Professional Documents
Culture Documents
I Am Exposed To Not Only The Paranormal
I Am Exposed To Not Only The Paranormal
By
STEPHANIE JUENGLING
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
2018
1
© 2018 Stephanie Juengling
2
To my son Everett
3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research would not have been possible without the generosity and kindness
welcomed warmly and introduced to many fantastic people. I would like to thank the
paranormal teams and enthusiasts who provided invaluable insight and information for
I would like to thank my committee chair Dr. Pete Collings for his support,
guidance, and feedback on every draft. I’d also like to thank the members of the
doctoral committee, Dr. Bron Taylor, Dr. James Davidson, and Dr. Jack Kugelmass.
Lastly, I would like to show my appreciation for those who provided personal
support. I’m thankful for my family and friends who continually encouraged me,
Dulcey and Bob Davey for patiently sitting through practice presentations and providing
excellent advice. And I’d like to express a special thanks to my husband Ryan Juengling
for his unwavering emotional support and assistance over these past few years.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 14
Overview ................................................................................................................. 22
Terminology ............................................................................................................ 24
The Pre-Modern Supernatural ................................................................................ 26
The Spiritualist Movement ...................................................................................... 27
Spiritism: The Secular and the Spiritual .................................................................. 29
Psychical Research: The Initial Investigations into Paranormal Studies ................. 31
Parapsychology: Advancements in the Scholarly Pursuit of Paranormal
Phenomena ......................................................................................................... 36
Parapsychology, the New Age Movement, and Skeptics ........................................ 38
The Rise of the Ghost Hunter: Popular Culture and Paranormal Investigators ....... 40
Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 42
Overview ................................................................................................................. 44
Public Perceptions, Science, and Paranormal Tourism in the Twenty-first
Century ................................................................................................................ 46
Theoretical Approaches: The Significance of Experience ....................................... 55
Discourse and Narrative Analysis: The Significance of Stories ............................... 60
Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 75
Overview ................................................................................................................. 77
Ethics, Methods, and Cultural Anthropology ........................................................... 77
The Stigmatization and Significance of Paranormal Narratives .............................. 79
Modern Methodologies for the Study of the Paranormal ......................................... 84
The Consequences of Representation: The Ethics of Ethnographies ..................... 91
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Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 97
Overview ................................................................................................................. 99
Observing Ghost Hunters Observing Ghosts: Data Collection................................ 99
Florida Paranormal Investigations ........................................................................ 101
Joining the Team ............................................................................................ 101
My First Ghost Hunt ....................................................................................... 103
Paranormal Research Groups .............................................................................. 106
General Information: How Groups Form and Function ................................... 106
Motivations and Goals: Why People Join ....................................................... 109
Location Types: Where Paranormal Research Groups Investigate ................ 114
Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 119
6
APPENDIX
7
LIST OF TABLES
Table page
8
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure page
5-1 Bar chart of the frequency of each coded reason or goal for joining a ghost
hunting group.................................................................................................... 110
6-2 The female members of the groups, and FPI leader Bill, reenact a medical
checkup in the operating room. ........................................................................ 125
6-4 War Party Paranormal Research team members conduct an EVP session
using the Portal device in the garage of Antiques and Uniques. ...................... 132
6-5 The demonologists use frankincense during the deliverance. .......................... 139
7-2 Scree plot of the freelist entry frequencies submitted twice or more by
participants. ...................................................................................................... 147
7-3 Initial pile sort of the freelist entries. This pile sort only includes the freelist
entries that were listed more than once by participants. ................................... 149
7-4 Pile sort of all the freelist entries submitted by participants. Items are
categorized into seven major piles with subcategories in each. ....................... 151
7-5 A simplified version of the second pile sort. It shows the major groupings in
each of the seven categories. ........................................................................... 152
7-6 Photograph of trigger objects at Old South Pittsburg Hospital.. ........................ 158
7-7 An investigator using dowsing rods. Dowsing rods are used to interact with
paranormal entities during an EVP session. ..................................................... 161
7-12 Bar graph of the frequency of codes applied to Charlotte and Tim’s interview
transcripts. ........................................................................................................ 169
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7-13 Grounded theory model for paranormal team practices. .................................. 178
7-15 Word cloud generated from the most frequent words found in the coded
interviews, image prompts, and notes.. ............................................................ 187
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
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Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School
of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Stephanie Juengling
December 2018
research teams in Western society. Also known as ghost hunting groups, these teams
use both scientific and metaphysical tools to investigate various types of reportedly
that shape their worldviews and their relationships with others. This ethnographic
observation, surveys, and interviews with ghost hunting groups in Florida. It assesses
the cultural domain of the paranormal, the epistemological struggles of defining belief
and defending sanity, and the ways in which paranormal teams negotiate their place in
society. To conclude, this study demonstrates that the underlying relation between the
paranormal groups’ motivations and practices is the pursuit of self and social validation.
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teams deflect social rejection and reach a sense of belonging in both the spiritual realm
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
empty courtroom. The room was dark except for the glowing red exit sign across the
room, and shifting yellow beams filtered through the windows as trees outside swayed
in front of street lamps. I wasn’t alone; two paranormal investigators were also in the
courtroom, standing still at either ends of the room. We had been patiently, quietly
waiting for something to happen. Occasionally, one of the investigators would ask
questions aloud. “Is there anybody here with us tonight? Can you make a noise to let us
know you’re here?” We sat and waited. I strained my ears listening for any abnormal
noise and squinted my eyes across the room to see any strange shadows. From my
vantage point, I could see the entire courtroom with the rows of pews, the tall windows
lining the walls on each side, the main door towards the staircase, and the entryway to
two rooms on either side of the main doors. I focused on noting the differences between
the swaying shadows from the trees outside and the darker shapes of the furniture, door
I was with Florida Paranormal Investigations at the Green Cove Springs historical
courthouse for one of my first investigations. At this point I had learned the basics of
ghost hunting: keep fresh batteries in your voice recorder, ask questions clearly during
EVP sessions, use the buddy system, and focus your senses on your surroundings to
stories. The downstairs floor has several large conference rooms and offices, and the
upstairs consisted of the courtroom and small side rooms. We set up the equipment in
14
the hallway downstairs, including the DVR system1 to cover most of the building with
video feed. After the hour of equipment set-up, we began our first EVP session upstairs.
EVP stands for electronic voice phenomena; when an audio recorder catches a noise or
voice that you can’t hear at the time, only when you play back the recording. In an EVP
session, investigators ask a series of questions out loud, attempting to interact with the
As I sat silently in the judge’s chair waiting for Bill2 to ask his next question, I
visually scanned the room. As my eyes lingered on the doorway to the back room on
the left side, a dark solid shadow slid out of sight behind the doorframe. I blinked,
quickly running through my mind possible explanations. There was no one in that back
room, just a few chairs and desk. I saw the two investigators in the courtroom and knew
there was nobody else in the building. The dark shadow was solid, only a few feet high,
and was definitely not shadow play from the trees outside. After this flurry of thoughts
ran through my head, I stood and pointed to the doorway. I described what I saw to Bill
and Ethan, who hurried from their stations to the back room. As Ethan approached the
doorway, the motion sensor he had placed on the floor there went off with a loud shrill
beeping. It had not been triggered when I saw the shadow move. I joined them,
scanning the back room for any signs of something strange, or something to rationally
I don’t know what I saw. But I trust my own senses enough to know in that
moment, I saw something that I couldn’t explain. Perhaps there was a rational
2 The protect the identity of participants, all names have been changed.
15
explanation, one that we just couldn’t figure out that night. But whatever it was, it was an
experiencing something ‘paranormal’. It’s not a ghost that pops up and tries to spook
you. It’s subtle. It’s a confusion about what your senses are telling you, because your
brain can’t rationalize what it’s experiencing. You could try to make sense of it, but it’s
not clear what it was. The ambiguity and uncertainty make you question yourself, and
your sanity. This is the root of the paranormal experience; the fear and excitement that
ghost hunters chase comes from not knowing. Many paranormal investigators will tell
To be clear, this research does not aim to prove or disprove the existence of
paranormal phenomena. It does not assume the nonexistence of the paranormal and
interested in how the experiences (whatever they may be) are interpreted and framed
experiences are relayed without reductive explanations. Rather, how the paranormal
investigators’ express these narratives is one of the foci of this dissertation research.
paranormal investigator. Narrative analysis is “the search for regularities in how people,
within and across culture, tell stories” (Bernard 2011:416). The two types of narrative
analysis employed for this ethnography are grounded theory and phenomenology; how
things work and studying the lived experience. Grounded theory is based on inductive
coding of texts, searching for patterns and developing hypotheses while concurrently
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using deductive methods to test those theories. Phenomenology “emphasizes the direct
experience of phenomena in order to determine their essences, the things that make
them what they are” (Bernard and Ryan 2010:258). It also requires putting aside our
personal biases to understand how other people experience things. Bernard and Ryan
3. Gather narratives about the phenomenon from the people who experience it by
asking open-ended questions.
The phenomenon that is the focus of this dissertation is the experience of being a
questions: 1) How do paranormal groups form and function?; 2) How do ghost hunters
embody this identity?; and 3) How are paranormal experiences interpreted and given
meaning? Since this research is largely exploratory, it will explore these three questions
by assessing how and why people join paranormal research teams, what the teams do,
how they understand and express unexplainable experiences, and how they
conceptualize the paranormal. What’s it like to be a ghost hunter? Who are they, what
do they do, when do they do it, where do they go, and why in the world do they spend
reality television shows experienced a surge in popularity; Ghost Hunters aired in 2004,
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Paranormal State in 2007, and Ghost Adventures in 2008. Around this time, I was an
fascination with folklore, urban legends, and supernatural beliefs could be directed at
the study of cultures. I’ll admit, I was fascinated by these paranormal shows. The shows
entertaining format. That’s all I knew about ghost hunters. It wasn’t until the beginning of
the doctoral program that I revisited my interest in the supernatural. And to study
assumptions about paranormal teams. Both are addressed in Chapter 4, in the section
Step 3: Gather narratives. The field methods for this dissertation centered around
semi-structured interviews, and did participant observation with six different ghost
hunting groups in Florida. Chapter 5 discusses these methods. For identifying essential
aspects of the phenomenon (according to step 4), I transcribed all qualitative data and
uploaded it to MAXQDA for coding. The fundamental features of ghost hunting are
revealed through the basic textual analysis and discussed in Chapter 5, accompanied
by illustrative quotes (step 5). Several of these aspects are demonstrated in the three
case studies in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 presents further analysis of that data with a
cultural domain of the paranormal, epistemology, and the social identity of ghost hunting
groups. The final step in the phenomenological study, step 6, is repeating the
identification and discussion of the essential aspects. It includes the repeated testing of
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the themes and models to ensure that I have uncovered as much of the paranormal
Several fields of study lay the groundwork for this research, and a handful of
authors have focused on this subject specifically. Religious studies, folklore studies, and
cultural anthropologists have long included supernatural beliefs. However, the ghost
hunting phenomena is more than just abstract beliefs; these paranormal investigators
are applying their religious, spiritual, and paranormal beliefs to physical occurrences in
the real world, trying to capture and document these occurrences with technological
devices. To examine how this recent movement in the paranormal field affects
anthropology provides that perspective. I draw on several previous studies which are
reviewed in Chapters 2 and 3. The most notable authors include Hess (1991) who
(2006), Kripal (2010), and other authors discuss how the modern-day concept of the
paranormal developed from psychical research in the 1800s. These authors apply a
Hess (1993), Horn (2009), Ward (1977) and Wooffitt (1992). S. Hill (2011, 2012)
comments on modern ghost hunting groups, noting some positive aspects but also
criticizing faults. Other studies that specifically study ghost hunting groups include the
dissertations of Thun (2013), Hanks (2011), and Hausmann (2011). This scholarship
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This dissertation builds on several themes discussed by these authors: ghost
epistemology. But this study also explores new territory in terms of methods, analysis,
and focus. My ethnographic research was long-term, continuing over the course of four
years at forty paranormal investigations, and includes interviews and surveys with thirty-
four investigators from six different groups. The analysis includes the use of analytic
software MAXQDA to code and analyze texts. These texts come from participant
observation notes, survey data, and transcribed interviews. This dissertation an in-depth
have a paranormal experience. Unlike what is portrayed on television where the ghost
hunters seek out spooky ghosts for thrills, these uncanny experiences are interpreted
For the purposes of this dissertation, the terms “ghost hunter”, “paranormal
researcher”, and “paranormal investigator” will be used interchangeably. This is for ease
of reading. Some paranormal investigators and academic scholars3 view the different
terms as indicating different types of groups, but those distinctions are not universally
recognized among all investigators that I worked with. Therefore, these three terms are
used in this ethnography to refer to individuals who voluntarily join a local, amateur
3 Academic authors who distinguish between these terms include del Pilar Blanco and Peeren (2010),
Hanks (2011), and S. Hill (2011, 2012).
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Spiritualist movement in the 1800s to modern day ghost hunters. Chapter 3 reviews
relevant literature and fields of study to lay a background for this research topic. In
Chapter 5, I introduce my field methods and the basics of paranormal research teams.
