions of the neighbourhood can be measured using evapotranspiration.
ambient temperature, mean radiant temperature, wind velocity 6. Provide adequate soil volume for retention of moisture.
and humidity. Thermal comfort should also be assessed, and
7. Reduce impervious surfaces and use permeable paving
various methods, such as Predicted Mean Vote (PMV), or Predicted
for hard surfaces to promote infiltration, retention and
Percentage of Dissatisfied, or adaptive comfort models can be used
evaporation of water.
for monitoring. In the tropics, a reference level for thermal comfort
measured by PMV is a neutral operative temperature of 28.7 °C,
and an acceptable range is between 26.3 °C and 31.7 °C (Yang et
Targets
al., 2013). 1. 70% of paths and open spaces shaded by vegetation
during hottest period of the day (1–3PM) in five years’
time.
2. 50% of total roof area covered by vegetation.
Benefits
• Improve thermal comfort and reduce occurrence of heat
stress in humans.
1. Micro-scale thermal conditions in the hottest daytime
• Improve the conduciveness of outdoor environment for
period during the hottest period of the year, including air
recreation and active lifestyle.
temperature, mean radiant temperature, wind velocity
• Contribute to overall human well-being. and humidity.
• Reduce energy consumption needed to cool buildings 2. Ther mal comfort assessment in neighbourhood
and avoid carbon emission from use of fossil fuels. landscape.
Book 1.indb 161 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Book 1.indb 162

Fig. 5.52 Vegetation incorporated into noise barrier in Seoul, South Korea.
4/4/18 12:04 PM
163
C2 Noise abatement Hwang Yun Hye
N
oise originates from multiple sources in urban areas, for 2006), configuration of the noise source (Cook and Van Haverbeke,
example, road traffic, rail traffic, industrial activities, 1974), location and distance of receivers (Yang et al., 2011), size
construction activities, etc. It is considered a major and form of noise barriers, characteristics of vegetation (Pathak
source of pollution, with adverse consequences on human health et al., 2008) and even people’s satisfaction with a neighbourhood
and well-being (Attenborough, Li, and Horoshenkov, 2006). The environment (Anderson, Mulligan, and Goodman, 1984).
impacts of noise pollution include annoyance, hypertension,
hearing impairment, high resting heartbeat and stress, all of which Integrated design strategies
negatively affect quality of life (Seidman and Standring, 2010). Noise mitigation is complex, but certain broad strategies are
Vegetation has been suggested as a natural device to control outdoor applicable. One is to make full use of existing natural sources,
noise pollution. Many studies have concluded that greenery has such as existing landforms or dense vegetation that can attenuate
an efficacious effect on noise attenuation by absorbing, reflecting, noise. The efficiency of a natural noise barrier will increase when
diffracting and refracting sound waves (Fang and Ling, 2005; Kragh, the noise barrier, source, and receiver are in the same reverberant
1981). A certain level of noise reduction can be achieved through space (Herrington, 1976). Vegetated mounds consisting of earth
types of vegetation, such as tree belts with multi-layer plants (Cook mass and vegetation are popular barriers for noise and air pollutants
and Van Haverbeke, 1974), stand-alone vegetation (Ozer, Irmak, originating from road traffic (Pathak et al., 2008). A depressed
and Yilmaz, 2008), planted surfaces including green walls (Van trafficked road and porous ground with an acoustically soft soil and
Renterghem and Botteldooren, 2009), earth berms and piles of leaf litters underneath vegetation will increase the effect of green-
stones (Van Renterghem et al., 2015). Using vegetation in landscapes wall abatements (Van Renterghem, Botteldooren, and Verheyen,
for noise mitigation can be combined with other landscape services, 2012). Studies have also shown that covering built structures with
such as visual improvement and heat mitigation, to improve the vegetation will enhance the effect of noise shielding. For example,
overall cost effectiveness of using plants as noise barriers (Yang, Bao, green walls can provide noise levels considerably lower than plain
and Zhu, 2011). In providing noise abatement benefits, plants do not embankments (Azkorra et al., 2015), while green façades and green
just act as physical barriers; they also work as psychological buffers. roofs will reduce noise originating from and amplified in a street
A visually pleasing landscape can reduce the negative perception canyon (Van Renterghem et al., 2015).
of noise (Yang et al., 2011). Plants contribute to human health by As not all plants are equally effective in reducing noise, it is useful
buffering the effects of chronic noise exposure (Dzhambov and to select plants with structural complexity and dense foliage as these
Dimitrova, 2014). are more effective in dispersing concentrated sound waves. For
The aim of designing neighbourhood landscapes for noise example, planting dense shrubs together with multi-layered trees
abatement is to leverage on their placement to mitigate the noise provides the best reduction effect at the level of the receiver (Watts,
pollution that may be encountered in neighbourhoods. Despite a Chinn, and Godfrey, 1999). The next strategy is that if sufficient
great deal of interest, design tools for the effective use of plants for space is available, it is crucial for a vegetated buffer to be at least a
noise mitigation are still developing, especially because measuring 15 m wide and 2–4 m high to provide more surface area for diffusion
and validating sound in the outdoor setting is very complex. Noise and absorption of the noise wave (Van Renterghem et al., 2015).
reduction depends on a variety of factors — meteorological effects, Vegetation can be deployed as a visual barrier to reduce the negative
including climate influences and wind velocity (Attenborough et al., perception of noise. For example, a row of trees near a noise wall
Book 1.indb 163 4/4/18 12:04 PM

will mitigate the visual impact of the barrier, particularly at eye Performance indicators
level (Dzhambov and Dimitrova, 2014). Finally, pleasing sounds
As a performance indicator, the effectiveness of noise mitigation
such as bird songs and water flow will mitigate negative sounds
from the design of neighbourhood landscapes should be monitored.
like traffic noise, and have a positive effect on human well-being
A noise threshold of 55 dB can be considered the permitted noise
through emotional and aesthetic effects (Benfield, Bell, Troup, and
level in outdoor areas of residential areas (WHO, 1999). Please refer
Soderstrom, 2010).
to noise limits in other types of living spaces in Box 5.10.
Design targets
A key target is to reduce noise pollution from road traffic. We suggest
a target of more than 80% of the boundary of a neighbourhood

area adjacent to an expressway and/or major route to be planted
with a vegetation buffer.
Box 5.10
Negative effects on health and

educational performance
Exposure to noises louder than 120 dB for
children and 140 dB for adults, or prolonged
exposure to levels above 75 dB, can cause
hearing impairment (WHO, 1999). High
levels of noise reduce the intelligibility of
speech, reduce cognitive performance,
disrupt sleep and cause hypertension. The
World Health Organization (WHO, 1999)
suggests that noise above 80 dB can reduce
social cohesion and increase aggressive
behaviour. A study in the UK found 10% of
respondents “were annoyed” when night-
time noise levels exceeded 55 dB (Skinnner
and Grimwood, 2002). Because of the
increased sensitivity of humans to noise while
sleeping, The World Health Organization
(WHO, 1999) recommends that A-weighted
noise levels outside dwellings should not
exceed 55 dB during the daytime and 45 dB
at night. It is estimated that 54% and 67%
of UK homes exceed these levels during the
day and at night respectively.
Noise limits on specific areas. Adapted from WHO (1999).
Book 1.indb 164 4/4/18 12:04 PM

165
Nature ring
35 – 45m Expressway
Noise buffer
(dense vegetation)
Fig. 5.53 Abatement of noise through dense vegetation, (credits: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl).
Fig. 5.54 Thick vegetation can screen the noise from an adjacent road. Fig. 5.55 A vegetated buffer in Seoul, South Korea, reduces the traffic noise.
Book 1.indb 165 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Fig. 5.56 Double-layered vegetated noise buffer along main road, (credits: Dongsimwon Design Corp.).

• Reduce negative consequences of noise pollution on 1. Utilise existing topography and dense vegetation as
human well-being. barriers to noise source.
• Improve conduciveness of outdoor spaces for recreation 2. Create landforms and vegetated areas to function as
or community use. barriers to noise source.
3. Select plants with dense foliage to increase the effectiveness
of noise abatement.
4. Design vegetated buffer of at least 15 m wide for effective
noise abatement, where appropriate.
5. Use vegetation as both visual and functional barriers of
noise sources.
6. Provide pleasant sounds (e.g. bird calls, water flow) to
counteract noise.
Targets
1. >80% of length of site boundary abutting expressways
and major arterial roads planted with vegetated noise
buffer.
1. Noise reduction by the vegetated noise buffers against
the expressway.
Book 1.indb 166 4/4/18 12:04 PM

167
5.8 People
N
eighbourhood landscapes must be designed to
provide socio-cultural benefits to people. These
benefits are both tangible and intangible, and cover
the spectrum from improved physical and mental health, to
aesthetic and educational values provided by landscapes,
and to the formation of community ties through the use of
neighbourhood landscapes as social spaces. As these benefits
are not automatically produced by mere provision of green
and open spaces, the emphasis of designing neighbourhood
landscapes for people is to create the conditions which
foster a wide range of socio-cultural benefits to be produced
through deliberate design strategies.
Book 1.indb 167 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Fig. 5.57 Food trucks in Portland (Oregon, USA) are components of a socio-cultural landscape creating a sense of place by increasing the uniqueness of the space.
Book 1.indb 168 4/4/18 12:04 PM

169
P1 Sense of place Agnieszka O. Guizzo | Jane Chan
T
he term sense of place has been expressed through multiple (Vaske and Kobrin, 2001; Larson, de Freitas, and Hicks, 2013).
analogous ideas and related terms, including topophilia,
Opposite to sense of place is the placelessness of a space, which
place attachment, sense of belonging, insideness,
can be seen in similar-looking landscapes created with cookie cutter
rootedness, place meaning, place identity, place dependence,
designs (Arefi, 1999). Some examples of placeless spaces are those
genius loci, and spirit of place, among others. Understanding the
around highways, supermarkets and, unfortunately, some of the
concept of sense of place requires us to be able to differentiate a
neighbourhood green spaces left between blocks or filling up the
place as one to which humans give meaning by setting it apart.
space, created with no specific design intent. The lack of sense of
When a place is entrusted or affirmed with stronger meanings by

place can manifest itself in the unwillingness of people to move to
society, it is said to have a “strong sense of place” (Tuan, 1974).
certain neighbourhoods, or low satisfaction with the place in which
Although commonly portrayed as a positive affect towards a place,
they live. This can lead to such problems as loss of cues facilitating
Tuan (1980) argues that less positive but equally distinguished
spatial orientation, prospect and mobility (Appleton, 1975; Hiss,
emotions, like fear, also contribute to a sense of place.
1990; Lynch, 1977), feelings of stress and alienation (Maslov,
Sense of place is a dynamic and open-ended concept shaped 1954), loss of humane values and dignity (Heshempour, 2013), or
by socio-cultural processes (Williams and Stewart, 1998), which even loss of a crucial element — the will for survival (Bishop and
emerges from the interaction between people, and between people Vicary, 2003).
and place. Place identity, place attachment and sense of community
In this age of rapid urbanisation where change is constant, people’s
are clear specifications subsumed under the concept of sense of
memory of and attachment to the familiar, is often ruthlessly stripped
place (Pretty, Chipuer, and Bramston, 2003).
away by the need for development. Although new developments can
Natural and cultural heritage often create the identity of a place, create novelty and vibrancy, it takes time for individuals to build
inevitably enhancing people’s sense of place by giving it meaning connections with any new infrastructure or design (Giuliani and
(Uzzell, 1996) and creating the “warmth of community and home” Feldman, 1993; Stedman, 2003). Building better infrastructures or
(Kudryavtsev, Stedman, and Krasny, 2012). Another aspect that facilities can possibly increase place satisfaction, however the link
contributes to the sense of place is the spirituality of the natural to place attachment requires a mechanism of pro-environmental
environment. Much has been written about the connection between behaviour in people (Ramkissoon and Mavondo, 2015). A study
indigenous people and their land, how the inherent sacredness of measuring sense of place in a public housing neighbourhood finds
nature is revered, and how indigenous people see themselves as part that despite efforts to step up “placeness” through colourful façades,
of nature (Fredrickson, 1996). For a person who feels connected to roof treatments and unique motifs for every estate, the sense of
their environment, trees and natural entities can evoke fascination belonging within the residents is not high (Teo and Huang, 1996).
and reverence akin to spiritual and transcendental experiences It is difficult to establish clear reasons for this result. However, it
(Shroeder, 1992). suggests that sense of place is a complex and delicate issue, which
must be addressed at multiple levels of neighbourhood landscape
The literature documents how place attachment as a component
interventions.
of sense of place can shape people’s beliefs and affect their
environmental attitudes or behaviours. When people feel at home,
their place becomes a part of their identity; inadvertently, they
develop a sense of care and responsibility towards the environment
Book 1.indb 169 4/4/18 12:04 PM

(a) (b)
anticipation of place-based activities, such as outdoor learning or

(c)
play, environmental programmes, community action, recreational
activities and monitoring of natural processes (Box 5.11). Simply
allowing residents to use the space flexibly and spontaneously will

increase individual connections with the space and strengthen social
bonds between members of the community (Aliyah, Setioko, and
Pradoto, 2017).
A common misconception about art in the public space is its

superfluity and inaccessibility to the community. However, a major
value of art for the success of the built environment is not necessarily
its aesthetics, but rather its place-making capacity (Kwon, 2004).
Implementing art in any form into the neighbourhood landscape
is probably one of the most powerful tools in the designer’s hands
Fig. 5.58 Residents engaged in neighbourhood activities: (a) planning and design of
neighbourhood through participatory events; (b) construction and maintenance of the to boost the sense of place. Some cities have adopted public art to
neighbourhood landscape through the planting of trees on Arbor Day, Maxwell, USA increase the social capital of their public spaces. The Public Art plan
(c) flexible usage of space, e.g. playing chess in Görlitzer Park, Berlin, Germany. of the city of Phoenix, Arizona, dates back to 1988; it has focused
attention on the importance of art for place-making (Hodgson,
Integrated design strategies 2011). We recommend incorporating art work (Box 5.12) that is
crafted by local artists and residents to create a sense of ownership
To foster sense of place, it is important to promote place attachment
of the artworks. Related concerns about the public use of art include
by strengthening the social bonds between community members
the problem of vandalism, but research shows that in public art
(Hidalgo and Hernandez, 2001). Community participation is vital to
initiatives, acts of vandalism decrease and the sense of ownership
building a shared sense of place as they are involved in the decision
and participation increases (Miles, 1997; Pym, 1995; Raven, 1989).
making of the planning and design of their own neighbourhood
landscape. Events can be designed to engage community members Designed space should incorporate symbols derived from the
to “build” their neighbourhood landscape together, such as through local culture, environment, history, politics and economics of the
tree planting. Frequent visits, coupled with increased awareness people who live there (Russ and Krasny, 2017). Any landscape will
and knowledge of events and processes occurring at a place, can contain elements of local cultural heritage already existing on site;
deepen people’s sense of community and attachment to the place these should be used as part of place-making. A good example of
(Sobel, 2004). Activities that happen in a local natural setting such practice is a nature park in the Tempelhof district of Berlin,
where people interact with the elements and natural processes are Germany; it provides a unique natural landscape while retaining
encouraged. Neighbourhood landscapes should be designed in striking relics of the steam train era (Fig. 5.59a).
Book 1.indb 170 4/4/18 12:04 PM

171
Box 5.11
Place-based activities
Frequent visits, coupled with
increased awareness and knowl-
edge of events occurring at the
place, can deepen attachment
and the sense of community
(Sobel, 2004). Neighbourhood
landscapes should be designed

to anticipate place-based ac- Place-based
tivities, such as environmental activities
programmes, community action,
recreational or spontaneous ac-
tivities and monitoring of natural
processes.
Box 5.12
Art in the neighbourhood
landscapes
Public art improves the sense of
the ownership, provides better
space orientation and is important
for place-making. Neighbourhood
landscapes can integrate multiple
forms of art. A few examples are
Art
presented here.
in the neighbourhood
landscapes
Book 1.indb 171 4/4/18 12:04 PM

(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.59 Neighbourhood landscapes manifesting the natural and cultural heritage of the local
community: (a) Unique natural landscape retaining relics of the steam train era, Templehoff,
Germany; (b) A tranquil walk under a foliage of cherry trees through Yanaka Cemetery located
at the heart of a residential area in Tokyo, Japan; (c) Space for folkloric events, Andros, Greece.
A related dimension is religious heritage. Designers need to

consider all religious groups within the resident community and,
after considering their traditions, adjust the landscape design
accordingly to accommodate areas of significance to the community,
whilst maintaining respect for others. Such issues often arise in
multicultural neighbourhoods of cosmopolitan cities such as
Singapore and New York. Natural elements incorporated into the
neighbourhood design can invoke universal spiritual experiences,
we suggest designing for nature contemplation, relaxation, solitude
and self-exploration (Olszewska, 2016). See more in the section on (c)
aesthetic values.
Book 1.indb 172 4/4/18 12:04 PM

173
Fig. 5.60 Sense of place in the eyes of designers: Water bodies and associated recreational facilities bring people together and create meaning, (credit Dongsimwon Design Corp.).
Fig. 5.61 Sense of place in the eyes of designers: Preserved banyan tree as a piece of art to connect residents to their origins, (credits: Classic Design).
Book 1.indb 173 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Fig. 5.62 Explicit elements of cultural heritage have a strong place-making capacity, Englischer Garten, Munich, Germany.
Book 1.indb 174 4/4/18 12:04 PM

175
Design targets Integrated design strategies

The recommended targets for enhancing the value of neighbourhood 1. Engage community in the creation of a future vision of
landscapes to engender sense of place are: first, to create at least one the neighbourhood landscape, including the interests and
space in the neighbourhood for flexible community uses; second, to needs of different socio-economic groups.
incorporate at least one space for public art in the neighbourhood; 2. Create an opportunity for community members to
third, mature trees with high conservation and heritage value, should participate in the maintenance of the neighbourhood
be kept as a form of connection to the past. landscape.
3. Create spaces in the landscape and programmes to
Performance Indicators encourage hobbies, recreation, sports teams or cultural