In Chapter 6, I describe three case studies illustrate significant themes of the body and
sensory experiences. Chapter 7 is the analysis, which focuses on the surveys, free lists,
and interview data to explore three points: the cultural domain of the paranormal, the
epistemological struggles of belief and knowledge, and the negotiation of social place.
Then I discuss the findings, connect the results back to the literature, and present a
grounded theory model. This model demonstrates that the underlying relation between
the paranormal investigators’ motivations and practices is the pursuit of self and social
and social significance. These methods are used to deflect social rejection due to the
research teams can negotiate a sense of belonging in both the spiritual realm and
modern society. Chapter 8 concludes with a summary of the findings, reflects on how
this research is situated within the academic field of cultural anthropology and
paranthropology, and suggests on how this research can inform future studies of the
paranormal.
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CHAPTER 2
THE PARANORMAL IN WESTERN CULTURE: A BRIEF HISTORY
Overview
The paranormal is a complex topic with a history that dates back thousands of
religious, political, and scientific changes in American society have altered these
perceptions accompanied the rise of positivism in the nineteenth century, building the
stage for empirical science. Beginning in the mid-1800s, supernatural claims and
legitimate topic of cultural study, a growing number of researchers from diverse fields
such as anthropology, sociology, and parapsychology have turned their focus to the
transformative role of the paranormal in societies around the world. These academic
scholars move beyond descriptive accounts of paranormal beliefs and explore the
relationships between paranormal concepts and the role of liminality, ritual, spirituality,
and science. These studies explore how the supernatural weaves through numerous
features of culture- not only in indigenous tribes and occult groups, but even persisting
paranormal studies is the formation of ghost hunting groups. These groups have their
origins in the Spiritualist movement of the nineteenth century, which was significant in
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Along with the rise of Spiritualism came the creation of skeptical organizations, such as
the Society for Psychical Research. These groups consisted of intellectual elites who
sought to debunk fraudulent claims and document legitimate psychic abilities. In the
rigorously tested. By the 1980s, parapsychology was losing credibility in the United
who called themselves ghost hunters and formed amateur groups to investigate
haunted locations. With the airing of popular paranormal reality television shows, these
by a repeating pattern; that “each new movement situates itself as a more scientific
variant of the previous movement” (Hess 1993:32). This pattern and demarcation of the
scientific versus the irrational occurs in the debates among Spiritualists, Spiritists,
psychical researchers, skeptics, and parapsychologists. Each new generation has tried
to distance their practice and theory from the previous generations, cutting ties to avoid
attempt to gain acceptance from the orthodox scientific community and academia. This
“boundary-work” occurs between the ideologies of science, religion, and each other. As
each movement contrasts themselves against the prior (the Other), they actively
construct their own presentation of themselves (the Self) (Hess 1993). These
boundaries are clearly reflected in the terminology used by each movement to describe
themselves.
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Terminology
continuous social shifts in which scholars attempted to distant themselves from negative
acceptance in the scientific community. The term ‘psychical’ was first termed in the early
1870s by Sir William Crookes, who published his series of experiments based on the
psychic medium Daniel Douglas Home (Lomax et al 2011:15). With the publication of a
other intellectuals to this new study of the abilities of the human mind and spirit. The
and folklore (Lomax et al 2011). The earliest publications of the term occurred in a 1901
collection of French essays and in 1903 in a French book by Dr. Joseph Maxwell,
1 Explained by Lomax et al (2011) as externalized human energies which manifest in a home and cause
the manipulation of objects.
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Further into the twentieth century, the term paranormal became more
‘supranormal phenomena’ which was often used by psychical researchers in the early
twentieth century. The term ‘paranormal’ denoted the phenomena that could not be
However, Lomax et al note that as the term became more widely known, it “began
2011:14), due to its popularization in the media, especially in horror films and television.
that are held to operate beyond the normal understandings of reality and the universe”
(Northcote 2007:6). However, Northcote (2007) notes that in non-Western countries, the
magical beliefs” (Northcote 2007:19). In these countries, the paranormal does not tend
to carry the same stigma as it does in Western society. In fact, many non-Western
cultures do not even differentiate between the supernatural and the natural, but
dichotic terms. The Western concept of the supernatural is “a broad cover term for a
variety of postulated entities, forces, or ‘beings’ that are usually denominated ‘spiritual’
worldviews where the spiritual world aligns and overlaps with the living world. For the
purpose of this dissertation, these terms will be used in the Western context since the
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terminologies are noted because they relate to the how the Western world was
paranormal, as treated by the movements and organizations discussed below, does not
strictly include specific beliefs or phenomena but generally includes ghosts, hauntings,
as Bigfoot, and UFO’s2. Throughout the history of the paranormal, though, the variation
and fluidity of this topic is demonstrated as different generations of people employ this
term to embody their ideas of the uncanny, the unexplainable, and the extraordinary.
The concept of ghosts, the continuation of the human soul after death, and the
afterlife as religious beliefs date back thousands of years and are present in cultures
world-wide. These beliefs and stories appear in historical documents, oral histories, and
can be traced through the creation of artwork, monuments, and other structures. In
Classical Antiquity, ghosts appear in Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey; haunted locations are
described by Plutarch, Pliny the Younger, and other Romans (Finucane 1996). Ghosts
continued to be present in the religious narratives and folklore throughout the Middle
Ages and the Renaissance, with varying meanings, roles, and supposed abilities and
intentions (Burton and Grandy 2004). The medieval Catholic Church had a distinct role
in the way that the beings of the afterlife were portrayed; those “early medieval ghosts
were concerned with establishing and emphasizing Christian teachings over a broad
spectrum, from the need to venerate relics to the very existence of immortal souls”
2 UFO is an abbreviation for unidentified flying object. They are usually associated with aliens and
extraterrestrial life.
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(Finucane 1996:46). In the latter part of the Middle Ages, the concept of ghosts
demonstrated the reality of purgatory and the value of prayers and sacrifices for the
dead. Europeans were preoccupied with the instructive roles of ghosts and the terrifying
threat of demons and heathen gods, but the Age of Enlightenment prompted an
(Ward 1977). Until the timely publication of an anthology of ghost stories and the
Spiritualist movement of the late nineteenth century, the supernatural was mostly the
In 1848, a bestselling book was published titled The Night Side of Nature by
Catherine Crowe (Blum 2006). Consisting of numerous ghost stories gathered from
friends, newspaper accounts, and letters, Crowe intended the book to be more than an
beyond, to see the rare flicker of something genuinely supernatural” (Blum 2006:15),
despite the scientific hostility and scholars’ tendency to disregard all supernatural
claims. However, Crowe argued that these narratives came from “respectable citizens”
(Blum 2006:16), and despite what the phenomena actually was, it deserved
investigation all the same. This popular book undoubtedly “persuaded generations of
readers that believing in ghosts was an acceptable thing” (Blum 2006:13), changing the
general attitude of the paranormal from one of dogmatic skepticism to one of enchanting
possibility.
In the same year that The Night Side of Nature was published, two young girls
began reporting that mysterious knocks were coming from inside their home. Their
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claims led to an international religious movement revolving around the communication
with spirits (Blum 2006). Ghosts left the confines of folklore and grew prominent in
popular culture with the rise of the Spiritualist movement in the mid-1800s. In 1848, the
Fox sisters became famous when they claimed to be communicating through rappings
with a spirit in their house, the supposed ghost of a murdered beggar buried under the
cellar floor. These young girls became a sensation, traveling to demonstrate to the
public their ability to communicate with spirits. The Spiritualist belief that the dead can
communicate with the living spread rapidly through the United States and European
countries. During its peak popularity from the 1840s to the 1920s, it drew millions of
followers, mainly from the middle and upper classes (Blum 2006). Psychic mediums
early 1850s, these séances and table tipping were common social events3. The
invention and mass production of the Ouija board made spirit communication accessible
to everyone, not only restricted to the divinely chosen mediums. Despite opposition from
the mainstream church leaders, the phenomena of mediums (people through whom
spirits could connect to the living world) and sensitives (people with unusual sensitivity
to the spirit world) flourished. Spiritualism promised a “more rational basis for the
questions of faith and ultimate meaning” (Hess 1993:19), catering to the public who
were dissatisfied with the Church and academic science. In addition, Spiritualists
believed “that the religious world view could be saved by being placed on the firm
3 Both séances and table tipping center around a psychic medium who contacts the dead and channels
supernatural powers. A séance is a general term for these sessions, where members of the public can sit
with the psychic to witness these abilities. According to Merriam-Webster, table tipping, table tilting, or
table turning is the “lifting or manipulation of a table during a séance attributed to the agency of spirits.”
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foundation of scientific knowledge” (Hess 1993:19). Followers of the Spiritualist
Movement also supported other contemporary social movements and causes such as
the abolition and feminist movement. Spiritualism began to decline in the early
twentieth century but is still currently practiced throughout the United States and the UK
(Hess 1993), though its members constituted <0.3% of a 2014 Religious Landscape
Study by the Pew Research Center.4 The Spiritualist movement was significant because
it represented greater accessibility to the spirit world. People could consult mediums
In 1857, a French educator under the pseudonym Allan Kardec published The
Book of Spirits, a compilation of his spiritual views on mediums, the afterlife, and the
role of spiritual beings (Hess 1987). Kardec termed his teachings Spiritism, to
distinguish it from the Spiritualist movement occurring in the United States and the UK.
major religious and social movement through France and spread to Latin American
countries, most notably Brazil (Enedina Lima Bezerra 2005; Hess 1991; Rios 2009).
communicator between the world of the living and the dead as well as Christian values
and morality, but also “borrowed from Eastern philosophy the principles of reincarnation
and the law of karma, two ideas that further distinguished his doctrine from the beliefs of
4 The 2014 study surveyed more than 35,000 Americans from all 50 states. Spiritualism is categorized
under “Other Christian” and “Metaphysical Family.” The study can be viewed a
http://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study.
29
most Anglophone Spiritualists” (Hess 1993:18). Similar to how Spiritualism grew from
the public’s desire to join the spiritual with the scientific, Spiritism was a “product of
nineteenth-century rationalism, and [Kardec] shared with other intellectuals of the time
the concern that the recent advances in scientific knowledge were eroding religious faith
and morality” (Hess 1987:16). Kardec’s Spiritist doctrine was viewed as “a kind of
empirical science of the spirit world, but a science that bridged the gap between is and
ought by transforming what he believed to be the fact of spirit communication into the
moral principles of Spiritist doctrine” (Hess 1987:16). The Spiritist movement soon split
into two schools of thought: one school was more concerned with experimental science
along with classifying and validating the phenomena of spirit mediumship, and the other
school was led by Jean-Baptiste Roustaing, emphasizing religious values and the
divinity of Christ. These divisions followed Spiritism as it was introduced to Brazil and
became hugely popular, though the fundamental differences between the two led to
conflict within the Spiritist organizations throughout the nineteenth and twentieth century
(Hess 1987).
“disobsession” for the treatment of a variety of maladies. The twentieth century saw the
creation of official Spiritist institutes and organizations, along with medical and
therapeutic centers; however, none of these were exempt from the political, religious,
and social conflicts occurring in Brazil. In the 1960s, Jesuit Padre Oscar Gonzales
Quevado “reinterpreted the parapsychology of the United States and Europe in light of
Catholic Church doctrine” and this new Brazilian field of parapsychology was used “in
30
classes and books to challenge the scientific bases of the claims of Spiritism, Umbanda,
and the Afro-Brazilian religions” (Hess 1987:26). The Catholic Church highly
disapproved of, and frequently attacked, the folk spirit mediumship practices in Brazil,
parapsychology “legitimizes Spiritist claims that their therapeutic practices are not
curandeirismo but a form of ‘alternative medicine’” (Hess 1987:27). The rivalry between
the scientific intellectuals and the religious evangelicals continues into the twenty-first
century, resulting and reflecting current class and status conflicts (Hess 1987).
Spiritualist movement were the first skeptical investigations into the supernatural (Blum
psychical research were founded in Britain and the United States. Other individuals
began collecting reports of paranormal events, such as Charles Fort (Kripal 2010).
scientific and rationalism, it was not until the late 1800s that scientific methods were
applied to the study of the paranormal. The Society for Psychical Research in London
was founded in 1882 by a group of intellectual elites, including Frederic Myers and
Henry Sidgwick (Kripal 2010). In 1885, the American branch of the Society for Psychical
31
Research was founded, similarly led by renowned intellectuals such as philosopher and
Research in London and in the US were the first institutions of their kind as credible
institutions led by respected academics. Several members of the British Society for
emphasizes how the contemporary cultural context led to the creation of these
organizations. The Western world was in the middle of a rivalry between scientific
the “psychical research movement rose in response to such rigidity, built by those who
believed that objective and intelligent investigation could provide answers to the
troubling metaphysical questions of the time—and that those answers mattered” (Blum
2006:41). The societies termed their work ‘psychical research’, to address the pressing
metaphysical questions that conventional science not only avidly avoided, but
intentionally blocked. Several members, most notably Henry Sidgwick, were concerned
with the state of religion, identity, and moral standards in society. Sidgwick was aware
of the common fraud and trickery used in séances, but still occasionally sensed
handfuls of smoke while somewhere within the billows burned a genuine flame” (Blum
2006:42). With these social and spiritual concerns, the psychical researchers gathered
5 James conducted extensive research on psychics, attended séances, and supported trance medium
Leonora Piper (Blum 2006).