The recommended method for measuring the effect of groups.
neighbourhood landscapes on residents’ sense of place is the use 4. Add a public art initiative or a space for artistic
of self-reported scales on place attachment, place identity and expression.
place dependence (Nanzer, 2004). The opinions of residents may 5. Design in anticipation of place-based activities.
be juxtaposed with data collected from the site on the percentage
6. Design for accessibility and wayfinding, with clear,
of landscape elements containing the historical, cultural or
intuitive signage to promote familiarity and reduce

religious heritage of the community within the site, kept in their
anxiety; avoid overload of information.
pre-intervention state.
7. Foster the place’s uniqueness by using archetypes and
symbols derived from culture, history and natural or
native elements present in the landscape.
8. Preserve the heritage by highlighting and explaining
the cultural and natural context of the community (old
Benefits
monuments, trees, hills, etc.).
• Higher satisfaction with the place of living, leading to
9. Preserve existing natural elements and areas with
higher life satisfaction.
spiritual and/or religious significance for the community.
• Community ownership and identity and increased social
10. Design for spiritual experiences: contemplation,
capital. Indirectly, these lead to other benefits, such as
relaxation, sense of solitude, opportunity for self-
increased sense of safety, care for the community spaces
exploration and reconnection with nature.
and facilities, and reduced vandalism.
• Increased mental well-being of residents and community
well-being.
Targets
1. 1 space for flexible community uses per neighbourhood.
2. ≥1 public art space/initiative per neighbourhood (see
Box 5.12).
3. 100% of mature and heritage trees of girth more than
1 m measured at 0.5 m from the ground to be conserved.
1. Scales on place attachment, place identity and place
dependence
2. Percentage of historical, cultural, religious, landscape
elements conserved as identified in the inventory.
Book 1.indb 175 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Fig. 5.63 Designing with ecological aesthetics in mind creates beautiful and functional spaces for all generations; Parchi di Nervi, Genova, Italy.
Book 1.indb 176 4/4/18 12:04 PM

177
P2 Aesthetic values Agnieszka O. Guizzo | Jane Chan
T
he word aesthetics is derived from the Greek word pleasing space for people to engage in social relations, education
aisthetikos [Αισθητική] which means pertaining to and recreation, and to forge a sense of place or spiritual connection.
the senses. Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that Concepts of aesthetic preference may have strong influences on the
explores the nature of beauty, art and taste through the sensori- design, implementation and interpretation of ecological studies
emotional values the observer receives from the object. According and public perception of ecological processes (Kovacs et al., 2006).
to Lothian’s (1999) recount of historical philosophy, aesthetics is
A landscape’s aesthetic value is mostly interpreted visually; about
largely a subjectivist concept, projected in the mind of the observer
83% of the information we receive is provided by sight. Research
and influenced by many factors, including culture, personality,

shows that benefits generated by views alone have a profound
background, etc. Interestingly, the opposite of aesthetics is
impact on our psycho-physiological well-being; thus, the benefits
anaesthetic, which means something that numbs the senses. The
of landscape go far beyond preference and pleasure. What we look
natural or designed landscape can be considered a piece of art, and
at during our day to day life is crucial in shaping our perception of
a landscape view can be evaluated in the same way as a painting or
life and our environment, our general well-being, and our psycho-
photograph (Norberg-Schultz, 1976), whereby the more aesthetic
physiological feedback. Obviously, the visual sense is the most
values it brings, the more it stimulates our senses.
important, but there are other sensory perceptions; on average we
Beauty is a powerful force that affects both our emotions and receive 11% of our information by hearing, 3.5% by smell, 1.5%
ecological practices. While there is broad literature relating nature by touch and 1% through taste (Medina, 2008).
and aesthetics, aesthetic values remain under-discussed in the
Decades of environmental psychology research have produced
relationship between ecological science and ideas of beauty (Kovacs
enough scientific evidence to support that the aesthetic values,
et al., 2006). Why are we incorporating aesthetics into a book on
mainly connected to the visual quality of the landscape that
how to design for aesthetic values, when its interpretation is often
surround us, can powerfully influence our mental health, well-being
judged based on the “eye of the beholder”? One reason can be
and life satisfaction. Contact with the natural environment can
found in how human visual aesthetic preferences have evolved over
reduce stress and mental fatigue, improve concentration and regulate
time. The evidence indicates that contemporary humans find the
emotions (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989). It can regulate blood pressure
same views attractive (Daniel, 2001), suggesting universal laws that
and the level of the cortisol in the blood (Ulrich et al., 1991). As the
determine landscape beauty. If so, landscapes can be designed for
views in our neighbourhood are those we see every day, they should
aesthetics that will appeal to most people.
be designed in a way that will induce positive effects in those of us
As a socio-cultural service, aesthetic appreciation is innate and who are especially exposed to mental fatigue, crowdedness, and all
does not depend on the extent to which people understand or types of views that induce feelings and sentiments counter to those
appreciate ecosystem services provided by landscapes. The more derived from contact with nature (Box 5.13).
people can gain pleasure from their experience of the landscape, the
more collective benefit the community as a whole derives from the
service. The provision of this service is also strongly related to the
provision of other cultural services, such as the use of landscapes for
recreation, interaction and the development of community bonds.
It is therefore important to design and plan for an aesthetically
Book 1.indb 177 4/4/18 12:04 PM

To address these issues in neighbourhood landscape design, we younger residents with higher levels of education and active urban
recommend adopting the principles of ecological aesthetics. If the forest users prefer more ecologically oriented management than
design is to deliver high aesthetic values it must seek to enhance the older residents with less education or less active users (Tyrväinen,
qualities of ecological aesthetics in neighbourhood landscapes. The 2003).
theory of ecological aesthetics emerged together with the growing
Landscape design following the approach of ecological aesthetics
body of research on landscape preferences and visual qualities
is based on patterns derived from the naturally functioning
of the landscape. It argues that increased knowledge about the
environments, and design strategies are aligned with biophilic
environment and its ecological functions increases the preference
design (see Chapter 4, Section 4.2.4). The most important input
ratings for a given landscape view (Nassauer, 1997). Studies find that
Box 5.13
How window views can affect the brain activity?

According to Window Views and the Brain, a study using electroencephalography (EEG) technology, there is a
relationship between the amount of green within a window view and the pattern of brain activity (Olszewska-
Guizzo, Chan, and Tan, unpublished). Higher levels of green coverage induce greater right frontal alpha-brainwave
patterns associated with positive emotional response, motivation, approach, joy and relaxation. The photos below
illustrate the observed phenomena.
Book 1.indb 178 4/4/18 12:04 PM

179
or action to utilise this service is to facilitate access to landscapes

with high aesthetic value and to actively design for it. Appropriate
design, planning, policies and management can create aesthetically
attractive and stimulating landscapes, achieving ecologically
beneficial landscapes that are also culturally sustainable.

Designing a landscape with high aesthetic value can be based on the
“
classic rules of harmony and balance, using scales, forms and shapes.
Designers should make sure each view is balanced horizontally

and vertically, so that the distribution of the apparent weight of
the elements is even across the vista, so that scale of elements,
openings and closings of the views are carefully worked out, and
so that no disturbing elements explicitly appear before the potential
viewer (Zelanski and Fisher, 1996). The vertical balance is especially
Urban landscape tightly filled with
important in high-rise estates. The symmetry rule does not apply; architectonic objects significantly limits liberty
rather, the vertical lines of buildings and the visible skyline should
draw attention to far-away objects or up towards the sky, where
of sight use. Such a spatial environment
provokes a natural need of a distant view,
viewers perceive a vista at a far or infinite distance.
The importance of long-distance views and the opportunity to see

far away into the landscape can never be stressed enough. One
important biophilic design pattern (see Chapter 4, Section 4.2.4)
is “prospect” — a view over a distance — for surveillance and
planning. In Attention Restoration Theory, “being away” is one of
four properties of a restorative environment (Kaplan, 2001). Long
distance views can stimulate an away feeling and a reorientation
from everyday life (especially life in an urban context). Being away
“
up to [the] horizon or at least at the sky. The
need of distant view or in many cases it can
be a desire, results from a human nature of
a hunter, consolidated in our genes. Fulfilling
this desire can be done beyond our will or
completely consciously.
goes beyond a simple “getting away from it all”; it means switching
between activities and changing perspectives. Long-distance views (Skalski, 2005, p. 44).
stimulate a sense of personal freedom, mental pleasure, stress
reduction and a significant improvement of the quality of life as
the proper functioning of human perception formed throughout
the long process of environmental adaptation (Skalski, 2005; Tuan,
1974). If we are unable to utilise our natural perceptual skills (here,
the sense of vision) because we are surrounded by visual barriers,
we may feel discomfort or a lack of freedom.
Another benefit of long distance views is described in a study by

Bates (2004) on alternative therapy aimed at improving eyesight
without the use of glasses or lenses. He suggests that nearly all
eye problems are caused by the habitual strain of the eyes, so
switching visual attention between the close, middle and far distance,
repeatedly and continuously, blinking and relaxing from time to
time, may significantly improve eyesight quality. Even though his
findings are not approved by academic medicine, the mechanism of
Book 1.indb 179 4/4/18 12:04 PM

switching between the distance zones reminds us of the importance Box 5.14
of far vistas, especially for people who spend time indoors, focusing
on close objects.
Visual distance zones
Ecological aesthetics expressed in neighbourhood landscape design
allow residents to become acquainted with ecosystem functions.
Knowledge intervention includes information provided by agencies,
media, on-site signage, education campaigns and guided and
self-guided experiences. Extended experiential activates, such as
involvement in ecological restoration programmes, may allow
people to change their aesthetic perceptions to encourage ecological

aesthetics. Although knowledge alone is insufficient for changing
attitudes and behaviours (Bellantyne and Packer, 1996), knowledge
does affect aesthetic appreciation. Given that dense and compacted
cities, by definition, are not spacious, any strategy to improve
spaciousness is precious. We recommend creating long-distance
views, wherever possible (see Box 5.14).
For neighbourhood landscape design, it is also important to balance

the amount of wild and tamed nature around the space. Studies show
that lower income inhabitants of heavily urbanised environments
prefer tamed nature, while those of higher socio-economic status
and education tend to prefer wilder landscapes (Forsyth, Musacchio,
and Fitzgerald, 2005). Depending on the context of the place and
the group, designers should introduce different levels of wilderness.
Researchers studying the phenomena of “nearby nature” and
“wilderness experience” say restorative effects of wilderness apply
to everyone regardless of socio-economic status. (Kaplan, 2001).
Landscape architects, urban planners and architects who design How to define a long-distance view? Classic landscape
neighbourhood landscapes should be aware of the views over studies distinguish three distance zones in natural
and across a designed space, including the sequences of ground landscapes: fore-, mid- and background (Yeomans, 1983).
views seen by the person walking through the space, as well as the In dense urban landscapes, the background is usually
window views from neighbouring housing units (see Box 5.13). We more difficult to see.
also recommend simulating vistas before a proposal is accepted for
construction. Distance (km)
From To
Foreground 0 0.4 – 0.8
Midground 0.4–0.8 4.8–8
Background 4.8–8 +∞
Book 1.indb 180 4/4/18 12:04 PM

181
Fig. 5.64 Being away and the restorative power of natural environments; a long-distance view over the urban skyline, New York waterfront seen from High Line, New York, USA.
Book 1.indb 181 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Performance Indicators
The difficulty of measuring aesthetic values is noted in various Bureau of Land Management. It is based on early-twentieth century
papers where the purported indices of measurement is either visual studies conducted for the construction of utilities and other
unknown or in monetary terms (Cooper et al., 2016). The need infrastructure throughout the western United States on public lands
for assessment of landscape visual aesthetic quality arises in the (USDA, 1973). The VRM model is based on the assumption that
context of environmental management as we want to know which all landscapes have some level of scenic value that can be assessed.
is aesthetically superior, and by how much more, which allows us to However, as it was primarily developed for natural landscapes
pit against other environmental values for trade-offs and decision (with some level of “cultural modifications”), as a performance
making (Daniel, 2001). On the other hand, multiple tools exist for indicator we propose a model based on VRM, called Contemplative
evaluating the performance of visual quality of natural landscape. Landscapes Model (see Box 5.15), which is calibrated to serve to
The most prominent existing model utilised at this stage is the evaluation of urban landscapes (Olszewska et al., 2016).
Visual Resource Management (VRM) model, developed by the US
Box 5.15
Contemplative Landscape Model (CLM):

A tool to evaluate the contemplative values of green urban environments. The final score depends on seven categories: layers of a
landscape, landform, vegetation, colour and light, compatibility, archetypal elements, and peace and silence. The tool is intended
for experts and trained individuals. (Olszewska et al., 2016)
Book 1.indb 182 4/4/18 12:04 PM

183
Benefits
• Landscapes with high aesthetic value attract increased
usage and foster mental and physical health.
• Landscapes with high aesthetic value generate more

appreciation and care, and increase the sense of place.
• Landscapes with high aesthetic value increase the
attractiveness of neighbourhoods and raise property value.
(a)

1. Introduce ecological aesthetics with biophilic design.
2. Design for harmony, balance, spatial order and lack of
disturbing elements.
3. Seek the right balance between wild and tamed nature.
4. Provide spaces with different degrees of wildness.
5. Create vistas to scenic or long-distance views where
possible.
6. Provide visually pleasing sequences along pathways.
(b)
1. Scenic beauty and visual quality assessments using tools
e.g., Contemplative Landscape Questionnaire (see Box
5.15).
(c)
Fig. 5.65 Experience of controlled wilderness: (a) Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne,
Australia; (b) Cheonggyecheong, Seoul, South Korea; (c) Royal Gardens, Edinburgh, Scotland.
Book 1.indb 183 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Book 1.indb 184

Fig. 5.66 Open access design for community socialising, Director Park, Portland, Oregon, USA.
4/4/18 12:04 PM
185
P3 Social relations Vincent Chua
A
n ideal neighbourhood is one where green features are Sullivan (2001) find that green spaces are associated with lower
ubiquitous, functioning not merely as cosmetic crime rates. Green features also send a subliminal message that
backdrops against which activities unfold, but enmeshed a neighbourhood is valuable, and that its residents care about its
with the daily routines of residents, who use and enjoy a variety of upkeep, hence curbing crime.
green spaces: community gardens, parks (of different sizes), green
networks, water features and the like, to build strong community Design strategies
bonds. We propose a series of design strategies planners might consider.
Studies offer compelling evidence that correlations between green The first concerns the importance of equitable access (both physical
spaces and the generation of social ties (Coley, Kuo, and Sullivan, and visual) to green spaces and landscapes. The benefits of green
1997) occur in four interrelated ways. The first concerns the use of spaces for community formation are manifold, but the benefits will
green spaces. Studies, particularly from environmental psychologists, not accrue to individuals (and groups) unless they have access in
show convincing evidence that green spaces generate community the first place (Yuen and Wong, 2005; Tan and Neo, 2009). The
relationships through usage among residents. Plants, such as trees, second is to create mixed-use spaces for different kinds of uses,
draw people outdoors and provide a backdrop for social activities, interactions and activities. Green spaces are useful. But non-green
particularly by the young and elderly (Kuo, Sullivan, Coley, and spaces complement the former. Provision shops, markets, food
Brunson, 1998). centres and open spaces in residential areas are equally important
facilitators of community, according to research in Singapore (Cho
Second, many studies showcase the potential of “community
and Ho, 2014). It is also useful to provide a variety of large, medium
gardens” for increasing social interactions between neighbours (e.g.,
and small green spaces rather than a large singular green space. The
Glover, 2004; Saldivar-Tanaka and Krasny, 2004; Wakefield et al.,
point is to create an ecosystem where green spaces are infused into
2007; Alaimo, Reischl, and Allen, 2010). Community gardens are
the everyday lives of residents, in a variety of ways.
based on cooperative activities, where residents build camaraderie
via gardening activities, even as they are resolving occasional Frances Kuo, Director of the Human-Environment Research
conflicts among themselves. Laboratory (HERL), University of Illinois, highlights the importance
of “daily doses” of greenery. The goal here is “regular exposure”,
Third, greenery may increase social capital by fostering
melding and interweaving green spaces with the daily activities and
communitarian values such as generosity. Being in green surroundings
routines of people.
inspires intrinsic values such as the willingness to work for the
betterment of society. People surrounded by greenery are more It is also important to allow for the active use and cultivation of
likely to behave in generous ways toward others, such as by giving green spaces with one’s hands via community gardens. This balances
money (Weinstein, Przybylski, and Ryan, 2009). the goals of community while reducing the downsides to community
gardens, and ensuring security — including the curbing of theft
Fourth, green surroundings produce a calming effect which reduces
(e.g., theft of produce) (Kingsley and Townsend, 2006). Community
stress and makes people more amicable. Recent studies show that
gardens should be inclusionary places for all groups, minorities,
natural landscapes are correlated with relief of mental fatigue and
majorities, men and women, young and old (Glover, 2004), not just
better well-being (Kaplan, 1995; Jiang, Li, Larsen, and Sullivan,
private clubs for a few (see Box 5.16).
2014). Greenery also has the effect of lowering crime. Kuo and
Book 1.indb 185 4/4/18 12:04 PM

Designers could think in terms of an interconnected network of
green spaces, e.g., parks that are connected one to another by
pathways that could include cycling tracks (Choy and Prineas,
2006). Rather than creating discrete plots of land, a network of
green spaces creates access to green spaces for all.
“
Finally, local climatic conditions should be taken into account.
Under the hot and humid conditions of the tropics, for instance,
create spaces with ample shade where residents can enjoy the
outdoors and be comfortable. Designers should aim for a variety
of “microclimates”; integrating sun and shade (as well as sheltered

People read my work and conclude that and exposed spaces) enables individuals to regulate (and determine)
the degree of their exposure to thermal conditions, especially in
sprawl is the way to go. They think: lawns, tropical climates (Thorsson, Linqvist, and Lindqvist, 2004; Saw,
low density, houses far apart, but that is not Lim, and Carrasco, 2015).
at all the case! Design targets