32
The first official meeting of the London Society for Psychical Research was
attended by numerous members and scholars, including Alfred Russel Wallace, who
after attending several séances developed the idea that the “phenomena of Spiritualism
[was] evidence for a separate, nonphysical line or moral or spiritual evolution” (Lomax et
attending and examining séances. The members of the Society functioned as “a court of
professional skeptics for famous public cases” (Kripal 2010:55), critically analyzing
they also seriously pursued the study of these anomalous psychic events, even using
cameras to record séances with the hope of capturing photographic evidence (del Pilar
Blanco and Peeren 2010). With an Enlightenment hostility to traditional religion but a
Romantic openness to religious experiences, Frederic Myers believed that the scientific
approach could “throw new light on old religious questions” (Kripal 2010:40) based on
the religious past through the lens of psychical research, which regarded paranormal
events as objectively real and “entirely consistent with natural, though as yet
unexplained, laws or patterns” (Kripal 2010:42). Coining the term ‘telepathy,’ Myers
purposes. These telepathic abilities were perceived as possible due to Myer’s “idea that
the human imagination under certain very specific conditions can take on extraordinary
or supernormal capacities that represent hints of a more highly evolved human nature”
(Kripal 2010:83). These investigations into the paranormal largely dealt with the
33
experiences of the individual, but also considered the potential of human mental abilities
experiences, and the natural sciences. Charles Fort (1874-1932) collected and
or ignored by Western religion and science. Recognizing the old Dominant of Religion
acceptance, which recognized that beliefs and perceptions of reality are temporally,
mysticism” which describes reality “through a creative fusion of traditional mystical and
(later termed UFOs) passing through earth’s atmosphere, observing and communicating
with humans (in the past and present). He connects these communications with the
“subsequent demonic theory of religion” (Kripal 2010:131), believing that the anomalous
the very framework or essential components of world religions. Fort views evolution as
(Kripal 2010:119). Fort describes the ‘wild talents’ of individuals, claiming that human
superpowers are made possible through physical and psychocultural evolution. Fort’s
work inspired a following; several of Fort’s friends founded the Fortean Society in 1931.
By the 1960s, the Fortean Society was declining but the International Fortean
34
Organization (INFO)6 was established, publishing a journal and organizing the annual
FortFest. In 1973, magazine Fortean Times7 started publishing news stories about all
things strange and supernatural. The curious nature of Charles Fort lives on through
The Society for Psychical Research based its scientific approach on the positivist
movement that began in the 1800s. However, positivism is a much stricter scientific
approach in which “the dogmatic rejection of any truth claim that cannot be tested
scientifically; scientific method is the only way to knowledge of reality” (Evans 1993:8).
data, and plausibility in accordance with existing knowledge and theories. While a
positivist approach has been used through modern day as a scientific way of attempting
to document and prove paranormal phenomena, this dogmatic stance has many
problems when faced with such phenomena. Some paranormal claims can be tested
and proven through such scientific investigation, but Evans (1993) believes that it is
Other historical figures and authors in the twentieth century approach the paranormal
with a degree of scientific theory and critical thinking, but also reach into the humanities
their ideas about how the paranormal is related to human evolution, the origins and
6 http://enacademic.com/dic.nsf/enwiki/6767490
7 https://subscribe.forteantimes.com
35
Parapsychology: Advancements in the Scholarly Pursuit of Paranormal
Phenomena
The field of parapsychology emerged around the turn of the century, growing
from psychical research and spurred by two social developments: “the growing popular
interest in spiritualism and the possibility of some form of continued existence after
secular credence to the idea that people could survive death, in some form or another.
experiences” provided insight into the human condition and the workings of the universe
precognition), and they defined their field “as the systematic study of patterns of
physical laws” (Hess 1993:7). In other words, these were studies of environmental
more experimental ways of investigating the paranormal. When JB and Louisa Rhine
established a laboratory at Duke University in the 1930s, they officially coined the term
parapsychology (Horn 2009). In 1935, JB Rhine was made the director of the
Parapsychology Laboratory, where he and his wife conducted research with a team of
parapsychology grew over the following decades, other researchers opted for slightly
36
different terminology to describe their research: ‘psi’ or ‘anomalies’ research. This
reflects how different scholars varied in their focus and epistemology. Rhine’s research,
though, categorically paved the road for future parapsychological work through the
individuals as his subjects, and analyzing his results with sophisticated statistical
In the 1960s, Rhine left Duke University and created the Foundation for Research on
the Nature of Man, renamed the Rhine Research Center in 1995. The Parapsychology
affiliated with the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1969 (Horn
2009).
the decades of the 1960s to the 1980s. As Ward (1977) noted, despite being associated
with major universities and research institutions, “parapsychologists have never had an
easy time in getting other scholars to take their work seriously and the opposition to
such research has at times reached a high emotional pitch” (Ward 1977:215). During
this time of increased criticism towards the field, universities began to distance
themselves from parapsychology organizations in both Europe and the United States.
Wooffitt (1992) comments that the future of parapsychology may be bleak indeed,
though parapsychological studies continue to be conducted around the world. The field
itself still maintains a steady stream of research today with publications of the biannual
Journal of Parapsychology but does not hold strong links with academic institutions.
37
Parapsychology, the New Age Movement, and Skeptics
During the late 1960s, public interest in the paranormal was renewed by the rise
of the ‘hippy’ culture, alternative lifestyles, and Eastern mysticism. Psychic celebrities
became popular in the media, such as Uri Geller. Described as a “spiritual self-help
Age movement reflects a significant shift in the Western mindset in how people viewed
knowledge. The New Age movement does not consist of a single cohesive belief
system; rather, it is a constellation of beliefs and practices that combine spirituality, the
occult, science, and the supernatural. It includes beliefs in past lives, crystal healing,
medicine, and pagan rituals, among other countercultural or alternative lifestyles and
behaviors. Hess (1993) states that the New Age movement is mostly characterized by
the inclusion of Native American religions, goddess religions, primitive matriarchies, and
therapies that integrate body and mind. The New Age movement embodies the popular
desire for alternatives to mainstream knowledge and faith, with “a knack for bringing
together the technical and the spiritual, the scientific and the religious” (Hess 1993:4).
constitutes the discourse and investigations of the Committee for the Scientific
magazine Skeptical Inquirer. Hess states that these “antiantiscientists tend to lump
1 https://www.csicop.org/
38
parapsychology together with the New Age movement into a category of popular
superstition, occultism, and ‘pseudoscience’ for which their social mission is one of
scholars, scientists, writers, journalists, magicians, and bloggers who “provide a strong
critical voice that often speaks in the idiom of journalistic muckraking” (Hess 1993:11).
Skeptics also have a long tradition in Western society, voicing their doubts in the
claims include Harry Houdini, driven to prove mediumship as fraudulent and the product
of deceit and illusion. For these proclaimed skeptics, “the flight from reason is an
ostrich-like reaction in the face of an ever-advancing case for scientific knowledge and
an ever-receding basis for religious faith” (Hess 1993:13). In this new technological age,
the paranormal is more readily accepted by the public than magic or religion because of
its more scientific presentation. But despite its apparent legitimacy, skeptics claim that
paranormal beliefs are a new form of potentially dangerous irrationalism (Hess 1993:
13). Ironically, Hess also argues that the New Agers and paranormal believers are
skeptical in their own way; “skeptical not only of the demands of religious faith but also
of the promises made to them by the corporate world, official science, and the medical
beliefs may in fact be wary of the religious, scientific, technical or economic orthodoxy.
people become suspicious of these social authorities and seek other explanations for
their experiences. Thus, New Age and paranormal beliefs may not be irrational per se,
39
irrational and unjust orthodoxies” (Hess 1993:14). Through the lens of a cultural
The Rise of the Ghost Hunter: Popular Culture and Paranormal Investigators
other programs and organizations around the world, with varying degrees of success
paranormal hobbyists developed into a global phenomenon: ghost hunting. The popular
icon of the ghost hunter emerged in nearly all forms of popular culture and media,
ultimately and irrevocably transforming the way the paranormal is perceived and treated
in Western society.
The first amateur ghost hunter is claimed to be Hans Holzer, who began his
investigations in the 1960s (Belanger 2005). Holzer became a well-known figure, and
over his career wrote and produced books, plays, musicals, films, and documentaries.
paranormal investigations with high profile mediums, and was involved with several
credited with coining the term ‘Ghost Hunter’ which was the title of his first paranormal
40
book published in 19639. By the 1990’s, Holzer was a well-known popular figure. The
concept of the lone paranormal investigator became more popular, and other interested
own (Belanger 2005). Often, these hobbyist ghost hunters were equipped with a handful
of scientific equipment, such as Geiger counters. The focus on scientific equipment was
laboratories and helped distinguish these ghost hunters from the less credible psychics.
These individual researchers eventually started forming amateur teams, and by the late
decades due to its broadcast via media sources (A. Hill 2011). A myriad of television
reality shows sprang up, featuring the adventures of such research groups. The
portrayal and representation of the paranormal and the investigators, has critically
shaped how many amateur research groups perceive the paranormal and conduct their
own research. In 2002, the first reality TV show based on paranormal investigations
aired in England, called Most Haunted. A few years later, the first paranormal reality TV
show Ghost Hunters aired in the United States in 2004. Ghost Hunters depicts average,
American, blue collar workers who were employed as plumbers by day and investigated
haunted houses at night. While the shows include dramatization, the appeal of the
shows were their documentary style and portrayal of how ordinary people could
investigate ghosts and the afterlife. The immediate success of this show led to a burst of
9 However, a 1936 book published by Harry Price was titled Confessions of a Ghost Hunter.
41
additional paranormal reality TV shows and saturated all avenues of the media and
black clothing, the use of scientific tools and equipment to document and measure
phenomena, and the investigations of both private residential houses and public
buildings. A major allure of these groups was their apparent objective, scientific
paranormal claims was novel, distancing themselves from the dramatized and
The emphasis on science and the scientific method increased viewership, despite some
problematic applications and definitions of science used by the groups (S. Hill 2011,
2012). Since the airing of Ghost Hunters, dozens of paranormal reality shows have
aired on TV to varying degrees of success; this is a trend that has not yet diminished. In
addition, the last decade has seen a tremendous spike in the amount of amateur ghost
hunting groups, whose formation is influenced by the sudden popularity and awareness
of the paranormal in Western society. It could be argued that the show Ghost Hunters
and similar TV shows single handedly led to the popularization, increased acceptance,
and formation of thousands of amateur ghost hunting groups in the United States.
Conclusion
movement in the 1850s, and was analyzed in turn by psychical research societies,
parapsychologists, and ghost hunters. Perhaps the most significant characteristic of the
paranormal which attributes to its popularity is its accessibility. The Fox sisters
demonstrated that ordinary people could seek interactions with spirits. This appealed to
42
thousands of people grieving over deceased loved ones and lacking consolation from
the church or science. The Spiritualist movement also was the first time the
supernatural was being tested by objective means; psychical society members aimed to
technology progressed over the twentieth century, so did the methods in which the
laboratories were restricted to members or staff, ghost hunting brought back the main
not only to experience it, but to try to explain it. The media helped popularize this trend,
teams like the Atlantic Paranormal Society (TAPS)10. While the role of the media in its
scholars have explored the modern beliefs and practices associated with the
dominate the television screen; but the question remains on where they are situated in
our understandings of modern spirituality and the construction of meaning. The next
chapter examines several academic studies of the modern concept of the paranormal,
10 TAPS is the name of the paranormal team featured on the reality television show Ghost Hunters. More
information is available from their website, http://the-atlantic-paranormal-society.com/
43
CHAPTER 3
CRITICAL INTERPRETATIONS OF THE PARANORMAL
Overview
In addition to its historical context, the current popularity of ghost hunting groups
in the United States must also be viewed within a sociocultural context. Paranormal
concepts encompass and influence various aspects of Western society, such as popular
research is not a new or recent activity; it developed over the course of a century by
hundreds of researchers from various fields of study. However, current scholarly studies
lack this context and fail to see these paranormal groups as situated within this long
socially taboo1. Only a handful of anthropologists and scholars of other fields critically
examine paranormal teams through this lens, enriching our understanding of how the
paranormal constitutes a crucial role in how people negotiate their place in a society
A recent direction in anthropology confronts the way that social beings interact
with and experience the non-empirical. Anthropologists who contribute to the fields of
intrinsic value to the study of cultures (Abrahams 1986; Adams 2014; Bruner and Turner
1 The paranormal has long been a taboo topic in Western society because it doesn’t fit neatly into the
realms of religion or science. Merriam-Webster defines taboo as “banned on grounds of morality or taste,”
“banned as constituting a risk,” and “something that is not acceptable to say, mention, or do.” While some
paranormal concepts are religious in nature, it’s not considered socially acceptable to have interactions
with spiritual beings; and paranormal concepts are not proven by science to exist. Like the following
chapters demonstrate, an admission of paranormal beliefs is often met with skepticism, dismissal, or
derision.
44
1986; Collins and Pinch 1982; Howes 1991; Hunter 2009; Kapferer 1986). These types
such experiences. In addition, a few authors comment on the importance of the self-
reflection and recognition during these experiences. Recalling their own unexplainable
experiences, many of these authors acknowledge the affect these experiences can
have on an individual, demonstrating that the way people interpret, confront, and
interact with non-empirical experience has much deeper social implications than
that inform the study of extraordinary experiences. In the first part of this chapter, I’ll
science and focus on public perceptions. Secondly, I’ll discuss the different ways in
which academics have studied the paranormal within well-known theoretical frames,
theoretical views that inform my work. Then, I explore the literature that addresses
empirical and humanistic approaches and begin with a common understanding; they’re
interested in meaning and experience rather than whether something is “real” or not. To
conclude, I present the approaches of this dissertation, and how these various studies
inform my work.
45
Public Perceptions, Science, and Paranormal Tourism in the Twenty-first Century
Ghost hunting entered the public imagination with the popularization of the
paranormal on television and in the media. Paranormal concepts have long been part of
local legends, literature, and the media but a dynamic shift occurred when Ghost
Hunters aired in 2004. This reality TV show inspired thousands of other paranormal
investigative groups, but also inspired millions of others to have an interest in traveling
to visit haunted sites. The reality television shows portrayed a version of science applied
as a ghost hunting method and featured both famous and infamous locations around
the world. Since 2004, several authors have published works criticizing the methods of
ghost hunters and how science is portrayed to the public. Other authors focus on the
economy of paranormal tourism, focusing on how the public perceives the paranormal
television shows, experience the haunted locations, and construct personal meaning
While it appears that ghost hunters are embracing scientific ideas and methods,
several scholars argue that these groups practice and promote bad science, or
pseudoscience. For this first part, I’ll focus my discussion on Sharon Hill (2011, 2012)
since her research speaks most directly to the issues this dissertation is concerned with.
Sharon Hill is a sociologist who terms these groups ‘amateur research and investigation
groups’ (ARIGs). S. Hill focuses on the amateur groups that investigate paranormal
phenomena. She contrasts their ideas about being scientific to the concepts, methods,
and terminology of the scientific community. Through a survey of 1,000 websites, S. Hill
reveals that the paranormal research groups use technical jargon and equipment as
symbols of science; however, these groups may be promoting paranormal beliefs while
not adhering to actual scientific principles or methods. S. Hill argues that the general
46
public has little understanding of science, so the portrayals of their methods would seem
scientific but are in fact a “sham inquiry—a process that gives the impression of
scientific inquiry but lacks substance and rigor” (S. Hill 2012:8). In terms of science
education, this is arguably a concern, since reality television shows are popularized and
and gadgets could indicate a growing public interest and understanding of scientific
concepts and tools, but S. Hill argues that the groups do not practice rigorous scientific
methods, do not understand basic scientific concepts, misuse jargon and have a very
basic or incorrect interpretation of scientific methods and concepts. Sharon Hill argues
that this misuse is detrimental to the public, who watch the television shows and are
engaged with the idea of paranormal investigating but are learning this pseudoscience
and bad methods from the ‘paracelebrities’. This promotion and dispersal of bad
standpoint, S. Hill’s arguments are accurate. However, this dissertation argues that the
significant social role of these paranormal groups could ultimately be beneficial. People
who claim to have anomalous experiences are aware of the increased acceptance of
sharing their stories due to the paranormal media, and “the amateur research groups
provide considerable social function in this regard including support and legitimacy” (S.
Hill 2011:17).
On the other hand, it could be argued that amateur paranormal research groups
base their idea of science, what science is and how it is done, on what they have been
exposed to not only through popular sources and the media, but also through the
American education system. As a 2013 article states; “the public school system of the
47
United States, the richest country in the world, still struggles to educate our citizens
about science and to make that education relevant and present in their daily lives.” 2
Also, the popular image of science as it is portrayed in the media is often simplified,
exaggerated, and is not the same as the epistemologies, theories, and methods
employed in the fields of the social sciences, natural sciences (biology ecology), and
physical sciences (physics, geology). Similarly, the portrayal of the paranormal teams in
the media is likewise simplified, excluding the humanist and social interactions that
and positivism. This view is termed scientism, where anything non-scientific is degraded
as invalid3. When the media describes the conclusions of scientific studies, they are
often shown as hard evidence and definitive results when in reality these findings can
be complex and unclear. The media places science on a pedestal, emphasizing its
this has impressed on the amateur researchers is that for their research to be accepted
as valid, they feel they must legitimize it by framing their hypotheses and approaches in
scientific jargon. Since they have only been exposed to positivist forms of science, they
treat their paranormal research the same way: focusing on gathering documentary
evidence and authenticating their experiences through technology. Because they use
to hard sciences like physics and quantum mechanics, they claim that they are ‘doing
2 http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/education/2013/11/science_education_in_america_
why_k_12_students_fall_behind_in_science.html
3 For a discussion on scientism and its role in paranormal studies, see Hanks (2011).
48
science’ as well. This claim has been the focus of criticism from many scholars (S. Hill
2011), who recognize that these amateur research groups either do not understand
science or are falsely claiming to be doing science. This claim of science is not meant to
be deceptive, however, and may be an honest mistake on the groups’ part. Websites
created by the paranormal investigative teams may not realistically capture what the
members of these groups actually believe or how they behave. The technological
language used on these websites more likely represents how Americans in general view
scientific jargon as legitimizing. However, in recent decades, there has been a move
towards a more humanistic science and post-positivism that has not been as widely
portrayed in media. There are newer approaches that are better suited for the field of
paranormal studies, but they have not been popularized by movies or television shows
and therefore have been either overlooked or out of reach for most amateur
paranormal, which examines both scientific data and human experiences together to
further study the human psyche and sacred meanings. Perhaps further anthropological
research on paranormal experiences can ease some of the stigma associated with
them, in turn allowing for a fuller understanding of how these uncanny experiences
Along with the rise of ghost hunting groups, a shift in tourism also occurred
around the time of Ghost Hunters in 2004. Ghost tours in historical locations may have
a marginal status compared to other tourist activities, but they still garner a large
interest and popular appeal (Thompson 2010). In the paranormal reality shows, the
paranormal teams travel the country visiting the most haunted locations. Many of these
49
locations are public buildings, restaurants, hotels, and historical locations. Some
locations were already tourist destinations and being featured on the TV show resulted
in an influx of tourists and paranormal enthusiasts at these sites. While some historical
locations already had reputations as being haunted and their spooky demeanor drew
visitors, the rise of ghost hunting groups and the popularity of the TV shows inevitably
changed the way and reason why certain tourists visited these locations. The identity of
some buildings, or even whole cities, as being ‘historical’ was now shifting into being
‘haunted.’ For example, the city of St. Augustine in Florida which has long been known
as the oldest European settlement in the United States is now home to dozens of
paranormal tour groups (Hillyer 2005). Sites in St. Augustine such as the Lighthouse,
which was once featured on Ghost Hunters, run regular tours during the day and
charges paranormal teams a fee for the privilege to investigate it at night. This is only
one of many examples of how the popularity of the paranormal in the media has
presented in Inglis and Holmes’ (2003) discussion of Scottish ghost tours. Over the past
decade, the historical city centers in Scotland increased the amount of ghost tours
themed tours are “designed to sell Scotland to a global audience” (Inglis and Holmes
2003:51) and are advertised globally to draw in an international audience. The transition
of tours, from primarily historical to ghostly, also changed the way that Scottish heritage
was presented, incorporating paranormal and ghostly tales along with historical ones.
50
Inglis and Holmes (2003) provide a brief history of Scotland’s political and economic
past, to demonstrate how the country’s image has changed over time; The
Enlightenment led to the disenchantment of society, but then Romantic portrayals of the
Scottish landscape drew in tourists searching for the mystical and enchanting qualities
advertised. The turn in Scottish tourism towards the ghostly “assists the industry
through mysticizing Scottish heritage as more glorious than the mundane everydayness
of the present in which the tourist normally lives” (Inglis and Holmes 2003:56). The
supernatural quality of the tours increases the allure of the escapist vacation. In addition
to the historical and enchanting locations of the tours, tour guides are also encouraged
add to the ‘authentic’ quality of the tourists’ experiences, who are eager to engage with
voices from the past (both performed by the guide and offered by the ghostly
presences). The ghost tours have been successful in Scotland, increasing economic
revenue from “the specter’s enchanting of monies from the tourist purse” (Inglis and
As Hanks (2015) observed in her study on ghost tourism in the UK, the
presentation of ghost stories in these historical and haunted cities reflects the
complicated way that the paranormal is incorporated into traditional notions of heritage.
In the town of York, England, she found that there are multiple variations and
interpretations of ghostly legends. These stories, particularly about the ancient Roman
occupation of the area, were perpetuated by ghost tour guides for multiple reasons: as
proof that ghosts were real, “as a way of making the Roman past engaging and fun to
51
the public…[and] as a means of critiquing the authority of archaeological researchers
and heritage officials” (Hanks 2015:12). Several topics are being negotiated through
these presentations: the empirical reality of ghosts, the engagement of the public with
local history, and the contesting of official knowledge and authority. During ghost walks
of the city center, tourists are presented with a narrative that combines local history and
legendary ghost stories. These ghosts are constructed as being “profoundly public in
the sense that tours present the ghosts’ lives and stories as a matter of local, regional,
by the terms spirit or soul, these ghosts are presented by tour guides to the tourists as
“a being who lived and died in the past but emerges in the present with the physical
tourists are instructed to remain observant and attentive to experience the ghosts on
their nocturnal walks, as these ghosts become a way of interacting directly with an
Hanks (2015) outlines the three concepts which characterize and structure ghost
tourism: experience, knowledge, and heritage. Many of these tourists are seeking
knowledge of the unknown and the afterlife, which in turn can lead to a “reconfiguration
national past” (Hanks 2015:15). Through these touristic practices, ghosts are used and
represented as disembodied heritage. The ghost tours provide an engagement with the
past but also a rhetorical way of questioning popular representations of the England’s
52
history. Hanks (2015) notes that the paranormal concepts portrayed in the media can be
viewed as legends, and therefore the practice of ghost tourism is a form of legend-
tripping. According to Hanks (2015), “folklorists use the term legend-trip to refer to the
experience” (Hanks 2015:45). Most ghost tourism companies do present their tours as
well-known ghost stories and legends through these ghost tours differs from the way
that that the paranormal is construed during most paranormal investigations, particularly
assessing the variation in the sense of how private or public the paranormal experience
can be depending on the geographical context. For both ghost tours and teams of
paranormal investigators, though, well-known ghost stories provide an appeal for travel
demonstrated through the legend-tripping, where tourists engage with the myth of
Dracula and vampires “through fantasy, imagination-work and embodied play” (Light
2009:240). Reminiscent of Goffman (1959), Light shows how spaces and places are
performed, made, and remade through touristic practices, blurring the boundary
between the tourists and their destinations. These tourists were characterized by their
interests in the supernatural, imaginative geographies, and their common desire for
53
with others. Light’s ethnographic fieldwork with the tourist group brought him to Castle
aesthetic qualities of which both invited and facilitated particular types of performance”
(Light 2009:248). The tourists at Castle Dracula experienced their stay with “a sense of
apprehension, suspense and uncertainty. Several people spoke with relish of the
prospect of being frightened in some way” (Light 2009:249). These reactions of ‘being
these legendary places. These types of touristic travels differ from typical vacations in
that the tourists visit, stay, and interact in not just historical, but also legendary and
near-mythological locations that can be considered liminal spaces, in which the tourists
engage in escapism, fantasy and play. A costumed Halloween party at the Castle also
ghost tourism, haunted locations and paranormal investigators can examine the role of
visitors and tour guides define and interact in legendary haunted locations. An example
(2012) article Soundscape and the Culture of War on an American Civil War Battlefield,
in which he details his theoretical orientation and methodology used in his paranormal
investigations in Gettysburg. Sabol’s study “was meant to analyze the perception of the
War battlefield, and their relation in the development of a perceived ‘haunted’ battlefield”
54
(Sabol 2012:22). Sabol’s ‘ghost excavations’ take place in legendary, historical spaces,
known for their touristic appeal and in recent decades became a popular destination for
ghost tours (Thompson 2010). While Sabol’s methods divert from the typical ghost
hunting approach due to their experimental and performative nature, his publication
haunted locations.