When you look at the body of research on One target includes accessibility to green spaces, whether community
effects of nature, it can actually work at every gardens, parks of various sizes, water bodies, and/or shaded areas
scale. What is crucial for healthy living, is for community activities, no further than a specific distance from
each household. Another target, also related to the general idea of
not quantity, but regular exposure, daily doses access, is the creation of barrier-free access to green and open spaces,
of nature. So the trick is in finding ways to accommodating a variety of user groups and mobility conditions,
e.g., making green spaces accessible for the elderly and for young
infuse nature, and nature complexity into
“
denser places. Nature has to be part of your
life. It has to be part of your daily habitat
and routine. It has to be integrated right into
the urban fabric. Daily exposure is essential.
If you don’t see it or touch it, then nature
can’t do you much good.
children (Van Herzele and Wiedemann, 2003).
One indicator that can be monitored is ensuring the continual
presence of a high degree of access to green spaces, for example,
“green spaces which can be entered from all four sides and are
walkable all over the area (on paths)” (Van Herzele and Wiedemann,
2003, p.115). Another performance indicator, related to the first, is
ensuring the ubiquity of green spaces at close proximity to people’s
(Kuo, cit. Parham, 2014). homes. Planners in the Flanders, Belgium, are currently using the
“Minimum Standards for Urban Green Spaces” in their planning
(Box 5.17). There are two indicators: (1) the maximum distance of
the green space from home, and (2) the minimum surface of the
green space, at different scales. The point is to ensure green spaces
are generously available to all residents.
Book 1.indb 186 4/4/18 12:04 PM

187
(a)
(b) (c)
Fig. 5.67 Socialising in small, medium and large open green spaces: (a) pocket garden near the riverbank in Budapest, Hungary; (b) medium size green open space near Hackescher Markt, Berlin,
Germany; (c) Royal Gardens in Edinburgh, Scotland.
Book 1.indb 187 4/4/18 12:04 PM

(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.68 Green spaces that stimulate social gatherings: (a) open vista combined with an informal vibe, Gaswork Park, Seattle, Washington, USA; (b) welcoming different social and recreational
activities such as playing musical instruments, Vancouver, Canada.
Book 1.indb 188 4/4/18 12:05 PM

189
Benefits Box 5.16

• Improved safety and security in neighbourhood
Community Gardens
landscapes.
• Stronger social bonds and feeling of community. Community gardens should have low or no fences, and
walkways should be wide enough to allow at least two
• Stronger sense of place.
people to walk side-by-side, as in this Queen Ann P-Patch
• Mental health benefits for community and individuals.
community garden in Seattle, Washington.
Community gardens should also be inclusive — welcoming

to all residents of all ages, socioeconomic groups and cultural

1. Ensure equitable physical and visual access to green backgrounds.
open spaces.
2. Create mixed-use spaces for different types of interactions
and activities.
3. Provide a variety of large, medium, and small open
spaces.
4. Design to allow for the active use and cultivation of

green spaces.
5. Adopt an open space centred design for neighbourly
encounters and interactions.
6. Design so that outdoor/open spaces can be flexibly used
and modified for multiple purposes, as decided by the
community.
7. Design an interconnected network of green open
spaces instead of one singular space, to facilitate inter-
neighbourhood interaction and shared activities among
residents.
Box 5.17
8. Design comfortable spaces for social interactions through
consideration of microclimate. MIRA-S 200
Minimum Standards for Urban Green Spaces (MIRA
Targets S-2000) recommendations for accessible and attractive
1. Spaces for community gatherings not further than a green spaces (Van Herzele and Wiedemann, 2003).
10-minute walk from the household. Functional level Maximum distance Minimum
2. Barrier-free access to all open spaces for people of all from home (m) surface (ha)
ages, e.g., accommodating wheelchairs, baby-strollers, Residential green 150
etc.
Neighbourhood 400 1
green
Quarter green 800 10 (park: 5 ha)
1. Observational study on the extent of social interactions
among families, residents and friends in the context of District green 1600 30 (park: 10 ha)
green spaces. City green 3200 60
2. Positive attitudes and well-being arising from the use of Urban forest 5000 >200 (smaller
green spaces — e.g., the fostering of pro-social attitudes towns)
such as generosity and the valuing of community. >300 (big cities)
Book 1.indb 189 4/4/18 12:05 PM

Book 1.indb 190

Fig. 5.69 Scaling the heights of nature through nature play in Westmoreland Park, Portland , Oregon, USA.
4/4/18 12:05 PM
191
P4 Environmental education Vincent Chua
L
andscapes should inspire, motivate, and educate. And this To cultivate ownership, people must have an in-depth understanding
education, the appreciation and valuing of nature, should of the environment on issues such as waste disposal, biodegradability
start early in life (Lieflaender et al., 2013). To the extent and nutrient cycles. For empowerment, people must feel they have
an early start matters, the views of children and youth should the necessary skills to make a positive contribution; they must feel
grant generous insight into the designing of landscapes. In April they have the power to shape environmental policy, to resolve issues
1994, a group of 300 children from 100 elementary and middle and effect positive change, as we saw in the example of children
schools from all over Italy met for three days with adult facilitators, above. Schools are critical partners in environmental education
educators, planners and administrators to identify problems in (May, 2000). Generally, we ought to treat schools as seamlessly
their cities and propose solutions. The discussion culminated in integrated with their neighbourhoods, by teaching students about
a manifesto, entitled “How to Win Back Our Cities”, comprising the natural habitats (including biodiversity) within which their
a wish list of what the children wanted to see in their cities. The schools are embedded, by sharing resources and by formalising
dialogue yielded, among other things, a unanimous call for green environmental education within the curriculum. The role of
places. Specifically, the children wanted to see: “the presence of designers is equally important as they can orient their planning
‘other living creatures’… know[ing] that caring for a place and toward facilitating environmental education.
considering carefully its design can represent opportunities for
active, effective environmental education” (Francis and Lorenzo,
2005, p. 231). They appeared not to want “special places for
children only” (ibid, p. 230). They wanted these places to be
integrated with other uses, such as “work, commerce and culture”
(ibid, p. 230). They wanted an integral role in adult life, and not
to be merely seen as “adults in waiting” (Wyness, 1999). They
envisioned themselves designing cities together with other children,
adults, planners, designers and decision makers. Tellingly, the wish
list also included “boundless” suggestions (Sutton and Kemp,
2005, p. 275), such as “a beautiful, colourful school in the middle
of a garden” (Francis and Lorenzo, 2005, p. 230) (see Box 5.18).
But it is equally important to consider the adults. Early studies into

environmental education suggest that “awareness” — i.e., increasing
knowledge about the environment — leads to favourable attitudes,
which leads ultimately to actions that enhance environmental
quality (Ramsey and Rickson, 1977). But recent research has also
underscored the role of other ingredients, such as “ownership” and
“empowerment”: Amassing more knowledge about environmental
issues merely increases awareness which need not translate into
environmentally sensitive attitudes or behaviour. Instead, what is
needed is “ownership” of environmental issues and “empowerment”
to effect change (Hungerford and Volk, 1990). Fig. 5.70 Classes held outdoors in the green spaces next to a school, Rajecke Teplice, Slovakia.
Book 1.indb 191 4/4/18 12:05 PM

We present several design strategies planners could mobilise. First,
they should help children and adults understand the new scientific
knowledge and techniques undergirding landscape services — e.g.,
the water filtration process. The landscape could be designed to
make the stormwater treatment process visible to users. Next, they
could provide interpretive panels to help users learn about the flora
and fauna of the environment, how to protect them, and how to
promote urban biodiversity. Knowledge is an important aspect of
environmental education, a critical precursor to pro-environmental

values (Genc, 2015). But experience is also important. Therefore,
third, given that environmental learning should begin from a
young age, we recommend that designers provide an area for
active interaction with natural elements to stimulate creativity and
imagination. The children’s manifesto earlier mentioned details
a much longer wish list, including such imaginative items such
as: “[being] able to interact with nature… which means: playing,

climbing, building huts, listening, looking and understanding”,
“to [be able to] experiment with a series of different experiences:
sleeping out of doors; strolling together”, “kites between the houses”,
“bridges between the windows”, “spaces where we can play in the
immediate vicinity of our houses”, “hav[ing] spaces which are not
furnished with the same old playing structures, but which we can
modify and change”, and “green spaces with many trees, bushes
and with high grass to hide in… with large lawns to roll on and dive
into… with lots of water at our disposition to play with” (Francis and
Lorenzo, 2005, pp. 229–230). Therefore, the designed area should
encourage direct contact with natural elements, such as soil, water
and vegetation. In all of this, ensuring safety by imposing standards
is important, as is an infusion of creative spaces for exploration.
Design targets
We propose two targets for landscape design. These are actionable
steps that designers can take and which can be spatially represented
in their plans. The first is to have at least one area dedicated to
children, an area for their active interaction with natural elements
to stimulate creativity and imagination. Children want “gathering
places where we can meet friends”, “with paths with lots of slopes to
ride our bikes on”. They would also like play structures that include
the “possibility to find branches, twigs, leaves, mud and stone to build
huts and hiding places” (Francis and Lorenzo, 2005, pp. 229–230).
The area could include special features like “water — safe exciting
place to play” (ibid) which the children in the Italian study say have
Fig. 5.71 Learning about nature through passive activity such as contemplation at
value to them. Cheonggyecheon stream, Seoul, South Korea.
Book 1.indb 192 4/4/18 12:05 PM

193
A second target designers could explore is the implementation of
play structures that are changeable rather than fixed. This would
allow children the flexibility to “create places they like” — places
at a “small scale” that “utilize recycled and low cost materials and
(which) include natural or ‘green’ elements” (Francis and Lorenzo,
2005, p. 231).
A performance indicator that could be explored is the extent to
which the open space is being used by children and adults (e.g.,
the number of users). Another is the degree to which the area is
continually curated to ensure the safety of the children; refurbishing
it occasionally (e.g., once a year) so it is always fresh and teeming
with opportunities for play and exploration.
Fig. 5.72 Making green spaces fun for children to explore.
Fig. 5.73 Tree hugging can be organised as an activity for environmental education, Poland.
Book 1.indb 193 4/4/18 12:05 PM

Fig. 5.74 Bringing students for an ecological walk as part of the curriculum, to explore the natural habitats around their school, (credit Dongsimwon Design Corp.).
Book 1.indb 194 4/4/18 12:05 PM

195
Benefits
• Environmental consciousness and sense of stewardship.
• Development of sustainable and responsible behaviours
among residents.
• Increased physical and mental health of community and
individuals through more contact with nature.
• Improved imaginative play with natural elements.
Box 5.18
A sample of children’s wishes from the

manifesto “How to Win Back Our Cities” put

together at the 1994 Children’s Congress in
Bologna.
We need:
To be able to interact with nature, even in cities. Which
means: playing, climbing, building huts, listening, looking and
understanding.
To experiment with a series of different experiences: sleeping
out of doors; strolling together, ‘kites between the houses’;
‘bridges between the windows’, etc.
Spaces where we can play in the immediate vicinity of our
houses.
Streets where cars must go slowly.
To have children theatres.
Something special like water — a safe exciting place to play.
We want green spaces with many trees, bushes and with
high grass to hide in.
With lots of fruit trees, from which we can pick fruit.
Without fixed, unchangeable play structures.
With the possibility to find branches, twigs, leaves, mud and
stone to build huts and hiding places.
With large lawns to roll on and dive into.
Safe and closed to traffic.
A beautiful, colourful school in the middle of a garden.
Book 1.indb 195 4/4/18 12:05 PM

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.75 Children interacting with natural elements and spaces not specifically designed for play: (a) Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park, Singapore; (b) Children rolling on the green fields at a farm park
in Sapporo, Japan.
Integrated design strategies Targets

1. Involve the community in the design for provision of 1. >1 space dedicated for active interaction with natural
landscape services. elements.
2. Design to encourage direct contact with natural elements
such as soil, water and vegetation.
3. Design to reveal the natural processes associated with
1. Number of environmental educational activities using
landscape services.
neighbourhood landscape.
4. Provide an area for active interaction with natural
2. Number of refurbishments and upgrades made to
elements to stimulate creativity and imagination.
children play areas.
5. Provide interpretive panels to help residents learn about
the landscape services and flora and fauna.
Book 1.indb 196 4/4/18 12:05 PM

197
Fig. 5.76 Interpretative panels illustrating environmental facts to the public: (a) Sengkang Wetland, Singapore; (b) Educational street art, Penang, Malaysia; (c) Augstenborg Park, Malmo,
Sweden; (d) Ballard Rocks, Seattle, USA; (e) Berlin, Germany; (f) HortPart, Singapore; (g), Nature Park, Leipzig, Germany; (h) Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne, Australia; (i) and (j)
Everglades, Florida, USA; (k) Southern Ridges, Singapore.
Book 1.indb 197 4/4/18 12:05 PM

Book 1.indb 198

Fig. 5.77 Cycling on a gravelled path.
4/4/18 12:05 PM
199
P5 Recreation Agnieszka O. Guizzo | Jane Chan
T
he most recognisable service that neighbourhood of this phenomenon has led to growing advocacy for children to
landscapes have for people living within its vicinity is spend time outdoors for recreation.
the provision of space for recreation. Recreation can
Neighbourhood landscapes hold much potential for this service,
be divided into active and passive, solitary and group activities;
provided that they are designed to be attractive for recreational uses.
encompassing sports (jogging, skating, dancing, etc.), walking, and
The aim of designing neighbourhood landscapes for recreational
various more sedentary activities such as chatting, playing chess
opportunities is thus to create an environment that attracts outdoor
and nature contemplation (see Box 5.19 for types of recreational
recreational uses, community interactions, as well as space for
activities in neighbourhoods in Singapore).

contemplation.
The benefits of outdoor recreation are well-documented. These
pertain not just to improved health due to physical activity; Integrated design strategies
recreation also fosters familiarity and attachment with the place, as A key strategy for promoting the use of green outdoor spaces is the
well as with the community using the same spaces. By fostering closer accessibility and availability of such spaces to residents. Multiple
contact with the natural environment, outdoor recreation promotes studies (e.g. Outdoor Industry Association, 2010; Godbey, 2009)
other socio-cultural benefits described in the preceding sections, such underscore a logical deduction: the closer people are to an amenity,
as appreciation of aesthetics, mental restoration, and education on the more likely they are to use the space. Of course, the space itself
environmental processes. Neighbourhood landscapes, as the most and the route to access it need to be attractive for use — for instance,
immediate form of natural environment, are a key resource to meet through a diversity of passive and active recreation facilities for
the recreational needs of urban dwellers. different age groups. Besides providing different facilities, designers
Such a role of neighbourhood landscapes in the context of should try to create spaces with multiple functions to enhance
high-density living and contemporary lifestyle should not be imaginative use and creativity. This is especially important to
underestimated. This is particularly the case for children. Richard stimulate the motivation to physical activity (Lee, 2004).
Louv (2008) in his discourse on children’s lack of contact with nature, With respect to accessibility and provision of spaces, there is also a
highlights that the vicinity where children were allowed to roam need to consider the distribution of neighbourhood landscapes at
on their own in the 1990s was a ninth of what it had been in the a broader scale, and assess if different social-economic and socio-
1970s. In the United States, between 1997 and 2003, there was a cultural groups have equal opportunities and access to use such
reduction of 50% in the proportion of children between age 9 and spaces. Inequitable distribution of green spaces, such as parks and
12 who spent time on outdoor activities such as hiking, gardening, other common green open spaces, is reported in many cities (see
beach play, etc. (Louv, 2008). A more recent study conducted by Tan and Samsudin, 2017). The distribution of public or common
the English government found that in UK cities, more than 10% of neighbourhood landscapes needs to be considered upfront in
the children had not spent time in the natural environment for at neighbourhood planning.
least a year (Hunt, 2016). This led Richard Louv to coin the term
“nature deficit disorder”, characterised by alienation from nature,
diminished use of the senses, higher rates of physical and emotional
illnesses and difficulties in attention (Louv, 2008). The awareness
Book 1.indb 199 4/4/18 12:05 PM

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.78 a) and b): Playground integrated with a nearby stream in Malmo, Sweden.
As walking is the most common form of adult physical activity, it is

worthwhile to pay particular attention to how footpaths are designed,
rather than considering them simply as routes to connect different
points in the landscape. A useful framework is proposed by Thwaites
(2001), who suggests using experiential landscape design that takes
into consideration the orientation, movement, view and change
encountered as people navigate along a route. Walking for recreation
is also a dominant form of spending time outdoors; designers could
consider a sequential approach to allow access to visually pleasing
vistas and open spaces with seats for resting. Applying the same
concept for cycling paths would improve the cyclist experience and
increase levels of physical activity.
Design should include separate walking and cycling paths, pavings

for cyclists, regularity and density of street lights and safe crosswalks
through the streets (Panter et al., 2010). Studies show that high
connectivity of pathways significantly increases the patterns of
walking and cycling (Saelens et al., 2003). Connectivity is not
necessarily expressed by the number of paths implemented in
the landscape. Too many paths, links or dead ends lead to more
confusion and disorientation in space rather than better functioning
of the space (Handy, Paterson, and Butler, 2004). A good connectivity
plan for the neighbourhood landscape includes connecting it with
recreational facilities located beyond this neighbourhood, such as
those in other neighbourhoods, urban parks, etc. Fig. 5.79 A big tree as an integral part of a playground at South Bank, Brisbane, Australia.
Book 1.indb 200 4/4/18 12:05 PM

201
A common barrier to the use of outdoor spaces is climate, especially Promotion of forest recreation, which is related to the promotion
in the hot and humid conditions of the tropics. Design has a role in and conservation of urban forests in cities, is also relevant to
creating recreational spaces that are comfortable. This is particularly neighbourhoods sited close to such forests. Urban forests, among
connected to the heat mitigation landscape service mentioned in many other benefits for health and well-being, are great spaces
preceding sections. Recreational spaces in the neighbourhoods of for everyday recreation for residents and provide a wilderness
high ecological quality should be associated with natural elements, experience right next door (Bell et al., 2009; Kaplan and Talbot,
such as green spaces with multiple layers of vegetation and 1983). Besides providing the place for forest recreation, they
waterbodies. contribute to the accumulation of many other landscape services,
such as the provision of wildlife habitat and heat mitigation.
Box 5.19
Types and barriers of physical activites in Singapore neighbourhood landscapes

Types of physical activities happening in neighbourhood landscapes and the barriers that prevent people from spending time
outdoors, based on a nation-wide household survey in Singapore (unpublished).
Book 1.indb 201 4/4/18 12:05 PM

Box 5.20
Area for active interaction with natural elements to stimulate creativity and imagination, e.g., play with soil, dig holes, plant, design,
climb trees, build a tree house, etc.
nature observation
tree house
climbing
swinging
playing with water
digging & gardening
Fig. 5.80 Creative playground in Arnulfpark, Munich, Germany. Fig. 5.81 An open canal provides a place for imaginative recreation, Moerenuma Park, Japan.
Book 1.indb 202 4/4/18 12:05 PM

203
To encourage closer connection with natural elements in the Performance indicators
neighbourhood, we also suggest creating an area where children,
Several indicators can be used to assess the success of neighbourhood
and adults can play and spend time creatively with nature
landscapes in serving as recreational spaces, for example, the
(see examples in Box 5.20). Unsupervised play in natural elements
percentage of residents who use the neighbourhood landscapes
to replace
will build children’s relationship with the environment, and this may
for recreation and their frequency of use, or satisfaction with the
have longer term implications on fostering care for the environment.
to replace
For instance, a study found that most professionals involved with
environmental work or nature hobbyists had a childhood that
recreational opportunities and experience in the neighbourhood.
Such quantitative assessments should be supplemented by a
qualitative understanding of residents’ perceptions and use
included unstructured playtime in nature (James, Bixler, and Vidala,
whenever possible.
2010).