The nature of this research topic lends itself particularly to phenomenology and
grounded theory. This section reviews several authors who employ these theoretical
“deals with how individuals actually experience their culture, that is, how events are
feelings, expectations, and the verbal and visual impressions of individuals. He notes
occurred to them and situating the self in a context of actions. The relationship between
experience and expressions is problematic, though, due to its dialogic and dialectical
reality, perceived experiences of that reality, and the framed, structured expressions of
scholars must see that “expressions or performed texts [and] structured units of
55
(Bruner 1986:7). Through this method of study, anthropologists of experience view
“people as active agents in the historical process who construct their own world” (Bruner
1986:12). Bruner clarifies his notions of experience, arguing that experience embodies
feelings and meanings. These meanings can be teased out through the analysis of
concepts of experience and self/Other can inform a study of spirit possession. While
most paranormal groups are not involved in ceremonies of spirit possession, their
interactions with spirits and ghosts can lead to intense and intimate experiences that
“process of transformation of the experiential alien into the symbolic other” (Leistle
2014:55). Leistle explores the subtle variations of the Other, distinguishing between
types of Other versus the self. He states that possession can often be understood as a
ritual therapy applied to an illness, in which the individuals involved negotiate their
relations, boundaries, and embody those relational experiences. Leistle illustrates that
(Leistle 2014:83). While ghost hunting does not often include experiences of spirit
56
understanding of how ghost hunters perceive the Other, negotiating the framework of
Among the more relevant works is a thesis that examines ghost hunters in
California. Thun (2013) conducted his M.A. research on ghost hunting groups in
Technology with his thesis, “I am not sure what is real, or what my mind wants to be
teams and gathering data from 14 interviews. He explains how ghost hunting as a social
ghosts” (Thun 2013:1). Ultimately though, Thun discovers that the underlying motivation
for these ghost hunters is a quest for truth. The background chapters discuss historical
and philosophical discourses which explain the context of paranormal groups today.
Thun argues that ghost hunting is a counter movement against the disenchantment
thesis pioneered by Max Weber, who “contended that the processes of rationalization,
addition, Descartes proposed a clear division between the subjective imagination and
an objective reality; that there is a difference between reality as experienced, and the
universal objective reality that we all occupy. Weber’s and Descartes’ views greatly
impacted science and western modes of thinking. Descartes and Francis Bacon
emphasized the importance of measurement to study nature and our surroundings more
57
directly. This reflects the growing authority of technology and objectivity, and the
diminishing stance of the subjective human experience. Bacon expressed concern that
the physical world could not be thoroughly and objectively understood lest superstitions
experiences lost their epistemic credibility, giving way to rationalist thinking and the idea
of an objective truth—not just in western science, but in the general Western mindset
and epistemology. Weber’s disenchantment thesis postulates that today, the Western
world would have no place for supernatural or paranormal beliefs. Consequently, during
and a resolutely world bourgeois” (Inglis and Holmes 2003:51). Ghosts were banished
to the peripheries of folklore and experience, as the world was restructured, and made
argue that the world is experiencing quite the opposite; a re-enchantment. This new re-
enchantment thesis proposes that mystic beliefs will adapt to the secularized world.
Religion and spirituality thrive, and national polls indicate that substantial portions of the
revealed that 73% of Americans believed in at least one paranormal concept4. However,
these paranormal beliefs may not indicate a trend towards irrationality. Hess (1993)
points out the New Age and other movements may be successful because they provide
4 https://news.gallup.com/poll/16915/three-four-americans-believe-paranormal.aspx
58
orthodoxies” (Hess 1993:14). These discourses of disenchantment and re-enchantment
‘cultural artifacts’, [which] could be ideas, physical objects, modes of thinking, of types
individual experiences, and the psychical evidence (recording during ghost hunts). In
addition, his dissertation explored the informants’ epistemic perspectives, to see how
methodology appears sound. He made his academic intentions clear from the
had positive responses and were eager to contribute. Despite being invited to most
public and formal events, Thun still acknowledges that he missed out on some more
presented evidence to clients, did historical research at the library, or analyzed their
audio and video in their homes. He switched between being an active and passive
participant, occasionally engaging and primarily observing his ghost hunting informants.
Overall, Thun’s research uncovers the motivations for ghost hunters, their approaches
to the paranormal, and the dynamics of paranormal investigations. Ghost hunters do not
just search for the ghostly—they actively hunt for answer to the unknown, to explain
their authenticity, debating the boundaries of what’s ‘real’ versus ‘imagined’. Lastly, the
investigations were opportunities for imagination and playful speculation, where the
59
imaginary and reality were negotiated and contested through scientific gadgets and
Hanks (2011) produced a doctoral study titled Between Belief and Science: Paranormal
study was based on eighteen months of field research with paranormal teams, focusing
tools including mediums, technology, and embodied experiences. She notes the
obstacles in converting these tools into evidence and the flaw of idealizing scientism,
which she defines as “the fantasy and suspicion that science can and should explain the
entirety of the world” (Hanks 2011:361). The conclusions of this research include
illustrating how investigators face epistemological struggles, trying to move ghosts from
Reality to study how a religious college retreat and paranormal investigations lead to the
These experiences lead to a more durable social organization and a sense of group
history. Both studies inform this dissertation with their descriptions and analyses of the
Despite the variety of research topics and theoretical orientations covered in this
chapter, they share a commonality: similar methodologies. These authors are interested
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in meaning and experience, not whether something is objectively ‘real’ or imagined.
and recounted to others, there are several fields of study that can be assessed. Folklore
on experience, narrative, embodiment, the self, and the concept of enchantment. These
the methods of these studies, scholars can tackle the question of how ghost hunters
legends and cultural traditions. This section also explores how narrative studies
concerns with the media, the embodiment of meaning in terms of the bodily self and
physical places, and the construction of spatial and emotional relations between
1992 Telling Tales of the Unexpected: The Organization of Factual Discourse. In this
skills through which events and experiences are portrayed to warrant their status as
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factual descriptions. This is done through the study of verbal accounts of personal
These verbal accounts, according to Wooffitt, are carefully and purposefully crafted due
to the taboo and problematic nature of the supernatural subject matter. In order for
these narratives to be taken seriously by listeners, the accounts are designed by the
narrator to deflect negative reactions “in which the co-participant(s) may be hostile to,
sceptical or suspicious of, or simply unsympathetic to, what the speaker is saying”,
especially since in Western society it is typically shown that the “mere act of claiming
such as experience can lead to assumptions of, at best, crankiness, or worse, some
extensive literature on the paranormal in Western Europe and the United States and
argues that the paranormal as a topic of study has largely been neglected by the
academic community.
For data collection, Wooffitt gathered narratives from participants using recording
Wooffitt views the use of narrative as a “dynamic and functional vehicle for social action”
cases of paranormal events are recorded where apparently “the mind of one human
being had influenced another without the apparent use of the ordinary five senses”
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(Wooffitt 1992:21). These reports of spontaneous events were dependent on the
testimony of the witnesses, and the authors recognized the inherent problems with
these narratives. The reports were rendered near useless, seen as inaccurate,
their experience after the event’s occurrence (Wooffitt 1992:21). Wooffitt (1992) used
both conversational analysis and discourse analysis, as “both offer a methodology for
broader implications of this work reveal more about the relationship between social
practices and beliefs surrounding the place of the paranormal in society. The stigma
related to the “strangeness of paranormal events…derives from the fact that they
present an implicit challenge to scientific declarations about the world and moreover,
1922:79). Wooffitt found that speakers were inherently aware of this stigma and took
the listener. In cases where the speaker described occasional paranormal experiences,
the speaker would give a construction of the experience, describe the events as
occurring to them (implying agency of the paranormal phenomena), and “describe their
actions to make inferable certain knowledge about them, knowledge which supports or
confirms the veracity of the experiences being claimed” (Wooffitt 1992:193). Like
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narrated, another linguistic phrase that aids in a speaker’s credibility is the avowal of
prior skepticism (Lamont 2007) to the paranormal experience, defending oneself against
accusations of gullibility or wishful thinking. Hanks (2015) in her discussion of the ghost
tourism in the town of York, England, notes that ghost stories are common-place but
few seem to catch on as being more authentic. Hanks states that “Martindale was an
ideal witness: skeptical and reliable” (Hanks 2015:12). This reinforces Wooffitt’s traits as
While the field of parapsychology and the scientific community may be at odds
over the validity of systematic empirical research into the paranormal, contrasted
between “unscrupulous people who can exploit superstition to make a profit” versus
“traditional scholars [who] are being narrow and pigheaded” (Ward 1977:216), the field
of folklore studies as well as anthropology does not concern itself with the question of
whether paranormal phenomena is real or imagined. For “the subject who is a believer,
the experience is real, and it is the reality of experience and its relation to tradition which
interests the folklore scholar” (Ward 1977:216). Similarly, anthropologists need not
concern themselves with whether the experiences being described by informants are
empirically occurring, but rather focus on the cultural context of those experiences and
what the meaning of those experiences hold for the individuals. In this way, the study of
these narratives of the uncanny, the mythological, the supernatural, and the legendary
Ghost hunters often incorporate well-known legends and urban myths into their
repertoire of paranormal knowledge. Though some ghost hunters do not claim firsthand
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experiences with these legendary beings, they often know of people or groups who do.
Most ghost hunters claim to have experienced well-known ghostly activity and
phenomena such as child spirits, a lady in white, orbs, etc. These spirits are often
associated with a specific location such a historical building, and these supernatural
entities are based on people who once lived there or on historical events that occurred
in the location. Sometimes these people and events cannot be confirmed by historical
documents and become popular through hearsay. Though possibly fictionalized, these
mythological people or events take on a life of their own, so to speak, and their stories
of tragedy are passed on and elaborated by those who reside or visit the location. The
legends become embodied by the ghost hunters when they have an extraordinary
entities in turn confirm and validate the legend itself. The collection of ghost stories and
discipline in the late 1800s, a variety of hypotheses and methods began explaining
condition and ‘fog-legends’; another study in 1914 by Friedrich Ranke argues that the
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experiences of those people claiming to have been “swept away by the Wild Hunt”
addition, Ward suggests that prior episodes in a subject’s life heavily influences their
(Ward 1977:221-222).
experiences and legends, and Ward (1977) cites a subject who shared her experience
with a friend, who related a tale of her own which followed the legendary structure and
context of ‘the return of the dead lover’. In this instance, Ward comments that “the
memorate” (Ward 1977:225) had therapeutic value to the subjects, who confirmed and
discusses the work of Lauri Honko, who argued that the frame of reference consisted of
the social context and psychological state of the individuals, but also
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reinforced by behavioral normal and sanctions, the subject’s knowledge of
tradition, his psychophysical state, and the presence of perceptual
interference…[which] contribute to the experiencing of supranormal events
(Ward 1977:215).
explores the role of social duty, group values, cultural tradition, and psychology could
While many folklore studies focus on the beliefs and myths of a culture, it is
useful for this dissertation to consider how some folklore studies have included the
study of the Old Hag tradition, The Terror That Comes in the Night, explored alternative
ways of explaining and conceptualizing uncanny experiences. Upon first learning of the
Old Hag experience5, he found that the condition occurs cross-culturally and there are
plenty of descriptions of the physiological events. However, there was a lack in the
psychological literature of explanations for the specific contents of the Old Hag
experience.
Hufford (1982) proposes that cultural traditions stem from experiential sources (in
that the experience shapes the tradition), rather than stemming from cultural sources (in
which tradition shapes the experience). The Old Hag tradition, therefore, stems from the
very real and physiological experiences described by his informants; a cultural source
would postulate that the culturally known story of the Hag produces the experience, or is
5 The Old Hag tradition refers to cultural explanation for sleep paralysis. This is the psychological and
physical condition where a person seemingly awakens from sleep but is paralyzed. experiencing intense
fear and hallucinations. Across Newfoundland, it is commonly experienced as an old witch, or hag, sitting
on the chest of the individual.
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inferred from a misidentified experience. This argument is reflected in Bruner’s
discussion of the anthropology of experience, where he states that “the argument is that
tropes fashion experience. But we could also ask if experience fashions tropes” (Bruner
1986:20). Hufford argues that the common assumption of a tradition stemming from
culture has potential problems, including the tendency for psychological scientists to
rationalize or explain away certain cultural beliefs with little regard for the events
described. In the case of the Old Hag experience, sleep research does not explain what
initiates the condition, nor does it explain the content of the experience, but only
provides accepted medical terminology for the description of it. His interest is in the
“draw closer to the actual perceptions that lie behind the most natural modes of
Hufford’s “procedure is carried out with untrained subjects in connection with naturally
occurring past events” (Hufford 1982:xv) in lieu of experiments. This method revealed
that the information obtained from disbelievers was as useful as the interviews of
believers (Hufford 1982:xvi). In terms of incorporating theory, Hufford did not include a
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However, Hufford makes a clear theoretical statement: that part of the traditional
rationally. This does not suggest that all beliefs have this association, nor that this
association should be viewed as proof that the beliefs are true. Rather, this statement is
made to counter the common conclusions that supernatural experiences can all be
accounted for by poor observation and inaccurate reasoning. Hufford recognizes the
sensitive nature of the supernatural as a topic, and firmly clarifies that he is neither
providing physical explanations for supernatural beliefs nor arguing that the experiences
of the Old Hag are evidence for the paranormal. Hufford’s objective is to gain a better
description of the experiences and processes of reasoning associated with the Old Hag
belief. His experience-centered approach allows for “culturally and emotionally loaded”
questions which can be difficult to separate from a researcher’s bias (Hufford 1982:xix).
to be inferred rather than a ‘fact’ to be directly observed” (Hufford 1982:x). While there
are potential problems when the primary data are narratives, Hufford states that for his
research he assumes the narratives are accurate, honest, and complete. Hufford’s data
Narratives from interviews or archived materials were grouped into cases and
transcribed. Biases were checked, and subjects kept anonymous; an important method
when the subject matter can be highly sensitive or taboo. By using the texts as data,
Hufford was able to use an integrative approach, avoiding technical language so the
data is usable for scholars of various fields. As a case study, Hufford’s research
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proposes a unique and highly useful theoretical approach and methodology for further
hunters situate themselves geographically, socially, and cosmologically; they reprise the
role of communicator between the realms of the living and the dead, acting as liminal
ghost hunters still orient themselves physically and mentally by contrasting themselves
against other social agents and the ghosts they search for. To critically analyze how the
embodiment of these paranormal experiences occur, and to assess how these ghost
The self as an object of study has been treated in myriad ways in different
disciplines. The self can be defined as a dramaturgical actor whose behaviors, actions,
Hallowell’s (1955) description of the Ojibwa self illustrates how to study the different
ways that a person positions themselves in their culture. Hallowell (1955) published a
series of papers dealing primarily with culture and personality materials from the Ojibwa
culture. While his major theme is the continuity in basic personality among the Ojibwa
despite three centuries of culture contact and change, Hallowell (1955) also presents an
exploration of how the self can be oriented in multiple ways. Culture provides five basic
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orientations: 1) self-orientation, 2) object orientation, 3) spatiotemporal orientation, 4)
For Hallowell, the concept and nature of the self “is a culturally identifiable
variable” (Hallowell 1955:76) which differs in every culture, and “the individual’s self-
image and his interpretation of his own experience cannot be divorced from the concept
of the self that is characteristic of his society”, for it is through these concepts that
societies “promote self-orientation in the kind of meaningful terms that make self-
individual’s ability to reflect on oneself but is also characterized by the way the individual
Ojibwa orient themselves, Hallowell gives examples of the role of Ojibwa dreams, their
interactions with nature and spirit animals, their encounters with the spirits of the dead,
and the meanings and communications that occur between the worlds of the living and
the dead. The Ojibwa self is not oriented where “a distinction between human beings
and supernatural beings is stressed” (Hallowell 1955:181); rather, the more important
distinction is how the humans and non-humans rank in power (both social and magical).
The concept of spiritual beings in Ojibwa society help to structuralize the opposition of
scholars can assess how members of the society structure their relations with other
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members both human and spiritual. Hallowell reminds scholars that religion typically
consists of:
The culturally defined roles of individuals shape how they interact with each other, and
with the rest of the beings that inhabit their cosmic universe. Hallowell argues that in
some cultures, how the self is socially oriented is so significant that the self’s relation
with deceased ancestors or non-human beings is more insightful and reflective of that
individual’s needs and goals than their interpersonal relations with other members of
investigators and how they orient themselves to other investigators, the public, the
a view of culture that urges the ethnographer to consider how an individual’s personality
conflict and repression play their role in the total integrative structure that we call the
human personality” (Hallowell 1955:13). These two factors, conflict and repression, are
evident not only in the history of the concept of the paranormal since the Spiritualist
movement, but also in modern Western societies where the paranormal as a legitimate
and scientifically accepted as reality, versus the realm of imagination and mythology,
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over the past two hundred years has been caused by the dynamic relationship between
science, religion, and popular culture. While Hallowell focuses these factors on the
human personality, these concepts of culture can be applied towards the study of the
Halloy and Servais’ (2014) article further explores embodiment and extraordinary
contexts: uncanny encounters with dolphins, and the spirit possession rituals of the
Xangô cult in Brazil. Through these analyses, the authors demonstrate that the legend
of the dolphin informs their subjects in how they can embody the magical qualities of a
dolphin encounter, and that the structure of the religious training and rituals of the
Xangô cult prepare initiates to experience and embody the orixás through ritual
possession. Halloy and Servais (2014) note that the stories of magical dolphins are not
part of a single, longstanding legend; rather, they include parts of firsthand accounts,
ancient and recent legends, scientific facts, mythology, dreams, ecological utopias or
moral principles. These fragmentary aspects are viewed as “’generative’ rather than
‘narrative’” (Halloy and Servais 2014:482), since the variation in the dolphin mythology
generates multiple kinds of stories, images, rituals, and beliefs. What is most striking
about these experiences is the profound effect they have on the individuals
changing experience, the close and intimate connections felt by the individuals to the
These individuals “are the privileged witnesses of a different reality, a totality that
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confirm these experiences with others, however, requires verbally sharing it; while these
types of narratives would be accepted openly in the New Age community, they would
marginalize or discredit the individual if shared with the general public in American
society. These findings are similar to Wooffitt’s (1992) study, which stated that those
distanced the speaker, defended their sanity, and were tactful in describing how the
where members undergo ritualistic spiritual possession by African deities called orixás.
The orixás themselves are considered enchanted, since they are spiritual entities of the
divine world, who did not go through the process of life and death like other spirits.
Enchantment can also be “an ontological and transformative process” (Halloy and
Servais 2014:488), as orixás can also be described as once-human beings who were
transformed into an element of nature. The mythology of these orixás has remained
fairly constant and informs the members of the cult of the orixás’ identity, personality,
and the relationships between the orixás as well as between orixás and humans.
According to Halloy and Servais, experiencing the enchanted through orixá possession
is not spontaneous; instead, it “is prefigured through the feeding of the candidates’
imagination and the education of their attention” (Halloy and Servais 2014:489), just as
the magical dolphin encounters were heavily prepared for beforehand through
education and meditation. During the spirit possession, Halloy and Servais’ informants
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by uncanny feelings are coupled with a specific imaginary, which one of the authors of
the article describes through their own personal experience during an orixá possession.
The enchanting experiences are both private and intimate within the body, as
well as social and shared by the community. These experiences also become
specific cognitive and bodily processes” (Halloy and Servais 2014:493). Halloy and
Servais argue that “technologies of enchantment are cultural tools that relate inner life
to outer situations in a specific way” (Halloy and Servais 2014:494). These technologies
of enchantment are liminal in nature, and take place in religious, spiritual, supernatural,
Conclusion
covered the public perceptions of the paranormal, including skeptical views of ghost
demonstrate how experience is a key source of information about meaning, identity, and
beliefs. Then, I discuss narrative and discourse analysis to reveal how these
this chapter that are directly relevant to this dissertation. This dissertation follows the
methodology of Thun (2013), since I join a paranormal group for an extended period
conducting participant observation. But rather than a symbolist approach, this research
75
expressed in ghost hunters’ narratives, like the narratives examined by Hufford (1982)
and Wooffitt (1992). In the following chapters, I discuss the scientific approaches and
ideas of paranormal groups, like Sharon Hill’s studies (2011, 2012), but instead of a
critical perspective I aim to understand how these ideas contribute to ghost hunters’
cosmology and epistemology. This research explores how the paranormal experience is
interpreted by ghost hunters, how it motivates them to join groups and interact with
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CHAPTER 4
ETHICS AND ETHNOGRAPHIES
Overview
The previous chapters reviewed the relevant literature from various disciplines to
context. This chapter addresses ethical concerns about cultural anthropology fieldwork.
I explain how paranormal beliefs and experiences are sensitive and socially risky topics,
which require a consciously ethical approach. Then, I present several studies that
argue that there are consequences of fieldwork and the representation of the
is to create an accurate, reliable, and insightful ethnography that also respects the
individuals’ studied. These ethical guidelines and examples guide this dissertation’s
Argonauts of the Western Pacific, cultural anthropologists have ventured around the
world to gather their data on global societies firsthand. Although theoretical orientations
and methodologies have varied over the past century, anthropologists have collectively
developed a system of ethical principles for the study of other cultures. These ethics
Institutional Review Board (IRB) was mandated in 1974 (Madison 2012). The AAA’s
Code of Ethics was approved in 1998, and is summarized in four points: 1) to avoid
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3) to work for the long-term conservation of the archaeological, fossil, and historical
records, and 4) to actively consult with the affected and studied individuals or groups, to
establish a working relationship that can be beneficial to all involved parties (Madison
2012:128). These codes of ethics directly guide an anthropologist’s methods in the field,
and these ethics are especially important and instructive when the focus of study is a
informants. In the case of this dissertation research, the ethical code is essential when
involved in the paranormal community for a variety of reasons, but most often the
reason is due to a prior unexplainable experience for which the investigator is seeking
answers. All paranormal investigators actively confront their mortality, the afterlife, and
the continuance of the human soul during these investigations at haunted locations.
Though some team members operate with a more distanced and detached sense,
others have dealt with personal tragedy or trauma and feel the significance of these
the meaning of these experiences, it is the researcher’s duty to maintain ethical conduct
while interacting with these teams and writing about their experiences.
paranormal. In the first section, I address the social stigma associated with speaking
methodologies from other anthropologists and scholars. Finally, I examine the ethical
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The Stigmatization and Significance of Paranormal Narratives
society. Despite the popularity of paranormal portrayals in popular culture and the
media, many people are still hesitant to express personal beliefs in the supernatural.
This stigma is due to the historical developments stemming back to the Enlightenment.
With the emergence of rationalism and empirical science, supernatural beliefs and
superstitions were banished to the fringe, remaining in mythology and folklore but
measurable reality as opposed to the irrational imagination also caused the division of
the supernatural versus the natural in the process of disenchantment (Thun 2013).
part of the spiritual and daily life (Young and Goulet 1998). However, Western societies
tend to sensationalize the supernatural and paranormal. Despite the popular Spiritualist
interactions with spirits in the nineteenth century, the twentieth century saw the
films and television series. With parapsychology lacking the full acceptance and respect
of the scientific community, the public generally perceived the paranormal as the stuff of
urban legends, scary movies, and folklore. Though the media’s portrayal of the
physical, and accessible entity has entered the public mind through the proliferation of
ghost hunting groups. With their inclusion of scientific gadgets, the ghost hunters
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‘being a believer’ remains, society overall is becoming more tolerant of the expression
The taboo of talking about one’s experiences with the supernatural becomes
plain throughout several published studies of the paranormal. In Thun’s (2013) study, he
noted that in discussing the paranormal “those who have had paranormal experiences
frequently make efforts not to come across as irrational, wishful, narrow minded,
gullible, or in worst case scenario: crazy” (Thun 2013:11). This fear of being discredited
narratives, where the “mere act of claiming such as experience can lead to assumptions
the need to portray one’s experience or belief in terms that defend oneself, for the “fear
of ostracism is not unfounded if one does not have the tools which allow the experience
The negative responses towards paranormal interest are not limited to the
average person though; even, or especially so, academics are subject to criticism and
slander for expressing these interests or beliefs. Upon discovering a book about
spiritualist mediums, Jung (Jung and Main 1997) described his friends’ reactions as
dismissive and defensive, while Jung “found such possibilities extremely interesting and
attractive. They added another dimension to my life; the world gained depth and
background” (Jung and Main 1997:47). These reactions are the primary reason for
people not to share their unexplainable experiences; making it difficult to explore the
variety of these experiences and their meanings to the individuals. As some scholars
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have realized, the expression of paranormal beliefs and experiences can convey very
significant insight into cultural traditions, social movements, and ideas about power,
reveal that “the world of the paranormal… [is] an idiom through which segments of
society express their conflicts, dilemmas, and identities” (Hess 1993:159). As a forum of
opportunities.
Other fields of study would also benefit from these views of the paranormal,
The sensitivity of the subject also requires a tactful approach by the researcher; a
mediumship, he observed several séances with a psychic medium. While the medium
was “unshakably convinced of the reality of her visions” (Jung and Main 1997:53), Jung
had other ideas regarding her condition, which he suggested to her. However, the
medium reacted negatively to suggestions that the visions were type of illness. Jung
noted that “doubts about her health or about the reality of her dream-world distressed
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her deeply; she felt so hurt by my remarks that she closed up in my presence and for a
long time refused to experiment if I was there” (Jung and Main 1997:53). As a
medium caused her distress because he was discrediting her worldview and
interpretation of the séance experience. After her reaction, Jung consciously withheld
his doubts and misgivings about the authenticity or veracity of her spiritual channeling.
therapeutic benefits. Lomax et al (2011) discuss how during therapeutic sessions, the
expression of stories and experiences is a healing process that can provide insight into
other issues they may be struggling with. However, this process is the most efficient in
the right environment, and the “stories like this get richer when told in safe relationships
to the right person” (Lomax et al 2011:13). Lomax et al also illustrate the connection
between the paranormal experiences and experiences of the sacred, describing these
stories as “the sacred moment of the clinical narrative” (Lomax et al 2011:14). The
authors consider the real purpose of “paranormal events: they are fundamentally about
creating (or revealing?) meaning, narrative, and story to an individual in some difficult or
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paranormal, extraordinary experiences can be sacred, transcendent, and
transformative.
Scholars should approach paranormal beliefs as they would religious beliefs; for
both include spirituality and concepts of the afterlife, divinity, the human soul, and other
ephemeral topics. The scholars who take a critical stance towards paranormal believers
often assume that these believers base their views on cultural traditions; what they’ve
been exposed to from the media. While the paranormal television shows, movies, and
literature have demonstrably affected people’s views on the paranormal (Sparks 1998),
these scholars exclude the sizable number of people who base these beliefs on
the paranormal realm” (Sparks 1998:5), but also argues that certain types of media
messages may promote paranormal belief while “other types of messages may help to
promote critical thinking and to discourage easy acceptance of ridiculous ideas” (Sparks
1998:5). The assumption here is that the promotion of both these aspects is impossible.