1. Ensure equitable access to recreational spaces.

2. Design pleasant walking and cycling experience for
recreational spaces.
3. Ensure high connectivity of walking and cycling
to replace
pathways within neighbourhood to encourage use of
recreational spaces.
4. Connect recreational areas within and beyond the
neighbourhood to increase recreational opportunities.
5. Provide a diversity of active and passive recreational
opportunities.
6. Design spaces with multiple recreational uses.
7. Design to encourage physical activities.
8. Design comfortable recreational spaces by considering
microclimate.
9. Design passive recreational opportunities in forested
areas and waterfront areas.
10. Provide area for active interaction with natural elements
to stimulate creativity and imagination.
1. Percentage of residents who use the neighbourhood
spaces for recreation.
2. Frequency of use.
3. Satisfaction with recreational opportunities and
experience in the neighbourhood.
Fig. 5.82 Passive recreation in Lumpini Park, Bangkok, Thailand.
Book 1.indb 203 4/4/18 12:05 PM

References
Akbari, H., Pomerantz, M., & Taha, H. (2001). Cool surfaces and shade trees to reduce Bell, S., Simpson, M., Tyrväinen, L., Sievänen, T., & Pröbstl, U. (Eds.). (2009). European
energy use and improve air quality in urban areas. Solar Energy, 70(3), 295–310. forest recreation and tourism: A handbook. London: Taylor & Francis.
Akram, W., & Ali-Khan, H. A. (2016). Odonate nymphs: Generalist predators and their Benfield, J. A., Bell, P. A., Troup, L. J., & Soderstrom, N. C. (2010). Aesthetic and affective
potential in the management of dengue mosquito, Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). effects of vocal and traffic noise on natural landscape assessment. Journal of Environmental
Journal of Arthropod-Borne Diseases, 10(2), 253–258. Psychology, 30(1), 103–111.
Alaimo, K., Reischl, T. M., & Allen, J. O. (2010). Community gardening, neighborhood Beninde, J., Veith, M., & Hochkirch, A. (2015). Biodiversity in cities needs space: A meta-
meetings, and social capital. Journal of Community Psychology, 38(4), 497–514. analysis of factors determining intra-urban biodiversity variation. Ecology Letters, 18(6),
581–592.
Alberti, M., Booth, D., Hill, K., Coburn, B., Avolio, C., Coe, S., & Spieandelli, D. (2007).
The impact of urban patterns on aquatic ecosystems: An empirical analysis in Puget Bennett, E. M., Peterson, G. D., & Gordon, L. J. (2009). Understanding relationships
lowland sub-basins. Landscape and Urban Planning, 80, 345–361. among multiple ecosystem services. Ecology Letters, 12(12), 1394–1404.
Alberti, M. (2008). Biogeochemical processes. In Advances in urban ecology: Integrating humans BERDE. (2013). Building for ecologically responsive design excellence for new
and ecological processes in urban ecosystems (pp. 163–181). Boston, MA: Springer US. construction: Commercial buildings version 1.1.0. Philippine Green Building Council.
Retrieved from http://philgbc.net/berde/berde-nc/1.1.0/BERDE-NC-COM-v110.pdf.
Aliyah, I., Setioko, B., & Pradoto, W. (2017). Spatial flexibility in cultural mapping of
traditional market area in Surakarta (A case study of Pasar Gede in Surakarta). City, Berhe, A. A., Carpenter, E., Codispoti, L., Izac, A., Lemoalle, J., Luiazao, F., . . . & Ward,
Culture and Society, 4(1), 63–74. B. (2005). Nutrient cycling. In R. Hassan, R. Scholes, & N. Ash (Eds.), Ecosystem and human
well-being: Current state and trends: Findings of the conditions and trends working group (pp. 333–353).
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRE).
(2009). Handbook. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and

Air-Conditioning Engineers. Retrieved from http://shop.iccsafe.org/media/wysiwyg/ Bishop, B., & Vicary, D. (2003). Paradoxes, parables and conundrums: A new sense of
material/8950P217-toc.pdf. community. Network, The Journal of the College of Community Psychologists, 14(1), 33–37.
Anderson, C. A. (1989). Temperature and aggression: Ubiquitous effects of heat on Blaustein, R. (2013). Urban biodiversity gains new converts: Cities around the world
occurrence of human violence. Psychological Bulletin, 106(1), 74. are conserving species and restoring habitat. BioScience, 63(2), 72–77. doi:10.1525/
bio.2013.63.2.3.
Anderson, L., Mulligan, B., & Goodman, L. (1984). Effects of vegetation on human
response to sound. Journal of Arboriculture, 10(2), 45–49. Booth, D. B., & Jackson, C. R. (1997). Urbanization of aquatic systems: Degradation
thresholds, stormwater detection, and the limits of mitigation. Journal of the American Water
Appleton, J. (1975). The experience of landscape. London: Wiley.
Resources Association, 33(5), 1077–1090.
Arefi, M. (1999). Non‐place and placelessness as narratives of loss: Rethinking the notion
Bowler, D. E., Buyung-Ali, L., Knight, T. M., & Pullin, A. S. (2010). Urban greening to
of place. Journal of Urban Design, 4(2), 179–193.
cool towns and cities: A systematic review of the empirical evidence. Landscape and Urban
Arnold, C. L., & Gibbons, C. J. (1996). Impervious surface coverage: the emergence of a Planning, 97(3), 147–155.
key environmental indicator. Journal of the American Planning Association, 62(2), 243–258.
Braae, E., & Diedrich, L. (2012). Site specificity in contemporary large-scale harbour
Attenborough, K., Li, K. M., & Horoshenkov, K. (2006). Predicting outdoor sound. Boca transformation projects. Journal of Landscape Architecture, 7(1),20–33.
Raton: CRC Press.
Brussaard, L., Caron, P., Campbell, B., Lipper, L., Mainka, S., Rabbinge, R., Babin, D.,
Aylor, D. (1972). Noise reduction by vegetation and ground. The Journal of the Acoustical & Pulleman, M. (2010). Reconciling biodiversity conservation and food security: Scientific
Society of America, 51(1B), 197–205. challenges for a new agriculture. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 2(1), 34–42.
Azkorraa, Z., Pérez, G., Coma, J., Cabeza, L. F., Bures, S., Álvaro, J. E., Erkoreka, A., & Burns, C. J., & Kahn, A. (2005). Why site matters. In J. Burns & A. Kahn (Eds.), Site matters
Urrestarazu, M. (2015). Evaluation of green walls as a passive acoustic insulation system (pp. vii–xxix). New York and London: Routledge.
for buildings. Applied Acoustics, 89(2015), 46–56.
Butchart, S. H. M., Walpole, M., Collen, B., van Strien, A., Scharlemann, J. P. W.,
Ballantyne, R. R., & Packer, J. M. (1996). Teaching and learning in environmental Almond, R. E. A., . . . & Watson, R. (2010). Global biodiversity: Indicators of recent
education: Developing environmental conceptions. The Journal of Environmental declines. Science, 328(5982), 1164–1168. doi:10.1126/science.1187512.
Education, 27(2), 25–32.
Butler, S., Vickery, J., & Norris, K. (2007). Farmland biodiversity and the footprint of
Balogun, A. A., Morakinyo, T. E., & Adegun, O. B. (2014). Effect of tree-shading on agriculture. Science, 315(5810), 381–384.
energy demand of two similar buildings. Energy and Buildings, 81, 305–315.
Calvet-Mir, L., Gómez-Baggethun, E., & Reyes-García, V. (2012). Beyond food
Barton, J., & Pretty, J. (2010). What is the best dose of nature and green exercise for production: Ecosystem services provided by home gardens. A case study in Vall Fosca,
improving mental health? A multi-study analysis. Environmental Science & Technology, 44(10), Catalan Pyrenees, Northeastern Spain. Ecological Economics, 74, 153–160.
3947–3955.
Campbell-Lendrum, D., & Corvalán, C. (2007). Climate change and developing-country
Bates, W. H. (2004). Perfect sight without glasses. International Society for the Enhancement cities: Implications for environmental health and equity. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin
of Eyesight. of the New York Academy of Medicine, 84(Suppl 1), 109–117. doi:10.1007/s11524-007-9170-x.
Baveye, P. C., Baveye, J., & Gowdy, J. (2016). Soil “ecosystem” services and natural capital: Cardinale, B. J., Duffy, J. E., Gonzalez, A., Hooper, D. U., Perrings, C., Venail, P.,
Critical appraisal of research on uncertain ground. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 4, 41. Narwani, A., Mace, G. M., Tilman, D., Wardle, D. A., Kinzig, A. P., Daily, G. C., Loreau,
doi:10.3389/fenvs.2016.00041. M., Grace, J. B., Larigauderie, A., Srivastava, D. S., & Naeem, S. (2012). Biodiversity loss
and its impact on humanity. Nature, 486(7401), 59–67. doi:10.1038/nature11148.
Beatley, T. (2011). Biophilic cities: Integrating nature into urban design and planning. Washington,
DC: Island Press.
Book 1.indb 204 4/4/18 12:05 PM

205
Carlson, D., & Knight, R. (1987). Mosquito production and hydrological capacity of de Groot, R. S., Wilson, M. A., & Boumans, R. M. J. (2002). A typology for the
southeast Florida impoundments used for wastewater retention. Journal of the American classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services.
Mosquito Control Association, 3(1),74–83. Ecological Economics, 41(3), 393–408. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(02)00089-7.
Centre for Urban Greenery and Ecology (CUGE). (2009). Specifications for soil mixture for Dearborn, D. C., & Kark, S. (2010). Motivations for conserving urban biodiversity.
general landscaping uses. Singapore: Centre for Urban Greenery and Ecology. Conservation Biology, 24(2), 432–440. doi:10.2307/40603368.
Chahine, M. T. (1992). The hydrological cycle and its influence on climate. Nature, Department of Statistics (DOS). (2017). Department of Statistics, Singapore. Retrieved
359(6394), 373–380. from http://www.singstat.gov.sg/.
Cha, J.-G., Jung, E.-H., Ryu, J.-W., & Kim, D.-W. (2007). Constructing a green network Deutsch, L., & Folke, C. (2005). Ecosystem subsidies to Swedish food consumption from
and wind corridor to alleviate the urban heat-island. Journal of the Korean Association of 1962 to 1994. Ecosystems, 8(5), 512–528.
Geographic Information Studies, 10(1), 102–112.
Deutsch, L., Dyball, R., & Steffen, W. (2013). Feeding cities: Food security and ecosystem
Chan, L., & Djoghlaf, A. (2009). Invitation to help compile an index of biodiversity in support in an urbanizing world. In T. Elmqvist et al. (Eds.), Urbanization, biodiversity and
cities. Nature, 460(7251), 33–33. doi:doi.org/10.1038/460033a. ecosystem services: Challenges and opportunities (pp. 505–537). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.
Chaparro, L., & Terradas, J. (2009). Ecological services of urban forest in Barcelona. Dzhambov, A. M., & Dimitrova, D. D. (2014). Urban green spaces’ effectiveness as a
Bellaterra: Centre de Recerca Ecològica I Aplicacions Forestals, Universitat Autònoma de psychological buffer for the negative health impact of noise pollution: A systematic review.
Barcelona. Retrieved from https://www.itreetools.org/resources/reports/Barcelona%20 Noise and Health, 16(70), 157.
Ecosystem%20Analysis.pdf.
Elser, J., & Bennett, E. (2011). Phosphorus cycle: A broken biogeochemical cycle. Nature,
Chen, W. Y. (2017). Urban nature and urban ecosystem services. In P. Y. Tan & C. Y. Jim 478(7367), 29–31.
(Eds.), Greening cities: Forms and functions (pp. 181–199). Singapore: Springer Singapore.
Erell, E., Pearlmutter, D., & Williamson, T. (2011). Urban microclimate. Designing the spaces
Cho, I. S., & Chong, K. H. (2014). Impact of Built Environment on Community Bonding. between buildings. London, UK: Earthscan.
In Cheong Koon Hean (Chair), Community bonding seminar. Seminar conducted by the
Housing & Development Board, Singapore. Færge, J., Magid, J., & Penning De Vries, F. W. T. (2001). Urban nutrient balance for
Bangkok. Ecological Modelling, 139(1), 63–74. doi:10.1016/S0304-3800(01)00233-2.
Chong, K. H. (2016). The evolution of HDB towns. In C. K. Heng (Ed.), Fifty years of
urban planning in Singapore (pp. 101–125). Singapore: World Scientific. Fang, C.-F., & Ling, D.-L. (2003). Investigation of the noise reduction provided by tree
belts. Landscape and Urban Planning, 63(4), 187–195.
Choy, D. L., & Prineas, T. (2006). Parks for people: Meeting the outdoor recreation
demands of a growing regional population. Annals of Leisure Research, 9(1–2), 86–109. Fang, C.-F., & Ling, D.-L. (2005). Guidance for noise reduction provided by tree belts.
Landscape and Urban Planning, 71(1), 29–34.
Clancy, J., & Ryan, C. (2015). The role of biophilic design in landscape architecture for
health and well-being. Landscape Architecture Frontiers, 3(1), 54–62. Fernandez, W. (2011). Our homes: 50 years of housing a nation. Singapore: Straits Times Press.
Coley, R. L., Kuo, F. E., & Sullivan, W. C. (1997). Where does community grow? The Ferraguti, M., Martínez-de La Puente, J., Roiz, D., Ruiz, S., Soriguer, R., & Figuerola,
social context created by nature in urban public housing. Environment and Behavior, 29(4), J. (2016). Effects of landscape anthropization on mosquito community composition and
468–494. abundance. Scientific Reports, 6. doi:10.1038/srep29002.
Cook, D. I., & Van Haverbeke, D. F. (1974). Tree-covered land-forms for noise control. Filleul, L., Cassadou, S., Médina, S., Fabres, P., Lefranc, A., Eilstein, D., Le Tertre, A.,
Historical Research Bulletins of the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station (1913–1993), 263. Pascal, L., Chardon, B., Blanchard, M., Declercq, C., Jusot, J. F., Prouvost, H., & Ledrans,
M. (2006). The relation between temperature, ozone, and mortality in nine French cities
Cooper, N., Brady, E., Steen, H., & Bryce, R. (2016). Aesthetic and spiritual values of during the heat wave of 2003. Environmental Health Perspectives, 114(9), 1344–1347.
ecosystems: Recognising the ontological and axiological plurality of cultural ecosystem
“services”. Ecosystem Services, 21, 218–229. Foley, J. A., DeFries, R., Asner, G. P., Barford, C., Bonan, G., Carpenter, S. R., Chapin,
F. S., Coe, M. T., Daily, G. C., Holly, K. G., Helkowski, J. H., Holloway, T., Howard, E.
Craul, P. J. (1992). Urban soil in landscape design. London: John Wiley & Sons. A., Kucharik, C. J., Monfreda, C., Patz, J. A., Prentice, C., Ramankutty, N., & Snyder, P.
K.(2005). Global consequences of land use. Science, 309(5734), 570–574.
Crites, R. W., Middlebrooks, E. J., Bastian, R. K., & Reed, S. C. (2014). Natural wastewater
treatment systems, 2nd Edition. Boca Raton: CRC Press. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2015). Status of the World’s Soil Resources (SWSR)
— Main Report. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/c6814873-
Daily, G., Dasgupta, P., Bolin, B., Crosson, P., Du Guerny, J., Ehrlich, P., Folke, C., efc3-41db-b7d3-2081a10ede50/.
Jansson, A. M., Jansson, B. O., Kautsky, N., Kinzig, A., Levin, S., Maler, K.-G., Pinstrup-
Andersen, P., Siniscalco, D., & Walker, B. (1998). Food production, population growth, Forman, R. T. T. (2014). Urban ecology: Science of cities. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
and the environment. Science, 281(5381), 1291–1292. University Press.
Dallimer, M., Irvine, K. N., Skinner, A. M. J., Davies, Z. G., Rouquette, J. R., Maltby, L. Forsyth, A., Musacchio, L., & Fitzgerald, F. (2005). Designing small parks: A manual for
L., Warren, P. H., Armsworth, P. R., & Gaston, K. J. (2012). Biodiversity and the feel-good addressing social and ecological concerns. London: John Wiley & Sons.
factor: Understanding associations between self-reported human well-being and species
richness. BioScience, 62(1), 47–55. doi:10.1525/bio.2012.62.1.9. Francis, M., & Lorenzo, R. (2005). Children and city design: Proactive process and the
“renewal” of childhood. In C. Spencer & M. Bladen (Eds.), Children and their environments:
Daniel, T. C. (2001). Whither scenic beauty? Visual landscape quality assessment in the Learning, using and designing spaces (pp. 217–237). New York: Cambridge University Press.
21st century. Landscape and Urban Planning, 54(1), 267–281.
Fredrickson, L. M. (1996). Exploring spiritual benefits of person–nature interactions through an
de Groot, R. S., Alkemade, R., Braat, L., Hein, L., & Willemen, L. (2010). Challenges ecosystem management approach (Dissertation). University of Minnesota, MN.
in integrating the concept of ecosystem services and values in landscape planning,
management and decision making. Ecological Complexity, 7(3), 260–272. doi:10.1016/j. French, P. W. (2006). Managed realignment — The developing story of a comparatively
ecocom.2009.10.006. new approach to soft engineering. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 67, 409–423.
Book 1.indb 205 4/4/18 12:05 PM

Fuller, R. A., Irvine, K. N., Devine-Wright, P., Warren, P. H., & Gaston, K. J. (2007). Handy, S., Paterson, R. G., & Butler, K. (2004). Planning for street connectivity: Getting
Psychological benefits of greenspace increase with biodiversity, 3(4), 390–394. from here to there. APA Planning Advisory Service Report, (515), 1–75.
Gagné, S. A., Eigenbrod, F., Bert, D. G., Cunnington, G. M., Olson, L. T., Smith, Hart, D. M. (1982). Urban soil erosion: A neglected problem. Australian Planner, 20(4),
A. C., & Fahrig, L. (2015). A simple landscape design framework for biodiversity 166–168. doi:10.1080/07293682.1982.9656996.
conservation. Landscape and Urban Planning, 136, 13–27. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
landurbplan.2014.11.006. Hartig, T., Evans, G. W., Jamner, L. D., Davis, D. S., & Gärling, T. (2003). Tracking
restoration in natural and urban field settings. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23(2),
Gardner, A. M., Anderson, T. K., Hamer, G. L., Johnson, D. E., Varela, K. E., Walker, E. 109–123.
D., & Ruiz, M. O. (2013). Terrestrial vegetation and aquatic chemistry influence larval
mosquito abundance in catch basins, Chicago USA. Parasites & Vectors, 6(1), 9. Hashempour, R. (2013). Identity and sense of place in the new cities. Proceedings of
the International Symposium Urban Mobility and Integrated Transportation. https://data.
Gartland, L. M. (2012). Heat islands: Understanding and mitigating heat in urban areas. New York: opendevelopmentmekong.net/dataset/6f3db07a-b352-4055-960f-0f8430c28197/
Routledge. resource/859772f1-c178-4329-a5a6-00d882650d94/download/Symposium-Urban-
Mobility-Integrated-Transportation-Planning.pdf
Genc, M. (2015). The project-based learning approach in environmental education.

International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 24(2), 105–117. Hassan, R., Scholes, R., & Ash, N. (2005). MA conceptual framework. In R. Hassan, R.
Scholes, & N. Ash (Eds.), Ecosystem and human well-being: Current state and trends, findings of the
Giuliani, M. V., & Feldman, R. (1993). Place attachment in a developmental and cultural Conditions and Trends Working Group (pp. 26–36). Washington, DC: Island Press.
context. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 13, 267–274.
Hee, L., & Heng, C.-K. (2004). Transformation of space. In K. Stanilov, & B. Case Sheer
Glover, T. (2004). Social capital in the lived experiences of community gardeners. Leisure (Eds.), Suburban Form (pp. 127–147). New York: Routledge.
Sciences: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 26(2), 143–162.
Herrington, L. (1976). Effect of vegetation on the propagation of noise in the out-of-
Godbey, G. (2009). Outdoor recreation, health, and wellness: Understanding and doors. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report, US Rocky Mountain Forest Range Experimental
enhancing the relationship. Washington, DC:Resources for the Future. Retrieved from Station, 25, 229–233.
http://www.rff.org/files/sharepoint/WorkImages/Download/RFF-DP-09-21.pdf
Hidalgo, M. C., & Hernandez, B. (2001). Place attachment: Conceptual and empirical
Godfray, H. C. J., Crute, I. R., Haddad, L., Lawrence, D., Muir, J. F. , Nisbett, N., Pretty, questions. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21(3), 273–281.
J., Robinson, S. Toulmin, C., & Whiteley, R. (2010). The future of the global food system.
Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences, 365(1554), Hill, K. (2005). Shifting sites. In C. J. Burns & A. Kahn (Eds.), Site matters (pp. 131–156).
2769–77. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0180. New York and London: Routledge.
Goertzen, D., & Suhling, F. (2013). Promoting dragonfly diversity in cities: Major Hiss, T. (1990). The experience of place. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
determinants and implications for urban pond design. Journal of Insect Conservation, 17(2),
399–409. Hodgson, K. (2011). Community character: How arts and cultural strategies create,
reinforce and enhance sense of place. Retrieved from American Planning Association
Gorgolewski, M., Komisar, J., & Nasr, J. (2011). Carrot city. New York: Monacelli. website: https://www.planning.org/research/arts/briefingpapers/character.htm.
Gómez-Baggethun, E., & Barton, D. N. (2013). Classifying and valuing ecosystem services Hou, J. (2017). Urban community gardens as multimodal social spaces. In P. Y. Tan
for urban planning. Ecological Economics, 86, 235–245. & C. Y. Jim (Eds.), Greening cities: Forms and functions (pp. 113–130). Singapore: Springer
Singapore.
Gratz, N. G. (1999). Emerging and resurging vector-borne diseases. Annual Review of
Entomology, 44(1), 51–75. Hough, R. L. (2014). Biodiversity and human health: Evidence for causality? Biodiversity
and Conservation, 23(2), 267–288. doi:10.1007/s10531-013-0614-1.
Greenway, M., Dale, P., & Chapman, H. (2003). An assessment of mosquito breeding and
control in four surface flow wetlands in tropical-subtropical Australia. Water Science and Howe, C., Suich, H., Vira, B., & Mace, G. M. (2014). Creating win-wins from trade-offs?
Technology, 48(5), 249–256. Ecosystem services for human well-being: a meta-analysis of ecosystem service trade-offs
and synergies in the real world. Global Environmental Change, 28, 263–275.
Gross, A., Kaplan, D., & Baker, K. (2007). Removal of chemical and microbiological
contaminants from domestic greywater using a recycled vertical flow bioreactor (RVFB). Huang, Y., Akbari, H., Taha, H., & Rosenfeld, A. H. (1987). The potential of vegetation
Ecological Engineering, 31, 107–114. in reducing summer cooling loads in residential buildings. Journal of Climate and Applied
Meteorology, 26(9), 1103–1116.
Haase, D., Schwarz, N., Strohbach, M., Kroll, F., & Seppelt, R. (2012). Synergies,
trade-offs, and losses of ecosystem services in urban regions: An integrated multiscale Hungerford, H., & Volk, T. (1990). Changing learner behavior through environmental
framework applied to the Leipzig-Halle Region, Germany. Ecology and Society, 17(3), 22. education. The Journal of Environmental Education, 21(3), 8–21.
Hagen, S., Salisbury, S., Wierenga, M., Xu, G., & Lewis, L. (2002). Soil bioengineering Hunt, A., Stewart, D., Burt, J., & Dillon, J. (2016). Monitor of engagement with the natural
as an alternative for roadside management: Benefit–cost analysis case study. Transportation environment: A pilot to develop an indicator of visits to the natural environment by children — Results
Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1794, 97–104. doi:10.3141/1794- from years 1 and 2 (March 2013 to February 2015) (Report No. 208). UK: Natural England.
12.
Hwang, Y. H. (2015). Vegetation: Transforming manicured lawns into selectively
Hallett, S., Hoagland, L., & Toner, E. (2016). Urban agriculture: Environmental, maintained biodiverse gardens. In Sustainable Landscape Maintenance (pp. 108–113).
economic, and social perspectives. Horticultural Reviews, 44, 65–120. Singapore: Centre for Urban Greenery and Ecology.
Hamid, A. R., & Tan, P. Y. (2017). Urban ecological networks for biodiversity Hwang Y. H. (2017). The influence of tree shade on micro-scale thermal conditions in
conservation in cities. In P. Y. Tan & C. Y. Jim (Eds.), Greening cities: Forms and functions (pp. tropical urban parks. In A. Cheshmehzangi & C. Butters (Eds.), Designing Cooler Cities —
251–277). Singapore: Springer Singapore. Energy, Cooling and Urban. UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hamner, P. C., Ringe, J. M., Pelkki, M. H., Graves, D. H., & Sweigard, R. J. (1999). An Hwang, Y. H., Lum, Q. J. G., & Chan, Y. K. D. (2015). Micro-scale thermal performance
economic evaluation of soil bioengineering as a method for slope stability on abandoned of tropical urban parks in Singapore. Building and Environment, 94, 467–476.
mine land in Eastern Kentucky. International Journal of Surface Mining, Reclamation and
Environment, 13(3), 117–124. doi:10.1080/09208119908944227. Imbert, D. (Ed.). (2015). Food and the city: Histories of culture and cultivation. Boston: Harvard
University Press.
Book 1.indb 206 4/4/18 12:05 PM

207
James, J. J., Bixler, R. D., & Vadala, C. E. (2010). From play in nature, to recreation then Landau, K. I., van Leeuwen, W. J. (2012). Fine scale spatial urban land cover factors
vocation: A developmental model for natural history-oriented environmental professionals. associated with adult mosquito abundance and risk in Tucson, Arizona. Journal of Vector
Children Youth and Environments, 20(1), 231–256. Ecology, 37(2), 407–418.
Jiang, B., Li, D., Larsen, L., & Sullivan, W. C. (2016). A dose-response curve describing Larson, S., De Freitas, D. M., & Hicks, C. C. (2013). Sense of place as a determinant
the relationship between urban tree cover density and self-reported stress recovery. of people’s attitudes towards the environment: Implications for natural resources
Environment and Behavior, 48(4), 607–629. management and planning in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Journal of Environmental
Management, 117, 226–234.
Kaplan, R., & Kaplan, S. (1989). The experience of nature: A psychological perspective.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lawson, L. (2005). City bountiful: A century of community gardening in the United States. Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press.
Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework.
Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15(3), 169–82. Lee, C., & Moudon, A. V. (2004). Physical activity and environment research in the health
field: Implications for urban and transportation planning practice and research. CPL
Kaplan, S. (2001). Meditation, restoration, and the management of mental fatigue. Bibliography, 19(2), 147–181.
Environment and Behavior, 33(4), 480–506.

Leigh, C. H. (1982). Urban development and soil erosion in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Kaplan, S., & Talbot, J. F. (1983). Psychological benefits of a wilderness experience. Journal of Environmental Management, 15(1), 35–45.
Behavior and the Natural Environment, 6, 163–203.
Leisnham, P. T., Slaney, D. P., Lester, P. J., & Weinstein, P. (2005). Increased larval
Kaye, J. P., Groffman, P. M., Grimm, N. B., Baker, L. A., & Pouyat, R. V. (2006). A distinct mosquito densities from modified land uses in the Kapiti region, New Zealand:
urban biogeochemistry. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 21(4), 192–199. Vegetation, water quality, and predators as associated environmental factors. EcoHealth,
2(4),313–322.
Kellert, S. R. (2005). Nature and childhood development. In Building for life: Designing and
understanding the human-nature connection (pp. 63–89). Washington, DC: Island Press. Leong, J. Y. C., Oh, K. S., Poh, P. E., & Chong, M. N. (2016). Prospects of hybrid
rainwater-greywater decentralized system for water recycling and reuse: A review. Journal
Kellert, S. R., Heerwagen, J. H., & Mador, M. L. (2008). Biophilic design. Retrieved from
of Cleaner Production, 142 (20), 3014–3027.

http://www. biophilicdesign.net/.
Liao, K. H., Le, T. A., & Nguyen, K. V. (2016). Urban design principles for flood
Kellert, S. R., Heerwagen, J., & Mador, M. (2011). Biophilic design: The theory, science and
resilience: Learning from the ecological wisdom of living with floods in the Vietnamese
practice of bringing buildings to life. London: John Wiley & Sons.
Mekong Delta. Landscape and Urban Planning, 155, 69–78.
Kelly, M. (Ed.). (1998). Encyclopedia of aesthetics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Liao, K. H., Deng, S. N., & Tan, P. Y. (2017). Blue-green infrastructure: New frontier for
Kingsley, J. Y., & Townsend, M. (2006). “Dig in” to social capital: Community gardens sustainable urban stormwater management. In P.Y. Tan & C.Y. Jim (Eds.), Greening cities:
as mechanisms for growing urban social connectedness. Urban Policy and Research, 24(4), Forms and functions (pp. 203–226). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.
525–537.
Libralato, G., Ghirardini, A. V., & Avezzu, F. (2012). To centralize or to decentralize:
Knight, R. L., Walton, W. E., O’Meara, G. F., Reisen, W. K., & Wass, R. (2003). Strategies An overview of the most recent trends in wastewater treatment management. Journal of
for effective mosquito control in constructed treatment wetlands. Ecological Engineering, Environmental Management, 94, 61–68.
21(4), 211–232.
Liefländer, A. K., Fröhlich, G., Bogner, F. X., & Schultz, P. W. (2013). Promoting
Kovacs, Z. I., LeRoy, C. J., Fischer, D. G., Lubarsky, S., & Burke, W. (2006). How do connectedness with nature through environmental education. Environmental Education
aesthetics affect our ecology? Journal of Ecological Anthropology, 10(1), 61. Research, 19(3), 370–384.
Kragh, J. (1981). Road traffic noise attenuation by belts of trees. Journal of Sound and Li, H., Harvey, J. T., Holland, T., & Kayhanian, M. (2013). The use of reflective and
Vibration, 74(2), 235–241. permeable pavements as a potential practice for heat island mitigation and stormwater
management. Environmental Research Letters, 8(1), 015023.
Kudryavtsev, A., Stedman, R. C., & Krasny, M. E. (2012). Sense of place in
environmental education. Environmental Education Research, 18(2), 229–250. Liefländer, A. K., Fröhlich, G., Bogner, F. X., & Schultz, P. W. (2012). Promoting
connectedness with nature through environmental education. Environmental Education
Kunz, T. H., Braun de Torrez, E., Bauer, D., Lobova, T., & Fleming, T. H. (2011). Research, 19(3), 370–384.
Ecosystem services provided by bats. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1223(1),
1–38. Lin, B. B., Philpott, S. M., & Jha, S. (2015). The future of urban agriculture and
biodiversity-ecosystem services: challenges and next steps. Basic and Applied Ecology, 16(3),
Kuo, F. E., & Sullivan, W. C. (2001). Environment and crime in the inner city: Does 189–201.
vegetation reduce Crime? Environment and Behavior, 33(3), 343–367.
Lin, B. B., Philpott, S. M., Jha, S., & Liere, H. (2017). Urban agriculture as a productive
Kuo, F. E., Sullivan, W. C., Coley, R. L., & Brunson, L. (1998). Fertile ground for green infrastructure for environmental and social well-being. In P. Y. Tan & C. Y. Jim
community: Inner-city neighbourhood common spaces. American Journal of Community (Eds.), Greening cities: Forms and functions (pp. 155–179). Singapore: Springer Singapore.
Psychology, 26(6), 823–851.
Lindblade, K. A., Walker, E. D., Onapa, A. W., Katungu, J., & Wilson, M. L. (2000).
Kwon, M. (2004). One place after another: Site-specific art and locational identity. Cambridge: MIT Land use change alters malaria transmission parameters by modifying temperature in a
Press. highland area of Uganda. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 5(4), 263–274.
Lal, R. (2010). Enhancing eco-efficiency in agro-ecosystems through soil carbon Lindvall, T., & Schwela, D. H. (1999). Guidelines for community noise. Geneva: World Health
sequestration. Crop Science, 50(Supplement 1), S-120–S-131. Organization.
Lambin, E. F., Tran, A., Vanwambeke, S. O., Linard, C., & Soti, V. (2010). Pathogenic Lothian, A. (1999). Landscape and the philosophy of aesthetics: Is landscape quality
landscapes: Interactions between land, people, disease vectors, and their animal hosts. inherent in the landscape or in the eye of the beholder? Landscape and Urban Planning, 44(4),
International Journal of Health Geographics, 9(1), 54. 177–198.
Louv, R. (2008). Last child in the woods: Saving our children from nature-deficit disorder. Chapel
Hill: Algonquin Books.
Book 1.indb 207 4/4/18 12:05 PM