In addition, when authors use terms like ‘gullibility’ in association with paranormal belief,
they are asserting a critical opinion. If a researcher and professor is “concerned about
the gullibility of many of [their] students and their easy, uncritical acceptance of the
paranormal claims that were often disseminated through the mass media” (Sparks
1998:1), then it may be most tactful to investigate those beliefs from a more objective
perspective rather than criticizing and attacking those beliefs. Evans-Pritchard stated
that
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impression that you regard their belief as an illusion or a delusion. Mutual
understanding, and with it sympathy, would soon be ended, if it ever got
started (Evans-Pritchard 1976:244).
productive research study would investigate the source, production of, and reproduction
effectively study these beliefs and experiences, a new methodology for cultural
experiences and embodied meaning. To achieve this, several scholars have proposed
(1998) argue that traditional approaches in anthropology tend to have a rationalist bias,
resulting in “little credence to informant accounts which do not accord with the world
approach provides the anthropologist deeper insights into the context, embodiment, and
intrinsic to our understanding of the human experience (Goulet and Miller 2007:11). This
discipline “stands to gain by taking up challenges posed by ways of knowing that are
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unusual to us” (Young and Goulet 1998:8). These experiences tend to be
transformative, not only for the informants being studied but also for the anthropologists
Extraordinary experiences force one to deal with the possibility that reality
is culturally constructed and that instead of one reality (or a finite set of
culturally-defined realities), there are multiple realities—or at least multiple
ways of experiencing the world, depending upon time, place, and
circumstances (Young and Goulet 1998:8).
While these authors do not argue that anthropologists should reconstruct their entire
cosmology, they suggest that there is much that can be learned by opening oneself up
approach in which the investigator has a more active role. The ethnographer must be
more engaged, more participatory, and more interactive with the culture of study.
Participant observation is two-sided: one side is the positivist tradition, and the other is
anthropologist has some flexibility with the extent to which they interpret social
phenomena. Edith Turner “believes that the simplest way to interpret an extraordinary
experience is to accept the native account of what has happened” (Young and Goulet
1998:10), as opposed to Charles Laughlin “who believes that such experiences can be
satisfactorily explained with a neurological model” (Young and Goulet 1998:10). This is
a spectrum of how anthropologists can approach the process of interpretation, and most
authors’ positions fall somewhere in between these two ends. For the most part, native
accounts tend to be taken seriously, but not literally, and reframed or translated to make
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informants’ accounts as seriously as possible, at least temporarily, by suspending their
disbelief and social conditioning. Goulet argues that “it is possible, and even useful, for
the ethnographer to experience this qualitatively different world of ghosts and spirits,
risk of ‘going native’ is the loss of the objective and scientific value of the ethnography,
and therefore the challenge is to become part of the group while maintaining the
position as an outsider. However, Goulet points out that ethnographic work can “go
hand in hand with inner experiences, dreams and visions” (Goulet 1998:17) and to
share them with the informants, and this does not impede the anthropologists’ work but
rather enriches the ethnographic presentation of the culture. They encourage the
A good ethnography, they argue, does not just record descriptions but also attempts to
Jack Hunter, a PhD student at the University of Bristol in the UK, describes
doing fieldwork, including EB Tylor and Edith Turner. Hunter (2011) claims that EB
fieldwork. Interested in the Spiritualist movement, Tylor attended séances with an initial
attempt at discrediting them. Tylor believed that religious beliefs, including spiritualist or
paranormal beliefs, were leftover remnants of primitive animist beliefs. However, Hunter
(2011) reveals that Tylor made notes regarding several anomalous experiences which
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he could not explain and became fascinated by. These experiences were never
published, possibly due to the prominent fear of ridicule which plagues most scientists
who admit an experience which goes against the materialist doctrine. Edith Turner
argues that anthropologists are restricted by “positivists’ denial” and need to “see what
the Natives see” (Hunter 2011). Hunter agrees, stating that this turn in anthropology
towards greater reflexivity and an anthropology of experience will finally approach these
anomalous experiences and be able to deal with them rather than ignoring them. Of
the culture they are studying; only when they are fully engaged can they experience and
understand these anomalous phenomena the way the culture of study does (Hunter
2011). In Goulet’s (1998) research on the role of dreams in Guajiro society, Goulet
noted that his own dreams and interpretations helped him to understand how the
Guajiro treated the accounts and interpretations of their dreams. Goulet argues that
“without this personal experience the bits and pieces of exotic and technical knowledge
accumulated about the Guajiro would have lacked unity and coherence” (Goulet
1998:25), and so sharing his dreams for the Guajiro to interpret enriched his
understanding of their cultural traditions and their interactions with each other regarding
Ethnographic Study of the Afterlife, Bowie (2013) proposes a methodology for studying
the afterlife, mediumship and spiritual beliefs. In this discussion, Bowie proposes “a
dialogue that is respectful and tentative, rather than hegemonic and dismissive” while
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issues of epistemology and the dialogical position of the ethnographic observer, with
suggestions on how to deal with ephemeral topics like consciousness and judging the
accuracy or authenticity of data. Along with honesty, Bowie argues that “two essential
elements to good fieldwork… [are] curiosity and courage” (Bowie 2013:5), particularly
for the cognitive approach that Bowie introduces. This cognitive approach “goes beyond
phenomenology—it considers all the available data without bracketing out areas of
experience that seem awkward, are not scientifically verifiable, which conflict with the
world view of the observer or with the dominant paradigms of the Western academy”
(Bowie 2013:8). By considering all the experiences and possibilities from the informant’s
point of view, the anthropologist can engage in a dialogue that respects differences and
values mutuality. The other traits that Bowie recommend for this methodology are
empathic engagement with informants “has the potential to illuminate an integral, if often
ignored or derided, area of human religious and cultural experience” (Bowie 2013:25).
Montreal. Meintel emphasizes that “in order to study the experience of Spiritualists, I
healing circles not only facilitated in gaining rapport with his informants but also helped
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in understanding the embodied experiences of the clairvoyants, whose experiences
were personal, emotional, and sensory. In this Spiritualist community, “such things
happen in a sacred context where spirits, not normally considered to exist, are
might not be the same as how the informants experience them, Meintel believes that the
extraordinary experiences, like Meintel’s (2007) account of Spiritualist healing, the issue
of authenticity may arise. Halloy and Servais’s (2014) reveal that during their research
on enchanting experiences,
of dolphin encounters, it seems unlikely that the author ever experienced “the world of
magical dolphins” first hand. In the latter half of the article, one of the authors submits a
literature. Halloy notes that all initiates of the Xangô cult “agree on this point: the only
way to access the experience of possession is to actually live it ‘in your flesh and soul’”
(Halloy and Servais 2014:492). Thus, the spiritual possession of the author lent them
necessary insight into the actual, lived, experience of being taken over, cognitively and
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bodily, by the Xangô deity orixá. The orixá possession of the author in Halloy and
Servais’s (2014) article was “authenticated by Xangô experts themselves as a true and
full ‘manifestation’”, validating that the author’s account of it is “a valid description of the
kind of cognitive and bodily processes at work during possession episodes” (Halloy and
‘performative ethnography’ to study the ways that sexuality and violence are treated in
he created a Goth/Industrial band, Blood Jewel, and engaged in interactions with its fan
base through music festivals and internet sites such as Youtube and MySpace.
Whitehead argues that “it is only through active participation that there is anything to
reflexivity, Whitehead believes that many ethnographers still require a more radical step
complex social features which are beyond the reach of traditional ethnographic
methods. With the growing role of the internet in today’s societies, Whitehead’s
approach for studying complex human relations in the immateriality of cyberspace can
Whitehead also defends his decisions in negotiating the issues of censorship by stating
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his actions as ethically acceptable. When arguing for a more radical and participatory
a responsible methodology.
of culture (or selected aspects of a culture)” (Van Maanen 2011:1). The fieldwork of an
and social relations of a more-or-less bounded and specified group of people” (Van
Maanen 2011:3). The goal of this ethnography is to represent and discuss the
marginalized groups of people, who share an interest in a socially-taboo topic despite its
subcultural interests that bring these people together or motivate them to engage in
ghost hunting; the focus of this research is on the extraordinary experiences of these
paranormal investigators, and how they embody, interpret, and construct their
worldviews and orient themselves within it. Due to the sensitive nature of some of the
and author to remain ethically conscious of my interactions as well as how these people
and their experiences are represented in the final publication of the ethnography.
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informant, Florida Paranormal Investigations. In discussing ethical methods, Agar
(1996) states that “the goal is to begin your work honestly by presenting yourself and
your task in some way that will make sense to group members” (Agar 1996:111). In my
first meeting with the group leader, I clarified that I was a doctoral student from the
group. I explained my role as a student, stating that the information gathered would
doctoral thesis. Similar to the introduction of Thun (2013) to his informants, I was met
proper IRB permissions and provided informed consent forms for survey and interview
participants. This methodology of radical participation and honesty (Bowie 2013) proved
successful and productive. Despite being publicly an anthropologist, I was also a full
nor ‘outsider’ but positioned between the two as an ‘observant participator’ (Whitehead
2009). While Whitehead (2009) argues for the ethical acceptance of his performative
paranormal team and community there is still the chance of encountering ethically
ambiguous situations. For these potential situations, it is beneficial to review how other
direct observation is raised. He discusses the subtle ethical differences between some
example studies, which were conducted in public places or used varying levels of
deception on the part of the ethnographer to gather data. Bernard notes several ways in
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which scholars avoided reactivity problems. In one case, a researcher studying children
camera to a nearby tree1 (Bernard 2011:329). For Bernard, passive deception which
behaviors in public areas. However, more involved fieldwork that requires more frequent
greater ethical attention. A disguised field observation for this research would entail
joining Florida Paranormal Investigations under false pretenses, and secretly recording
data about the people in the group. The ethical problems with this method discount it as
being efficient, appropriate, or moral. Being thoroughly honest and direct with the ghost
for many paranormal investigators have rehearsed bits that they repeat to interested
reporters or the general public (Kirk and Miller 1986) to explain their paranormal goals
and methods in a simplified, brief and positive way. However, the methodological
hunters in both public and more private scenarios. While ghost hunters may act in a
with clients or public investigations with other teams, I also collected observational data
1 Although Bernard (2011) approves of this method for avoiding reactivity problems, this example of a
passive technique for gathering data strikes me as inappropriate, legally questionable, and just plain
creepy. Scholars must consider the implications and cultural appropriateness of their data gathering
methods.
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in more private spheres such as during the meetings, paranormal investigations, and
informal interactions. Joining the group as a full member, rather than simply acting as
an observer as Thun (2013) did, allowed me access to more intimate settings. With
which I’ve only encountered a few situations in which the information was too personal
Despite the form of the publications, “we must still be accountable for the
they matter” (Madison 2012:5). Madison’s book on critical ethnography details its
theory, methods, and ethics. Among one of the top responsibilities of an ethnography,
position and power, for “precision, observation, and ethnographic presence necessarily
carry with them moral judgments, interpretive implications, and the responsibility of
contemplate your intentions and the possible effects of making public those private
encounters and personal moments in the field” (Madison 2012:139). These statements
interviewees have admitted to me, “I’ve never told anyone this before”. Some of these
stories turn out to be about very personal, intimate, and private experiences the
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and publish these stories. I considered the status of the informed consent and the
nature of the story; sometimes I chose not to record or write about the information the
interviewees share. The informant’s privacy, and their trust and relationship with me, is
far more important than publishing a story about trauma that could negatively affect the
individual. Interestingly, paranormal teams also face this decision when conducting
investigations as people’s homes. Most ghost hunting groups have a code of ethics
published on their website to which they adhere, for the sake of their clients’ privacy and
confidentiality. The team leader from the group I joined, Bill, stated that he is “exposed
to not only the paranormal, but the deepest secrets of individuals’ lives.” This group,
was double-fold. This accountability includes the conscious and ethical collection of
data, as well as the representation of the informants, their beliefs, and their
experiences.