Lovell, S. T. (2010). Multifunctional urban agriculture for sustainable land use planning in Musacchio, L. R. (2009). The scientific basis for the design of landscape sustainability:
the United States. Sustainability, 2(8), 2499–2522. A conceptual framework for translational landscape research and practice of designed
landscapes and the six Es of landscape sustainability. Landscape Ecology, 24(8), 993.
Lundholm, J. T. (2015). Green roof plant species diversity improves ecosystem
multifunctionality. Journal of Applied Ecology, 52(3), 726–734. doi:10.1111/1365- NACRF. (1970). Urban soil erosion and sediment control. Washington, DC: NACRF.
2664.12425.
Naeem, S., Duffy, J. E., & Zavaleta, E. (2012). The functions of biological diversity in an
Lynch, K. (1977). The image of the city. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. age of extinction. Science, 336(6087), 1401–1406. doi:10.1126/science.1215855.
Lyson, T. A. (2012). Civic agriculture: Reconnecting farm, food, and community. Lebanon, NH: Naiman, R. J., Decamps, H. The ecology of interfaces: Riparian zones. Annual Review of
University Press of New England. Ecology and Systematics, 28, 621–658.
Macfadyen, S., Cunningham, S. A., Costamagna, A. C., & Schellhorn, N. A. (2012). Nanzer, B. (2004). Measuring sense of place: A scale for Michigan. Administrative Theory &
Managing ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation in agricultural landscapes: Are Praxis, 26(3), 362–382.
the solutions the same? Journal of Applied Ecology, 49(3), 690–694.
Nassauer, J. I. (1997). Cultural sustainability: Aligning aesthetics and ecology. Washington, DC:
Maimon, A., Tal, A., Friedler, E., & Gross, A. (2010). Safe on-site reuse of greywater for Island Press.
irrigation — A critical review of current guidelines. Environmental Science and Technology, 44,
3213–3220. Nassauer, J., & Opdam, P. (2008). Design in science: Extending the landscape ecology
paradigm. Landscape Ecology, 23(6), 633–644.
Manteghi, G., bin Limit, H., & Remaz, D. (2015). Water bodies and urban microclimate:
A review. Modern Applied Science, 9(6), 1. National Parks Board. (2014). New measures to boost local farming and landscape sector. Retrieved
August 15, 2017, from https://www.nparks.gov.sg/news/2014/8/new-measures-to-boost-
Marsalek, J., Jimenez-Cisneros, B., Karamouz, M., Malmoquist, P., Goldenfum, J., & local-farming-and-landscape-sector.
Chocat, B. (2007). Urban Water Cycle Processes and Interactions. Leiden, The Netherlands:
Taylor & Francis . Nellemann, C., MacDevette, M., Manders, T., Eickhout, B., Svihus, B., Prins, A. G., &
Kaltenborn, B. P. (Eds). (2009). The environmental food crisis: The environment’s role in averting
Maslov, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper. future food crises (A UNEP Rapid Response Assessment). Retrieved from GRID-Arendal
website: www.grida.no.
May, T. S. (2000). Elements of success in environmental education through practitioner
eyes. The Journal of Environmental Education, 31(3), 4–11. Newman, P., & Jennings, I. (2012). Cities as sustainable ecosystems: Principles and practices.
McClintock, N. (2010). Why farm the city? Theorizing urban agriculture through a lens of metabolic
rift. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Norberg-Schulz, C. (1976). The phenomenon of place. The Urban Design Reader, 3,
125–137.
McDonald, R., Marcotullio, P., & Güneralp, B. (2013). Urbanization and global trends in
biodiversity and ecosystem services. In T. Elmqvist et al. (Eds.), Urbanization, biodiversity and Norris, D. E. (2004). Mosquito-borne diseases as a consequence of land use change.
ecosystem services: Challenges and opportunities (pp. 31–52). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. EcoHealth, 1(1), 19–24.
McHarg, I. L. (1964). The place of nature in the city of man. Annals of the American Norton, B. A., Coutts, A. M., Livesley, S. J., Harris, R. J., Hunter, A. M., & Williams,
Academy of Political and Social Science, 352(Urban Revival: Goals and Standards), 1–12. N. S. (2015). Planning for cooler cities: A framework to prioritise green infrastructure
to mitigate high temperatures in urban landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning, 134,
Medina, J. (2008). Brain rules. Edmonds, WA: Pear Press. 127–138.
Metson, G. S., & Bennett, E. M. (2015). Phosphorus cycling in Montreal’s food and urban Norton, B. A., Evans, K. L., & Warren, P. H. (2016). Urban biodiversity and landscape
agriculture systems. PLoS ONE, 10(3), e0120726. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0120726. ecology: Patterns, processes and planning. Current Landscape Ecology Reports, 1(4), 178–192.
Meyer, E. (2005). Site citations: The grounds of modern landscape. In C. J. Burns & A. Ochoa-Velasco, C. E., Valadez-Blanco, R., Salas-Coronado, R., Sustaita-Rivera, F.,
Kahn (Eds.), Site matters (pp. 93–130). New York and London: Routledge. Hernández-Carlos, B., García-Ortega, S., & Santos-Sánchez, N. F. (2016). Effect of
nitrogen fertilization and Bacillus licheniformis biofertilizer addition on the antioxidants
Miles, M. (1997). Art, space and the city: public art and urban futures. Hove, UK: Psychology
compounds and antioxidant activity of greenhouse cultivated tomato fruits (Solanum
Press.
lycopersicum L. var. Sheva). Scientia Horticulturae, 201, 338–345.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being:
Oke, T. R., Crowther, J. M., McNaughton, K. G., Monteith, J. L., & Gardiner, B. (1989).
Synthesis. Washington, DC: Island Press.
The micrometeorology of the urban Forest [and discussion]. Philosophical Transactions of
Mochida, A., & Lun, I. Y. (2008). Prediction of wind environment and thermal comfort at the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 324(1223), 335–349. Retrieved from
pedestrian level in urban area. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 96(10), http://www.jstor.org/stable/2990186.
1498–1527.
Olszewska A. A., (2016) Contemplative values of urban parks and gardens: Applying neuroscience to
Monteith, J. (1981). Evaporation and surface temperature. Quarterly Journal of the Royal landscape architecture (Doctoral dissertation). University of Porto, Portugal.
Meteorological Society, 107(451), 1–27.
Olszewska, A. A., Marques, P. F., Ryan, R. L., & Barbosa, F. (2016). What makes a
Moreno‐Garcia, M. C. (1994). Intensity and form of the urban heat island in Barcelona. landscape contemplative? Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design. doi:https://doi.
International Journal of Climatology, 14(6), 705–710. org/10.1177/0265813516660716.
Muller, N. (2010). Preface. In N. Muller, P. Werner, & J. G. Kelcey (Eds.), Urban biodiversity Olszewska-Guizzo, A. A., Escoffier, N., Chan, J., & Tan, P. Y. (unpublished). Pilot study
and design. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. on window view and the brain: Can floor level and amount of green within the view have
any effect on our well-being?
Murdoch, W. W., Chesson, J., & Chesson, P. L. (1985). Biological control in theory and
practice. The American Naturalist, 125(3), 344–366. Ong, B. L. (2003). Green plot ratio: An ecological measure for architecture and urban
planning. Landscape and Urban Planning, 63(4), 197–211.
Outdoor Industry Association (2010). Barriers to the outdoors (Outdoor Nation Special
Report).
Book 1.indb 208 4/4/18 12:05 PM

209
Ozer, S., Irmak, M. A., & Yilmaz, H. (2008). Determination of roadside noise reduction 746–757.
effectiveness of Pinus sylvestris L. and Populus nigra L. in Erzurum, Turkey. Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment, 144(1), 191–197. Rosenzweig, M. L. (1995). Species diversity in space and time. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Panter, J. R., Jones, Van Sluijs, E. M. F., & Griffin, S. J. (2010). Neighborhood, route,
and school environments and children’s active commuting. American Journal of Preventive Rosenzweig, M. L. (2003). Reconciliation ecology and the future of species diversity. Oryx,
Medicine, 38(3), 268–278. 37(2), 194–205.
Parham, S. (2014). Happy city: transforming our lives through urban design. Journal of Russ, A., & Krasny, M. (Eds.) (2017). Urban environmental education review. Ithaca, NY:
Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability, 7(2), 213–215. Cornell University Press.
Park, B.-J., Tsunetsugu, Y., Kasetani, T., Morikawa, T., Kagawa, T., & Miyazaki, Y. (2009). Ryan, C. O., Browning, W. D., Clancy, J. O., Andrews, S. L., & Kallianpurkar, N. B.
Physiological effects of forest recreation in a young conifer forest in Hinokage Town, (2014). Biophilic design patterns: Emerging nature-based parameters for health and well-
Japan. Silva Fennica, 43(2), 291–301. being in the built environment. International Journal of Architectural Research: ArchNet-IJAR,
8(2), 62–76.
Pataki, D. E., Carreiro, M. M., Cherrier, J., Grulke, N. E., Jennings, V., Pincetl, S., Pouyat,
R. V., Whitlow, T. H., & Zipperer, W. C. (2011). Coupling biogeochemical cycles in urban Saaty, T. L. (2001). Decision making for leaders. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh.
environments: Ecosystem services, green solutions, and misconceptions. Frontiers in Ecology
Saelens, B. E., Sallis, J. F., & Frank, L. D. (2003). Environmental correlates of walking and
and the Environment, 9(1), 27–36.
cycling: Findings from the transportation, urban design, and planning literatures. Annals of
Patz, J. A., Campbell-Lendrum, D., Holloway, T., & Foley, J. A. (2005). Impact of regional Behavioral Medicine, 25(2), 80–91.
climate change on human health. Nature, 438(7066), 310–317.
Saldivar-Tanaka, L., & Krasny, M. A. (2004). Culturing community development,
Paul, M.J., & Meyer, J.L. (2001). Streams in the urban landscape. Annual Review of Ecology neighbourhood open space, and civic agriculture: The case of Latino community
and Systematics, 32, 333–365. gardeners in New York City. Agriculture and Human Values, 21(4), 399–412.
Santamouris, M. (2013). Using cool pavements as a mitigation strategy to fight urban heat
Pickett, S. A., Buckley, G., Kaushal, S., & Williams, Y. (2011). Social-ecological science in the
humane metropolis. Urban Ecosystems, 14(3), 319–339. doi:10.1007/s11252-011-0166-7. island: A review of the actual developments. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 26,
224–240.
Pimentel, D., Harvey, C., Resosudarmo, P., Sinclair, K., Kurz, D., McNair, M., Crist, S.,
Shpritz, L., Fitton, L., Saffouri, R., & Blair, R. (1995). Environmental and economic costs Saw L. E., Lim, F. K. S., & Carrasco, L. R. (2015). The relationship between natural park
of soil erosion and conservation benefits. Science, 267(5201), 1117–1123. doi:10.1126/ usage and happiness does not hold in a tropical city-state. PLoS ONE, 10(7), e0133781.
science.267.5201.1117. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0133781.
Power, A. G. (2010). Ecosystem services and agriculture: Tradeoffs and synergies. Schroeder, H. W. (1992). The spiritual aspect of nature: A perspective from depth
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 365(1554), 2959–2971. psychology. In Vander Stoep, G.A. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 1991 Northeastern Recreation
Research Symposium (pp. 25–30), April 7–9, 1991, Saratoga Springs, NY.
Pretty, G. H., Chipuer, H. M., & Bramston, P. (2003). Sense of place amongst adolescents
and adults in two rural Australian towns: The discriminating features of place attachment, Seidman, M. D., & Standring, R. (2010). Noise and quality of life. International Journal of
sense of community and place dependence in relation to place identity. Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 7(10), 373.
Environmental Psychology, 23(3), 273–287.
Selhub, E. M., & Logan, A. C. (2012) Your brain on nature: The science of nature’s influence on
Prodanovic, V., Hatt, B., McCarthy, D., Zhang, K., & Deletic, A. (2017). Green walls your health, happiness and vitality. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
for greywater reuse: understanding the role of media on pollutant removal. Ecological
Shaalan, E. A.-S., & Canyon, D. V. (2009). Aquatic insect predators and mosquito control.
Engineering, 201, 625–635.
Tropical Biomedicine, 26(3), 223–261.
Poff, N. L., Allan, J. D., Bain, M. B., Karr, J. R., Prestegaard, K. L., Richter, B. D., Sparks,
Shashua-Bar, L., & Hoffman, M. E. (2000). Vegetation as a climatic component in the
R. E., & Stromberg, J.C. (1997). The natural flow regime. BioScience, 47(11), 769–784.
design of an urban street: An empirical model for predicting the cooling effect of urban
Pym, W. (1995). St. Peters Riverside Sculpture Project. Unpublished evaluation report. green areas with trees. Energy and Buildings, 31(3), 221–235.
Ramkissoon, H., & Mavondo, F. T. (2015). The Satisfaction-Place Attachment Singh, R. K., Dhiman, R. C., & Singh, S. P. (2003). Laboratory studies on the predatory
Relationship: Potential Mediators and Moderators. Journal of Business Research, 68(12), potential of dragon-fly nymphs on mosquito larvae. The Journal of Communicable Diseases,
2593–2602. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.05.002. 35(2), 96–101.
Ramsey, J., & Rickson, R. (1977). Environmental knowledge and attitudes. The Journal of Skalski, J. (2005). Comfort of long-distance perceiving and a landscape of river valley in
Environmental Education, 8(1), 10–18. towns situated on the plains. Teka Komisji Architektury, Urbanistyki i Studiów Krajobrazowych, 1.
Raudsepp-Hearne, C., Peterson, G. D., Tengö, M., Bennett, E. M., Holland, Skinner, C., & Grimwood, C. (2002). The national noise incidence study 2000/2001 (United
T., Benessaiah, K., MacDonald, G. K., & Pfeifer, L. (2010). Untangling the Kingdom). Volume 1–noise levels (BRE Client Report No: 206344f).
environmentalist’s paradox: Why is human well-being increasing as ecosystem services
Smil, V. (2000). Phosphorus in the environment: Natural flows and human interferences.
degrade? BioScience, 60(8), 576–589.
Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, 25(1), 53–88. doi:10.1146/annurev.
Raven, A. (1989]). Art in the public interest. New York: da Capo Press. energy.25.1.53.
Reiter, P. (2001). Climate change and mosquito-borne disease. Environmental Health Sobel, D. (2004). Place-based education: Connecting classroom and community. Nature and
Perspectives, 109(Suppl 1), 141. Listening, 4, 1–7.
Rook, G. A. (2013). Regulation of the immune system by biodiversity from the natural Specht, K., Siebert, R., Hartmann, I., Freisinger, U. B., Sawicka, M., Werner, A.,
environment: An ecosystem service essential to health. Proceedings of the National Academy of Thomaier, S., Henckel, D., Walk, H., & Dierich, A. (2014). Urban agriculture of the
Sciences, 110(46), 18360–18367. doi:10.1073/pnas.1313731110. future: An overview of sustainability aspects of food production in and on buildings.
Agriculture and Human Values, 31(1), 33–51.
Rosa, D. J., Clausen, J. C., & Dietz, M. E. (2015). Calibration and verification of SWMM
for low impact development. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 51(3),
Book 1.indb 209 4/4/18 12:05 PM

Stedman, R. C. (2003). Is it really just a social construction? The contribution of the Ulrich, R. S., Simons, R. F., Losito, B. D., Fiorito, E., Miles, M. A., & Zelson, M.
physical environment to sense of place. Society & Natural Resources, 16(8), 671–685. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of
Environmental Psychology, 11(3), 201–230.
Steinitz, C. (2012). A framework for geodesign: Changing geography by design. Redlands, CA: Esri.
Uzzell, D. L. (1996). Creating place identity through heritage interpretation. International
Steudel, B., Hector, A., Friedl, T., Löfke, C., Lorenz, M., Wesche, M., & Kessler, M. Journal of Heritage Studies, 1(4), 219–228.
(2012). Biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning change along environmental stress
gradients. Ecology Letters, 15(12), 1397–1405. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2012.01863.x. Valent, F., Bertollini, R., Nemer, L. E., Barbone, F., & Tamburlini, G. (2004). Burden
of disease attributable to selected environmental factors and injury among children and
Sustainable Sites Initiative (SITES). (2014). SITES v2 reference guide for sustainable land design adolescents in Europe. The Lancet, 363(9426), 2032–2039.
and development.
Van den Berg, A. E., Hartig, T., & Staats, H. (2007). Preference for nature in urbanized
Sutton, S. E., & Kemp, S. P. (2005). Young people’s participation in constructing a socially societies: Stress, restoration, and the pursuit of sustainability. Journal of Social Issues, 63(1),
just public sphere. In C. Spencer & M. Bladen (Eds.), Children and their environments: Learning, 79–96.
using and designing spaces (pp. 256–276). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Van der Ryn, S., & Cowan, S. (2013). Ecological design, 10th Anniversary Edition.
Taleghani, M., Sailor, D. J., Tenpierik, M., & van den Dobbelsteen, A. (2014). Thermal Washington, DC: Island Press.
assessment of heat mitigation strategies: the case of Portland State University, Oregon,
USA. Building and Environment, 73(2014), 138–150. Van Herzele, A., & Wiedemann, T. (2003). A monitoring tool for the provision of
accessible and attractive urban green space. Landscape and Urban Planning, 63(2), 109–126.
Tan, J., Zheng, Y., Tang, X., Guo, C., Li, L., Song, G., Zhen, X., Yuan, D., Kalkstein, A.
J., & Li, F. (2010). The urban heat island and its impact on heat waves and human health Van Renterghem, T., & Botteldooren, D. (2009). Reducing the acoustical façade load from
in Shanghai. International Journal of Biometeorology, 54(1), 75–84. road traffic with green roofs. Building and Environment, 44(5), 1081–1087.
Tan, L. H. H., & Neo, H. (2009). “Community in bloom”: Local participation in Van Renterghem, T., Botteldooren, D., & Verheyen, K. (2012). Road traffic noise shielding
community gardens in urban Singapore. Local Environment: The International Journal of Justice by vegetation belts of limited depth. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 331(10), 2404–2425.
and Sustainability, 14(6), 529–539.

Van Renterghem, T., Forssén, J., Attenborough, K., Jean, P., Defrance, J., Hornikx, M., &
Tan, P. Y., & Abdul Hamid, A. R. B. (2014). Urban ecological research in Singapore and Kang, J. (2015). Using natural means to reduce surface transport noise during propagation
its relevance to the advancement of urban ecology and sustainability. Landscape and Urban outdoors. Applied Acoustics, 92, 86–101.
Planning, 125, 271–289. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.01.019.
VanDerZanden, A. M., & Cook, T. W. (2010). Sustainable landscape management: Design,
Tan, P. Y., & Samsudin, R. (2017). Effects of spatial scale on assessment of spatial equity construction, and maintenance. New York: Wiley Publishing.
of urban park provision. Landscape and Urban Planning, 158 (Supplement C), 139–154.
Vaske, J. J., & Kobrin, K. C. (2001). Place attachment and environmentally responsible
Tang, Y., Chen, A., & Zhao, S. (2016). Carbon storage and sequestration of urban street behavior. The Journal of Environmental Education, 32(4), 16–21.
trees in Beijing, China. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 4(53), 1–8.
Velasco, E., Roth, M., Norford, L., & Molina, L. T. (2016). Does urban vegetation
Tate, W. (2001). Science education as a civil right: Urban schools and opportunity‐to‐learn enhance carbon sequestration? Landscape and Urban Planning, 148, 99–107.
considerations. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 38(9), 1015–1028.
Vignola, R., Locatelli, B., Martinez, C., & Imbach, P. (2009). Ecosystem-based adaption to
Templer, P. H., Toll, J. W., Hutyra, L. R., & Raciti, S. M. (2015). Nitrogen and carbon climate change: what role for policy-makers, society and scientists? Mitigation and Adaptation
export from urban areas through removal and export of litterfall. Environmental Pollution, Strategies for Global Change, 14, 691–696.
197, 256–261. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.11.016.
Vitousek, P. M., Mooney, H. A., Lubchenco, J., & Melillo, J. M. (1997). Human
TEEB (2011), The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity in National and domination of earth’s ecosystems. Science, 277(5325), 494–499. doi: 10.1126/
International Policy Making. Edited by Patrick ten Brink. Earthscan, London and science.277.5325.494.
Washington.
Wakefield, S., Yeidall, F., Taron, C., Reynolds, J., & Skinner, A. (2007). Growing urban
Teo, P., & Huang, S. (1996). A sense of place in public housing: A case study of Pasir Ris, health: Community gardening in south-east Toronto. Health Promotion International, 22(2),
Singapore. Habitat International, 20(2), 307–325. 92–101.
Thorsson, S., Lindqvist, M., & Lindqvist, S. (2004). Thermal bioclimatic conditions Walsh, C. J., Roy, A. H., Feminella, J. W., Cottingham, P. D., Groffman, P. M., & Morgan
and patterns of behaviour in an urban park in Goteborg, Sweden. International Journal of II, R.P. (2005). The urban stream syndrome: Current knowledge and the search for a cue.
Biometeorology, 48(3), 149–156. Journal of North American Benthological Society, 24(3), 706–723.
Thwaites, K. (2001). Experiential landscape place: An exploration of space and Wang, Y., Berardi, U., & Akbari, H. (2016). Comparing the effects of urban heat island
experience in neighbourhood landscape architecture. Landscape Research, 26(3), 245–255. mitigation strategies for Toronto, Canada. Energy and Buildings, 114, 2–19.
Tuan, Y. F. (1974). Topophilia: A study of environmental perceptions, attitudes, and values. New York: Wang, Z.-H., Zhao, X., Yang, J., & Song, J. (2016). Cooling and energy saving potentials
Columbia University Press. of shade trees and urban lawns in a desert city. Applied Energy, 161, 437–444.
Tuan, Y. F. (1980). Landscapes of fear. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Watts, G., Chinn, L., & Godfrey, N. (1999). The effects of vegetation on the perception of
traffic noise. Applied Acoustics, 56(1), 39–56.
Tyrväinen, L., Silvennoinen, H., & Kolehmainen, O. (2003). Ecological and aesthetic
values in urban forest management. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 1(3), 135–149. Weinstein, N., Przybylski, A. K., & M. Ryan, R. M. (2009). Can nature make us more
caring? Effects of immersion in nature on intrinsic aspirations and generosity. Personality
USDA, Forest Service. (1973). National Forest Landscape Management. Vol. 1. Washington, and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35(10), 1315–1329.
DC: US Government Printing Office.
Werner, P., & Kelcey, J. G. (2017). Urban green and biodiversity. In P. Y. Tan & C. Y. Jim
Ulrich, R. (1984). View through a window may influence recovery. Science, 224(4647), (Eds.), Greening cities: Forms and functions (pp. 131–154). Singapore: Springer Singapore.
224–225.
Wilderer, P.A., & Schreff, D. (2000). Decentralised and centralised wastewater
management: A challenge for developers. Water Science & Technology, 41, 1–8.
Book 1.indb 210 4/4/18 12:05 PM

211
Photo Credits
Wilkinson, C., Sendstad, M., Parnell, S., & Schewenius, M. (2013). Urban governance of
biodiversity and ecosystem services. In T. Elmqvist et al. (Eds.), Urbanization, biodiversity and
ecosystem services: Challenges and opportunities (pp. 539–587). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.
Williams D. R., & Stewart S. I. (1998). Sense of Place: An elusive concept that is finding a
home in ecosystem management. Journal of Forestry, 96(5), 18–23. Unless otherwise mentioned, photographs and diagrams are created by the authors.
Wong, G. K., & Jim, C. (2016). Do vegetated rooftops attract more mosquitoes? 104 (Fig. 5.3) the background photograph for diagram – Urban Redevelopment
Monitoring disease vector abundance on urban green roofs. Science of the Total Environment, Authority, Singapore; 106 (Fig 5.5) Housing and Development Board, Singapore; 118
573, 222–232.
(Fig 5.13) Housing and Development Board, Singapore; 149 (Fig. 5.38) photographs
Wong, G. K., & Jim, C. (2017). Urban-microclimate effect on vector mosquito abundance used in diagram originated from the following websites: [1] Anna. (2006). Cymbopogon
of tropical green roofs. Building and Environment, 112, 63–76. citratus. Retrieved from Flickr: goo.gl/cM3c75 [2] Valke, D. (2012). Mitho Neem.
Wong, T.-C. (2005). A roof over every head: Singapore’s housing policies in the 21 century, between Retrieved from Flickr: goo.gl/5kCeJX [3] Tatters. (2010). Neem - the pharmacy tree.
state monopoly and privatisation. Calcutta: Sampark. Retrieved from Flickr: goo.gl/43Q15K [4] Starr, F. a. (2009). Euphorbia tirucalli leaves
Kahului Maui. Retrieved from Flickr: goo.gl/1CMcpY [5] Starr, F. a. (2017). Ocimum
World Health Organization (WHO). (1999). Guidelines for community noise. Geneva: World
tenuiflorum flowers leaves. Retrieved from Flickr: goo.gl/Qb9hgA [6] Wedin, I. (2011).
Health Organization.
Catnip. Retrieved from Flickr: goo.gl/YdwKqk [7] Catalog, I. (2015). Lantana Camara
Wyness, M. G. (1999). Childhood, agency and education reform. Childhood, 6(3), 353–368. with White, Yellow and Pink Flowers. Retrieved from Flickr: goo.gl/ZRfmwi [8] Frayle.
Yang, D., Kanae, S., Oki, T., Koike, T., & Musiake, K. (2003). Global potential soil (2015). Libelula. Retrieved from Flickr: https://goo.gl/fzKtwR [9] etrusko25. (2010).
erosion with reference to land use and climate changes. Hydrological Processes, 17(14), Gambusia holbrooki female and male. Retrieved from Flickr: goo.gl/PJJUfR [10]
2913–2928. doi:10.1002/hyp.1441. Gratwicke, B. (2014). IMG_6470. Retrieved from Flickr: goo.gl/ff1SNE [11] Gratwicke,
B. (2009). Spotted Salamander Larva A. maculatum. Retrieved from Flickr: goo.gl/
Yang, F., Bao, Z. Y., & Zhu, Z. J. (2011). An assessment of psychological noise reduction
by landscape plants. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8(4), AdxHe4 [12] Yap, L. K. (2011). Mangrove Blue-Flycatcher (Cyornis rufigastra). Retrieved
1032–1048. from Flickr: goo.gl/HJ5WYw [13] Hurtado, P. (2014). Copepods. Retrieved from Flickr:
goo.gl/mrd8AV [14] Baker, N. (2017). Whiskered myotis. Retrieved from http://www.
Yang, W., Wong, N. H., & Jusuf, S. K. (2013). Thermal comfort in outdoor urban spaces
in Singapore. Building and Environment, 59, 426–435. ecologyasia.com/; 146 (Fig 5.36) Jonathan Yue Zi En; 150 (Fig 5.39); 152 (Fig.5.40) Tan
Yit Chuan; 170 (Fig. 5.58b) Maxwell AFB, retrieved from http://www.maxwell.af.mil;
Yeomans, W. C. (1983). Visual resource assessment: A user guide. British Columbia, Canada: 171 (Box 5.12) photographs used in diagram originated from the following websites: [2]
Ministry of Environment.
briankprince0. (2010, April 10). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from Pixabay: https://goo.gl/
Yu, C., & Hien, W. N. (2006). Thermal benefits of city parks. Energy and Buildings, 38(2), hH3ShA [6] Litchfield, D. (2009). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from Pixabay: https://goo.
105–120. gl/P4sW7s [8] UweDitigal. (2013). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from Pixabay: https://goo.
Yu, C., & Hien, W. N. (2009). Thermal impact of strategic landscaping in cities: A review. gl/mZVEb8 [11] gmello. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from Pixabay: https://goo.gl/
Advances in Building Energy Research, 3(1), 237–260. DW2rKx [14] the3cats. (2016). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from Pixabay: https://goo.gl/
CxEGxg.
Yuen, B., & Hien, W. N. (2005). Resident perceptions and expectations of rooftop gardens
in Singapore. Landscape and Urban Planning, 73(4), 263–276.
Zelanski, P. & Fisher, M. P. (1996). Design principles & problems. New York: Brace College.
Book 1.indb 211 4/4/18 12:05 PM

Glossary
• Aesthetics – a branch of philosophy that explores explores the nature of beauty, art • Ecosystem – a physical, function system which consists of one or more living
and taste through the sensori-emotional values the observer receives from the object of organism and its physical and biological environment as a whole
the observation.
• Ecosystem services – direct and indirect benefits produced by ecosystems for
• Biological control – means or methods of controlling pests through the use of human well-being.
natural predators or other natural mechanisms.
• Environmental education– the raising of awareness of environmental issues,
• Biomimicry – (or biomimetics) attempt to solve various types of problems ownership of environmental challenges and empowerment for environmental change.
(urbanistic, technical, engineering etc.) by imitating the patterns, models and systems
• Evapotranspiration – the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration.
existing in nature.
• Biophilia – hypothesis according to which people have an innate tendency to connect • Flood attenuation – a process through which the flood magnitude, velocity, stage,
with nature with all its life forms. and/or peak is reduced.
• Biophysical process – the physical processes, such as flux of water, energy and • Flood conveyance – the transport of floodwater and its sediments downstream.
materials, which effect the functioning of ecosystems through their interactions with
• Flood storage – temporary or permanent accommodation of floodwater.
the biological components of ecosystems.
• Floodplain - an area of relatively flat land adjacent to a river or a stream,
• Bioswale – a shallow, vegetated channel used to convey stormwater runoff and treat it
periodically flooded by the river or stream.
prior to its entry into the receiving waterbody.
• Forest recreation – provision of access to outdoor activities in the forest to
• Blackwater – in the context of wastewater treatment refers to the stream of

the urban population, including hiking, bird watching, camping, climbing trees,
wastewater which contains human faeces and urine from toilets.
photography.
• Blue-green infrastructure – a particular type of green infrastructure and a
• Functional traits – morphological, biochemical, physiological, structural,
network of landscape systems, combining natural and artificial materials purposefully
phenological, and behavioral characteristics of organisms.
designed and managed to provide stormwater-related ecosystem services.
• Green and open space – a collective term referring to the space dominated by
• Built environment – the sum of manmade surroundings that provide the setting for
greenery and to open space of hard surfaces.
human activities, from buildings to infrastructure to personal spaces.
• Green roofs – A roof surface installed with a layer of vegetation and not designed
• Community garden – a garden where a group of people collectively cultivate plants
for human access often used to replace the greenery lost on the ground by the building
for food or enjoyment.
footprint.
• Community participation – the active involvement of people of a locality in the
• Greywater – the stream of wastewater from kitchen and bathroom sinks, showers,
decision making process of a development. In the context of this book, community
and clothing and dish washing machines.
participation is taken to mean the opportunities given to residents to contribute in and
influence the development process of their own neighbourhood or potential residents • High-rise – buildings of more than 7 to 10 storeys and equipped with lifts.
in the making of their future neighbourhood.
• Human well-being - overall state of a person’s emotions and mood, satisfaction with
• Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) – a type of fluid mechanics that life and fulfilment, and physical and mental health.
investigates the interaction of fluid flows and how the fluid interacts with objects it
flows past. • Hydrological function - the hydrological processes performed by a landscape, such
as interception, evapotranspiration, detention, retention, infiltration, and percolation.
• Constructed wetland – artificial wetland designed for water quality treatment in an It can be used interchangeably with hydrological process.
environmentally controlled fashion.
• Hydrological process – see hydrological function.
• Contemplative landscapes – landscape scenes providing specific aggregation
of key contemplative components (landscape layers, landform, vegetation color and • Impervious surface – surface water cannot infiltrate.
light, compatibility, archetypal elements and character of peace and silence) these are
aesthetically pleasing and good for mental health and well-being. • Infiltration – the process through which water enters the soil.
• Cultural service – non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems including • Interception – the portion of the rainfall retained on the surface of vegetation (e.g.,
spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, aesthetic leaves, braches, or the leaf litters on the ground) and not reaching the soil.
experience, knowledge systems, and social relations. • Landscape services - the benefits a designed landscape contributes to human well-
• Decentralised waste water treatment system – A decentralised wastewater being through ecological processes.
treatment system is localised, distributed, and much smaller in scale than a centralised • Landscape typology – a systemic classification/categorisation of spaces in
wastewater system and only treats the wastewater from its nearby area. landscapes defined by spatial characteristics and usage and in relation to site context.
• Detention – temporary storage of floodwater or stormwater, typically in an artificial • Liveability – a desirable living condition defined by the physical and social qualities
basin to reduce the peak flow and reduce flooding downstream. of the built environment and human perception and assessment of these qualities.
• Ecological processes – also “ecosystem functions” or “ecosystem processes”, the • Long distance-view – view into the landscape characterised by a certain level of
biological, biogeochemical and biophysical processes taking place between components depth can background visibility.
of the ecosystem, including vegetation, water, atmosphere, soil, and flora and fauna.
Ecological processes are the source of ecosystem or landscape services. • Mosquito-borne diseases – diseases caused by mircobes and parasites transmitted
by mosquitoes, such as Zika, dengue, and malaria.
Book 1.indb 212 4/4/18 12:05 PM

213
• Natural wastewater treatment system – treatment system using natural • Stormwater runoff – rainfall that does not infiltrate the ground but flows over land.
biological-physical-chemical processes of soil and vegetation to improve water quality
• Supporting services – ecosystem services necessary for the production of all other
• Nature deficit disorder – the lack of contact with nature, often leading to a range ecosystem services.
of behavioural issues.
• Sustainability – meeting needs of the present without compromising the ability of
• Nearby nature – the spaces wherein to experience natural elements and natural future generations to meet their own needs.
environment located close to homes.
• Sustainable landscape management – management of landscapes to function
• Park Connector Network – a network of recreational trails connecting parks and more ecologically and minimise the impact on environment.
green spaces
• Urban ecosystem – an ecosystem dominated by humans, whose properties are
• Pathogenic microorganisms – microbes such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi that influenced by natural components, such as biogeochemical and biophysical processes,
that can cause diseases in humans, plants and other fauna. and human components, such as social structure and institutions, and by built
components comprising buildings, open spaces, and urban infrastructures.
• PCN – Park Connector Network, a network of linear green spaces consisting of

walking/running/cycling paths and narrow planting verges linking parks/green spaces • Urban heat island (UHI) – a phenomenon in which an urban area is significantly
and/or major destinations across Singapore. warmer than its surrounding rural areas because of the dense built-up character of the
urban area also caused by heat generated from anthropogenic sources.
• Percolation – the process by which water slowly passes through the soil.
• Water cycling – storage and circulation of water between the biosphere, atmosphere,
• Permeable surfaces– porous surfaces allowing stormwater to percolate to the lithosphere and hydrosphere. See also hydrological cycling.
underlying soil structure.
• Wilderness experience – contact with wild (not tamed) nature to achieve the
• Placemaking – action oriented at giving a space meaning for it to become a place, restorative effects of nature.
through the interaction with the local community.
• Wind corridor – a pathway for ventilation and cooling, usually created as a heat
• Pluvial flooding – flooding caused by excess stormwater runoff in a storm event. mitigation strategy in the urban context,
• Pollination – the transfer of pollen from flowers by birds, insects, or wind for
fertilisation to take place.
• Precinct – the smallest level of district division in a town in Singapore, defined by

particular buildings, road and public amenities.
• Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) – a range of standards prediting thermal comfort/

sensation of human through empirical experiments.
• Provisioning services – the products obtained from ecosystems, such as food, fuel,
fibre, fresh water, and genetic resources.
• Rain garden – a vegetated, shallow depression designed to collect and treat

stormwater runoff from nearby impervious surfaces.
• Regulating services – the benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem

processes, such as the regulation of climate, water, and some human diseases.
• Resilience – the ability of natural ecosystems to absorb changes or disturbances

without altering their basic structures, functions, and identity.
• Restorative environment – characterising the physical environments with the

capacity of benefiting body and mind, reducing stress and mental fatigue and
improving emotion regulation and general well-being.
• Retention – as a measure to flood hazard mitigation is similar to detention, but the

storage of floodwater is more permanent, and the retention basin is not be drained
completely after a storm event.
• Riparian zone – the intermediate area between land and water along the bank of
the river or stream.
• Sense of place – the way people perceive a place, including attachment and
meaning.
• Social ties – the relationships connecting people and facilitating the valuable
exchange of resources, also known as social capital.
• Socio-cultural – relating to norms, beliefs, traditions and behaviour of a community

or population.
• Socio-ecological system – a coupled system of social and ecological systems

whereby humans are integrated with the environment, rather than apart from it.
• Spatial pattern – the structure and physical configuration of objects, such as green
patches in the landscape.
Book 1.indb 213 4/4/18 12:05 PM

Index
A contemplative landscape, 182–183 G
active, 63, 70, 71, 82, 101, 121–125, 155–156, 161, 178, continuum of urbanity, 21 genius loci, 101, 169
185, 189, 191–197, 199–203 Costa Mesa, 161 Genova, 176
aesthetics, 12, 61, 65, 98, 100–101, 102, 107, 131, 139, Copenhagen, 125 green;
156, 164, 167, 170. 172, 176–183, 199 creative spaces, 192 and open spaces, 28–30, 37, 40–56, 63, 70–71, 92,
aisthetikos, 177 cycling. See water; cycling, nutrient; cycling 98, 121, 127–128, 134, 141–143, 155, 159–160,
alienation, 169, 199 167, 169, 185–189, 191–195, 199–201
Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP). 101 D façades and roofs, 36–37, 41, 44–45, 122, 125, 129,
Andros, 172 daily doses of greenery, 185 132, 142, 145, 147, 155, 163
aquatic system, 75, 105–107, 115–118, 131–134, 147–149 decentralised waste water treatment system, 131–135 walls, 45, 132, 142, 163
Arizona, 170 design; greywater, 131–134

art, 98–99, 137, 169–175, 177, 197 approach, 82, 84–92, 101
team, 72, 85, 87, 90, 96, 100–101, 123, 128, 132, H
attachment, 29, 70, 74, 90–92, 101, 169–175, 199 habitat for biodiversity, 141–145
Augustenborg, 34, 128 134, 138
biophilic, 84, 91–92, 178, 183 Hanoi, 21
awareness, 31, 42, 71, 90, 96, 101, 106, 170, 171, 191, 199 harmony, 179, 183
detention, 34, 45, 98, 101, 107, 119, 121–125, 126–129,
B 132–134 healthy aquatic system, 147, 149
Bangkok, 105, 203 drainage, 45, 124, 127, 134; heat, 30, 159;
barriers, 144, 179, 201 code, 122, 125, 129 island, 91, 159
beauty, 98, 177, 183 system, 45, 64, 112, 116, 118, 121, 124, 127, mitigation, 101–102, 125, 159–161, 201
Berlin, 34, 170, 187, 197 128, 129, 155 heterogeneity, 75–76, 143
best management practices (BMPs), 112, 116, 118, 121,124 Dunedin, 28 high-density residential towns / cities, 22, 26–27, 37,
biodiversity, 31, 42, 60, 68, 71, 73, 75, 91, 102, 106–107, dynamic, 64, 74, 85, 92, 99–100, 169 40–42, 140, 144, 151, 153, 159, 199
139, 141–145, 149, 151, 155, 191–192 Hong Kong, 36, 117, 155
bioengineering, 116–118 E Housing Development Board (HDB), 40;
biogeochemical flows cycles, 75 ecological aesthetics, 176–183 HDB estates, 40–42, 44
biological control, 147–149 corridors, 22, 142, 144, 153 hydrology, 30, 64, 68, 72, 82, 87, 97, 105, 110, 121, 134,
biomimicry, 121 process, 60, 65–66, 67, 70–73, 84, 96, 109, 177 145;
biophilia, 84, 91; ecosystem function, 67, 69, 73, 75–76, 82, 141, 180 hydrological function, 119, 121–124, 128
biophilic design patterns, 92, 179 services. See ecosystem services hydrological process, 98, 121, 127
biophilic design, 84, 91–92, 178, 183 based solutions, 127 I
bioswale, 45, 121–124, 128, 131–132 ecosystem services, 13, 62, 65–66, 68, 96–100, 105, 109, impervious surface, 121–125, 127–129, 137–138, 147, 161
blackwater, 131–132 177 infiltration, 30, 75, 98, 101, 107, 109, 112, 115–125, 127,
blue-green infrastructure, 73, 106–107, 121–123, 127. cultural, 65, 98, 100, 102, 177 129, 132, 160–161
132–134, 137–138 provisioning, 65, 97, 100, 102 integrated design, 42, 83–84, 86–88, 96, 102, 106–107,
Brisbane, 200 regulating, 65, 97, 102, 147 110, 113, 116–118, 122, 125, 127, 129, 132–134,
boundary object, 30 supporting, 65, 96, 98–99, 141 137–138, 142–145, 147–149, 153, 156, 159–161,
built environment, 28, 61, 63, 91, 170 Edinburgh, 183, 187 163–164, 166, 170–175, 179–180, 183, 189, 192, 196,
electrical conductivity, 109 199–203
C emotions, 169, 177–179, 199 interception, 98, 101, 118, 121–122, 125, 127, 129
California, 161 empowerment, 90, 191 interdisciplinary team, 88
Carbon, 20, 96–97, 105–106, 151, 159, 161 environmental education, 102, 191–197; irrigation, 76, 83, 87, 101–102, 121, 125, 131–132,
Cation Exchange Capacity, 109 psychology, 177 136–138, 155
Chao Phraya River, 105 erosion control, 101, 115–118 iterative design process, 61, 68, 82
children, 45, 116, 164, 186, 191–197, 199, 203 European Landscape Convention, 20, 22
climate, 65, 68, 71, 96, 109, 141, 163, 201; evaporative cooling, 159–161 K
change, 60, 63, 71, 96, 141, 151 evapotranspiration, 98, 101, 119, 121–125, 129, 157,
keystone species, 143, 145
hot, 159 159–161
microclimates, 74, 101, 139, 160–161, 186, 189, 203
regulation, 97 F L
tropical, 96, 186 facilities, 40–45, 75, 107, 113, 124, 153, 155–156, 169, landscape, 13, 18–22;
urban, 105, 157 173, 175, 199–200 architect, 18, 22, 61, 82–88, 99, 180
combined sewer overflow (CSO), 131 fauna, 20, 31, 99–101, 139–156, 159, 192, 196 development, 82–88
communitarian values, 185 fertiliser, 75, 105, 153 services, 31, 60, 65–67, 70–76
community, 26, 28, 30, 40, 42, 61–63, 67–68, 70, 82, 84, Flanders, 186 typologies, 32–37, 40–56
86, 88, 90, 92, 102, 134, 151, 155, 167–175, 177, flood, 109, 115; landschaft, 18
185–189, 199; attenuation, 122, 125, 129 landskap, 18
attachment, 29 conveyance, 122, 125, 129 Leipzig, 197
farm, 22, 26, 45, 75–76, 82–83, 155 hazard mitigation, 100–101, 103, 119, 121, 125, liveability, 13, 30, 60, 62–64, 84
gardens / greenery / park, 26, 34–35, 42, 44–45, 127–129, 133 London, 28
51, 70, 71, 136–137, 150–156, 185–186, 189 storage, 122, 125, 129 Low Impact Development (LID), 121, 131
compost, 75–76, 106–107, 110, 113, 153, 155–156 floodplain, 122, 125, 127, 129
M
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), 159 flora, 20, 31, 43, 79, 99–101, 139–156, 192, 196
Malmo, 34, 128, 197, 200
Conceptual Framework for Neighbourhood Landscape Florida, 144, 197
maintenance, 73–76, 82, 87–88, 90, 98, 100;
Design, 60, 69–70 of soil quality, 87, 96, 101, 106, 109–113, 115,
constructed wetland, 45, 75–76, 107, 121–123, 128, 125, 130, 137–138, 144, 156, 170, 175
131–133, 137, 143, 145
Book 1.indb 214 4/4/18 12:05 PM

215
Manchester, 33 placeness, 169 strategies, 71–72, 82, 96, 106–107, 110–113, 116–119,
Maxwell, 170 pluvial flooding, 127 122, 125, 127, 129, 132, 134, 137–138, 142–145,147–
Melbourne, 32, 183, 197 pollutants, 97, 101, 105, 112, 121, 131, 134, 163 149, 153, 156, 159–161, 163–164, 166–167, 170–175,
mental health, 167, 177, 187, 195 Portland, 123, 129, 135, 142, 158, 168, 184, 190 179–180, 183, 185, 189, 192, 196, 199–203,
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), 65, 97–101 precinct, 22–23, 40, 42, 49, 69 supporting service, 65, 96, 98–99, 141
monitoring, 82–84, 100, 102, 107, 112, 123, 161, 170–171; predatory species, 147 surface runoff, 101, 116–118
landscape values, 84 preference, 70, 71, 73–75, 88, 102, 151, 177–178 sustainability, 13, 18, 31, 40, 60–64, 71, 84, 91
mosquito; principles, 71–76, 92 sustainable landscape planning, 13
Control, 101, 147–149 prioritisation of landscape services, 102 Sustainable Urban Drainage System (SUDS), 121
borne disease, 147–149 pro-environmental values, 192 Sydney, 28, 33
densities, 147 provision of neighbourhood landscape services, 71, 83 symmetry, 179
multifunctionality, 100 provisioning ecosystem services, 109 synergy, 100
Munich, 174, 202 provisioning service, 65, 97, 101, 102
public art, 137, 170–171, 175 T
N Taipei, 22, 35
nature, 29, 45, 62, 67, 70, 91–92, 96, 115, 122, 127, 141, R Tempelhof, 170, 172
169, 175, 177, 180, 183, 186, 190–197, 199–203 Rajecke Teplice, 191 thermal comfort, 159, 161
natural; rain; Tokyo, 27, 33, 35, 143, 152, 155, 172
vegetation structure, 121–125, 128–129, 143–145, garden, 37, 45, 107, 121–123, 125, 128, 131–132, topography, 108, 113, 116–118, 166;
147 142, 148 topographic depression, 122, 125, 129
wastewater treatment system, 131–134 water harvesting, 101, 133, 136–138, 153 topophilia, 169
waterbody, 120–129 rainwater, 45, 117–118, 125, 129, 132, 138 town, 22–23, 40, 64, 69, 87, 189
neighbourhood, 13, 22; Rainfall Retention Rate (RRR), 124, 128 tradeoff, 100
landscape design, 13, 22, 60–76, 83–107, 127, 132, recreational activities, 43, 122, 125, 129, 170, 188, 199 Turin, 34, 144
134, 139, 147, 178, 180 regulating service, 65, 97, 102, 147
landscapes, 26–31 residential landscape, 26, 60 U
The Netherlands, 127 resilience, 31, 60–64, 84 Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect. See heat; island urban,
New York, 37, 172, 181 retention/detention basin, 34, 123, 128–129, 132, 134, 137 21–22;
Nitrogen, 75, 98, 103–106, 134 retention, 65, 82, 97–98, 101, 107, 115–117, 119, cooling, 160
noise, 163–164; 121–122, 127, 129, 132, 161 drainage system, 121, 127
abatement, 101, 163–166 riparian zone, 100–101, 117–118, 127, 129, 131, 137–138 ecosystem, 22, 60, 64–65, 96, 105, 109, 141
barriers, 162 163, 166 river; ecosystem services, 66, 99
mitigation, 97, 163 discharge, 101, 121 landscapes, 18–22, 26
pollution, 72, 101, 157, 163–164, 166 restoration or rehabilitation, 127, 129 river and stream, 115–116, 127,
sources, 166 roots, 115–116, 131 water cycle, 121, 124
nutrients, 105; V
cycling, 98, 100–101, 103–107, 109–113, 115, 125, S
Sapporo, 196 value chain, 60, 67, 82
131 Vancouver, 143, 188
Seattle, 121, 136, 156, 188–189, 197
O self-design, 74 vegetation, 22, 28–30, 43, 45, 61, 64, 73–74, 96–97, 99,
organic, 109, 116, 153; sensori-emotional, 177 101, 103, 107, 109–110, 112, 115–118, 122, 125,
contaminants, 109 Sejong, 36–37, 126 128–129, 131, 137, 139, 142–145, 147–148, 157,
matter, 74, 101, 107, 109–110, 116 Seoul, 19, 27, 36, 126, 132, 140, 144, 152, 162, 165, 183, 159–161, 163, 166, 182, 192, 198, 201
Oregon, 123, 129, 135, 142, 158, 168, 184, 190 192 vegetated buffer, 45, 163–166
Oslo, 32 shading, 30, 101, 157, 159–161 vegetated mounds, 43, 118
ownership, 82, 84, 87, 170–171, 175, 191 Shanghai, 35 visual, 20, 42, 45, 88, 92, 101, 112, 163–164, 166,
silt management, 116 177–183, 185, 189, 200;
P Singapore, 22–23, 27–31, 37–42, 46–56, 102, 112, Visual Resource Management (VRM), 182
Parchi di Nervi, 176 120–122, 124, 130, 138, 142, 146, 150, 152–153,
participatory design, 70, 84, 86, 88–90, 101 W
160–161, 172, 185, 196–197, 199, 201 walking, 40, 42–43, 45, 180, 199–200, 203
passive, 101, 131, 192, 199, 203 site;
patch-matrix, 61, 142 Washington. See Seattle
-specific design, 61, 84–90, 109 water, 119–138;
pathogens, 97, 109, 131, 147 analysis, 85–86, 143
Penang, 197 wastewater treatment, 102, 121, 125, 131–135,
specificity, 85 137, 145
Pennsylvania, 112, 160 slope stabilisation, 116–117
perceptible realm, 13, 66 cycling, 96, 99, 101, 119, 121–125, 131, 137
social ties, 71, 185 Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD), 121,
percolation, 98, 121–122, 125, 129 socio-ecological system (SES), 13, 63–64, 70–72
permeability, 30, 100, 109, 142–143 131
soft engineering, 127 well-being, 13, 28–29, 31, 60–63, 65–67, 69–70, 84, 91,
permeable surfaces, 122, 125, 128–129 soil, 103–118;
pH, 147 96, 99–100, 105, 121, 131, 141, 145, 153, 155, 157,
erosion. See erosion control 161, 163–164, 166, 175, 177, 185, 189, 201
philosophy, 177 quality. See maintenance; of soil quality
Phoenix, 170 white spaces, 74
quality indicators, 109, 112 wilderness, 180, 184, 201
Phosphorus, 98, 103, 105–106, 134, rehabilitation, 110, 112
physical; wind corridors, 159–161
retention, 115–117
activity, 199–200 spontaneous vegetation, 143–144 Y
health, 91, 98, 182 stakeholder participation, 88–90
Pittsburgh, 160 yard waste, 106
stepping stones, 73, 142–143, 145
place, 26, 29–30, 85–86, 91, 98, 101, 118, 168–175, 177, yards, 26–27, 151
Stockholm, 143
183, 189; stormwater, 30, 76, 82–83, 106–107, 118, 125; Z
-based activities, 170–171, 175 management, 34, 45, 72–73, 101, 107, 112,
-making, 87, 170–171, 174 Zhuhai, 27
121–123, 127–129, 131–135, 149, 161
runoff, 45, 73, 107, 109, 121, 124–125, 131, 137,
142
Book 1.indb 215 4/4/18 12:05 PM

Nature, Place and People

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Nature, Place and People

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Downloaded from www.worldscientific.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Cover images: Courtesy of Jamsari Ahmad © 2018.

Copyright © 2018 by authors

Desk Editors: Amanda Yun/Tay Yu Shan

Forging Connections through

Book 1.indb 3 4/4/18 12:01 PM

development goals of Sustainability, Liveability and Resilience.

To further our greenery efforts, HDB developed the Biophilic Town

Book 1.indb 5 4/4/18 12:01 PM

Book 1.indb 6 4/4/18 12:01 PM

diverse demands. The limited supply of precious open spaces lying

local community asset and the pride of the community.

Book 1.indb 7 4/4/18 12:01 PM

Towns”. We are grateful to our research collaborators and many

landscapes in Singapore’s public housing estates. We are heartened

Book 1.indb 8 4/4/18 12:01 PM

PhD in Sociology from the University of Toronto in November 2010.

Book 1.indb 9 4/4/18 12:01 PM

PART II: 103

S1 Nutrient cycling | Tan Puay Yok

4.2 Design approaches W1 Water cycling | Liao Kuei-Hsien

212 P3 Social relations | Vincent Chua

The relationship between humankind and nature can be one of

Book 1.indb 12 4/4/18 12:01 PM

positive outcomes? relationships between human well-being, quality of biophysical

Book 1.indb 13 4/4/18 12:01 PM

landscape”, “educational landscape”, “landscape of the mind”, “linguistic landscape”, “mental

Book 1.indb 18 4/4/18 12:01 PM

Book 1.indb 19 4/4/18 12:01 PM

Fig.1.1 (b) landscapes along a transport corridor in Germany.

It is this reciprocity between landscapes and humans — the capacity

Book 1.indb 20 4/4/18 12:01 PM

Anthropocene and are hence urban, whether directly or indirectly

The word “urban”, like “landscape”, needs to be explained,

while social scientists examine social relations, cultural signposts,

rural. Urbanisation exists in degrees, and the degree of urbanity can

Fig.1.1 (d) a central park in the old district of Hanoi, Vietnam.

Book 1.indb 21 4/4/18 12:01 PM

Borrowing from the definition of European Landscape Convention,

which undergird the functional qualities of the landscape. Our

As a space perceived by humans, landscape is necessarily conditioned

Book 1.indb 22 4/4/18 12:01 PM

Urban planning scale Public housing planning scale

Each of the 55 planning areas is

Precinct pavilion, precinct garden,

Hierarchical organisation of spatial units

Book 1.indb 23 4/4/18 12:01 PM

We prefer “neighbourhood landscapes”, however, as neighbourhood is a central idea in the

Book 1.indb 26 4/4/18 12:01 PM

a remedy to urban sprawl (Madanipour, 2001), the most common

Book 1.indb 27 4/4/18 12:01 PM

catalyse citizen participation to bring about community change,

inevitably have a strong influence on the

Book 1.indb 28 4/4/18 12:01 PM

Neighbourhoods landscapes are the “everyday

landscapes” for the large majority of urban

Parks, nature reserves, and nature areas are visited as destinations,

referred to as connection with nature or greenery)

Book 1.indb 29 4/4/18 12:01 PM

neighbours work together to decide on neighbourhood matters, the

Book 1.indb 30 4/4/18 12:01 PM