detracts from the solid research presented in their article. This presents an ethical
concern, since the subjects of their research may be painted in a negative, derogatory
light due to their paranormal beliefs and narratives of their experiences. This could, in
turn, be detrimental to the author’s reputation among those informants and reduce
future research with them. In Thompson’s (2010) article “’Am I Going to See a Ghost
Tonight?’: Gettysburg Ghost Tours and the Performance of Belief,” the topic of the
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The author’s opinion on paranormal belief and those who are believers or claim to have
experienced the paranormal, is clearly inferred from the blunt and haughty language
used to describe the Gettysburg ghost tours and tourists. Thompson states that “against
his or her better judgment, the individual seeks out that sense of mystery that comes
argues that the “trivialized, touristic, and sometimes silly ghost tour” represents how
performance, humor, and the suspension of disbelief of the ghost tours accurately, he
seems to have generalized the entirety of the paranormal tourism industry (and the
entirety of paranormal believers) based on the few ghost tours and tour guides from
Gettysburg. He acknowledges that the tourists with their own paranormal experiences
are more apt to share them with the tour group due to the atmosphere of an increased
acceptance of the strange, but that these tales and beliefs would be ridiculed in daily
life. However, Thompson’s ontological stance that people do not actually experience the
paranormal (or the uncanny) is conveyed when he hypothetically asks what would
happen if a ghost tour actually encountered a ghost. He answers that the sudden
empirical reality of the tourists would be altered, that this experience of addressing
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While this reaction of an individual to an uncanny experience may be true for some,
Thompson disregards the multitude of people who claim that these types of
daily lives. This would include not only the thousands of ghost hunters in America, but
also the number of people with supernatural, spiritual or religious encounters. Based on
the studies from Chapter 3, it is fair to state that these uncanny experiences are not
always sought out, are not always a shocking jolt to one’s worldview, and are
considered by many as an ontological norm which reveals deeper meaning in one’s life;
all which contrast with Thompson’s argument. Overall, Thompson’s study provides
accurate and informative information regarding the ghost hunts in terms of their
concept of the paranormal on a larger scale, it fails to fully understand how the
Conclusion
own position as observer and author. All ethnographies are “politically mediated, since
the power of one group to represent another is always involved” (Van Maanen 2011:4-
5). Following an ethical guideline, I write about and publish the ghost hunters’
irrevocably influences the interests and lives of the people represented in them—
individually and collectively, for better or worse” (Van Maanen 2011:5). The challenge
with this topic of study, the methodology of radical participation, and the experiential
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approach is to balance these two goals: to adhere to ethical values in the treatment of
informants, and to gather and produce reliable ethnographic information to broaden the
body of knowledge in cultural anthropology. Goulet and Miller (2007) argue that as
anthropologists “we are called to transcend our own ethnocentrism and to explore forms
of knowledge production and knowledge dissemination that serve the best interests of
our hosts and our profession” (Goulet and Miller 2007:7). With the tools of
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CHAPTER 5
A CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGIST IN A PARANORMAL WORLD
Overview
In this chapter, I present the data collection, sampling methods, and field
methods to demonstrate how data were obtained for this ethnography. Then, I describe
how I joined a paranormal team and attended my first investigation. The subsequent
research over the course of four years. These descriptions introduce the reader to
typical ghost hunting team dynamics, objectives, and investigative processes. This
chapter and Chapter 6 will answer the three research questions posited in the
Introduction, by exploring how paranormal teams form and function, how investigators
embody their identity, and how paranormal experiences are interpreted as meaningful
interactions.
image prompts, and participant observation. See Appendix A for the survey and freelist
prompt. See Appendix D for a table of the descriptions of the image prompts. This
section discusses the sampling and data collection methods used for this ethnographic
research. This research study was approved by the University of Florida Institutional
The sampling methods used to recruit participants was purposive and snowball
sampling. These sampling methods, often “particularly useful in the study of special and
hard-to-find populations” (Bernard and Ryan 2010:365), were appropriate due to the
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dispersed and sometimes isolated nature of ghost hunting groups. While there tends to
be at least one ghost hunting group per major town, these groups can be difficult to
contact since their main avenue of communication is through their website. There are
also different levels of online engagement with ghost hunting groups; some hardly
maintain a website, while others have accounts on social media with consistent updates
and communication with the public. Some groups are very socially involved in their local
communities and in the larger paranormal community, and some groups are more
socially isolated and prefer to conduct investigations on their own with very little
I selected several groups in the Gainesville, Florida region to initiate contact with.
Only one of the groups responded to my emails, and after an initial meeting and
interview I was accepted into the group Florida Paranormal Investigations (FPI) as an
investigator. Most of the data collection for this research is in the form of participant
observation notes from investigations, meetings, and events with Florida Paranormal
Investigations over the course of nearly four years (from January 2013 through
September 2016). After successfully joining FPI, I was able to expand my sample
through their network with other Florida paranormal groups. I also attended paranormal
events and conferences for Florida paranormal teams. This snowball sampling allowed
paranormal community’s social network. The other groups that agreed to be participants
filled out surveys and freelists, allowed me to attend investigations with them, and
collected textual data from a total of thirty-four participants from 6 different paranormal
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research groups. 23 of these participants completed a survey, 21 were interviewed, and
10 of these participants did both. Data was collected until theoretical saturation was
social context of paranormal groups, the next stage of the dissertation was to begin the
fieldwork. While most cultural anthropologists conduct their fieldwork using participant
group to fully experience what it meant to “be” a ghost hunter. An internet search of
Gainesville paranormal groups revealed half a dozen websites for local teams.
Remaining local, rather than traveling out of town, was more convenient and allowed
more time to spend with the team. Some paranormal groups’ websites had not been
updated in a few years, and most were characterized by poorly designed pages. Most
Halloween-style images and cartoon ghosts that flew across the page, and photographs
of the team in intimidating poses with tough expressions. It seemed that these teams
were trying to imitate the gothic style shown on some of the television shows. I sent
emails to most of the webpages that were up to date. I received a response from a
group called Florida Paranormal Investigations (FPI). It is interesting to note that this
was also the only group with a website that looked different from the others in terms of
design, colors, and phrasing. Instead of being ‘spooky’, the website rather looked like
an official business with a neutral colored background, an official logo, and easily
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navigated links to different parts of the site. The main page of the website included the
team’s statement of purpose, including the declaration that “We at Florida Paranormal
Investigations do not title ourselves as ‘experts’ as other groups may claim to be…We
also believe that evidence we collect should be tangible so therefore do not use the
A week later, I was waiting eagerly at a local restaurant during the lunch hour
about to meet with the founder of FPI, Bill, and the Case Manager, Vanessa, for my
interview with the group. At the time, the FPI team consisted of just this duo and they
were looking to replace the members that had recently moved away. Once we were
seated at a table, Bill presented a list of interview questions. They were concerned with
knowing why I was interested in the paranormal, why I wanted to join the group, and if I
had any previous paranormal experiences. I explained myself openly and honestly. I
academic studies would focus on my experiences with the group. Bill and Vanessa were
excited and friendly, interested in my research and my eagerness to join the group.
They in turn explained their approach to investigations, emphasizing the scientific and
professional way they conduct themselves. Bill distinguished his group from other
groups, which he claimed were more thrill-seeking than actual research or helping
clients, who are the people who contact FPI to request an investigation. He emphasized
that he believed in a more objective approach and the responsibilities that paranormal
researchers have when helping clients in need. According to Bill, too many other
1 See Appendix E for information saved from FPI’s website, which is no longer available online.
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paranormal groups are “Monkey see, monkey do.” He argued that other teams imitate
what they see on the paranormal TV shows, investigating for the thrills and with no
regards to the clients’ actual problems and psychological distress. This was an
interesting statement, as Bill was claiming his team is a ‘real’ team, almost as a warning
– If you’re not here for the right reasons, this is not the group for you. The rest of the
interview went well, and a few days later I received a phone call from Bill who said that
my trial period with the group could begin. Not long after, I was joining the group for
meetings and investigations. Beginning as an investigator with a local team was useful
in learning more about the jargon used in the paranormal field, understanding
assumptions and implied meanings during interactions with other teams, and
paranormal research is wildly different than the ghost hunting shown on TV. It took
place at Clay County Jail2, located about an hour northeast of Gainesville. We teamed
up with another investigator, Ethan, from another paranormal group with whom Bill had
close connections and friendships. Ethan had brought along his preteen daughter and
was showing her the ropes of investigating and using some of the technology. I was
very impressed that his daughter had the interest and courage to do an investigation – I
know many people my age who shudder at the very thought of it. The Jail is a two-story
structure built in the 1800s, owned by the local city government and had partly been
2 http://www.hauntedplaces.org/item/old-clay-county-jail/
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converted into a records office3. Like many public locations, the Jail is available on
weekend nights for paranormal groups to come and investigate, for a fee. This has
proved successful in raising funds for many locations, and their haunted reputation is
reinforced by positive reviews of paranormal groups that pay to investigate. For our
group, it was good practice for teaching new team members the basics of investigating.
investigation. While the documentary-style television shows about ghost hunters can be
entertaining, they do not accurately show all the aspects of paranormal investigating.
There are several similarities between the TV shows and the real deal, though. One of
these parallels is the concept of the team wearing matching uniforms. Wearing the
uniform shirts to investigations shows that they are there as professionals on the job
(albeit unpaid ones). FPI had white polo shirts with the team name and motto in small
unobtrusive lettering. Bill stated that he wanted the team uniforms to be discrete. As he
put it, “There is no sense for a paranormal swat team to show up at somebody’s house.”
Bill said that many clients didn’t want to advertise the residential investigations to their
neighbors.
My excitement built during the hour-long drive to the Clay County Jail, and I was
itching to get started. However, the first major difference from the television shows
occurred the moment we arrived: paperwork came first. After pulling into the parking lot,
we met with the woman who ran the building who had waivers for us to sign. We paid
her the fee ($20 per person), and she gave us a quick overview of the history of the jail
and layout of the building. Once we were cleared to start, we gathered our equipment
3 http://archives.clayclerk.com/
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from the cars and set up camp in the downstairs ‘kitchen’ room of the jail. At the time,
FPI did not have a DVR system (digital video recording system)4, so we were using only
cameras, and voice recorders. Bill took Vanessa and me to a cell in the downstairs cell
block, and he started to go over basic techniques and procedures. These observation
everything, noticing where sources of light are coming from (such as street lights
through the window), how to position the voice recorder on a surface to avoid vibrational
interference on the recording5, and to tune into all your senses to listen, look, and feel
from the hallway. He stood in the cell doorway and Vanessa and I crowded around him,
staring down the dark hallway lined with cell doors. We were dead silent, listening
intently. Bill began to ask questions towards the hallway, inviting whatever had possibly
made the noise to make it again. When nothing unusual happened, we dismissed the
noise as possibly the sound of Ethan upstairs, and he returned to instructing me. The
rest of the night was spent sitting silently in cells listening for anything strange or
4 The DVR system set-up includes a hard drive to store video, a computer monitor to view the video feed,
and infrared cameras which can be placed around the location.
5 Placing a voice recorder on a metal surface will cause the sounds on the audio recording to reverberate
and make the audio file hard to hear.
6 EVP is an abbreviation for Electronic Voice Phenomena. It is based on the idea that spirits or
noncorporeal entities can be heard by using recording devices such as a voice recorder, even if the
human ear cannot hear the sound at the time. Audio recordings are later reviewed to determine if any
anomalous sounds or voices had been recorded, which were not noticed at the time of recording by the
investigator.
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While most of the night was uneventful, within the last hour Bill experienced
something odd. He exclaimed that he saw something like a light whiz by him, and then
his flashlight, which was placed on a jail cell cot, abruptly turned on for a few seconds
and turned off. I witnessed the flashlight going on and off but did not see what flew past
him. We called Ethan over and the whole group crowded inside the cell to try to
encourage something else to happen. Ethan and Bill claimed to be seeing tiny little
sparks of colored lights around the flashlight. Vanessa and I could not see them, but at
this point it was well past midnight and my tired eyes were having trouble focusing in the
dark. After about a half hour, Bill and Ethan were not seeing the lights anymore. They
decided that it was late, the paranormal activity had died down, and it was near time to
leave. We packed up the equipment, did a final walkthrough of the building to make
sure all cameras and voice recorders were picked up, and left after saying farewell to
This section covers the basic elements of a paranormal research team, compiled
team formation and dynamics, people’s motivations for joining the groups, types of
Paranormal research teams begin with a founder. When a person or couple want
to start a team, they start by searching for other interested individuals and create an
informal group. At this point, they generate a team name; often, the name may include
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their town or region to indicate the location of the group and where they primarily
investigate. Smaller groups may start investigating publicly accessible locations such as
cemeteries. These investigations are more casual, don’t require long travel, an entrance
fee, or professional behavior. As the team grows, they establish a website or social
media page to be accessible to the public. Teams may do private, residential cases if
they are contacted by people who request help. They may also conduct investigations
at locations such as museums, jails, or other historical buildings by paying a fee to the
location owner. The proportion of the different types of cases depends on the team. The
team members themselves often include a wide variety of backgrounds, beliefs, and
roles in the group. Nearly all members have viewed the paranormal reality television
shows to some extent and enter the group with a basic understanding of what
have more technical expertise and manage the team’s equipment, and other individuals
shows, most paranormal groups do not own their own office or building. They meet in
public or private locations to hold meetings and discuss cases. Paranormal groups are
not paid for what they do – it is a volunteer-based activity that generates no revenue. To
most investigators, it is a weekend hobby and meetup group. That means that
transportation, equipment, website fees, and other expenses come straight from the
investigators’ own pockets. For this reason, there tends to be limitations on who can be
in a group (who can afford to spend the time and money) and it is a standard interview
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question for FPI to ask potential new members if they are employed or not or have
access to transportation.
General group meetings during my time FPI would take place in several different
locations. Often, they occurred at the residence of one of the team members. While
some meetings took place at a local café or public area, there was often a desire for
more privacy and discretion to talk about cases. These meetings consisted of
discussing upcoming cases and events and recapping past investigations. We would lay
out a game plan for new cases: debating the reported experiences and deciding ahead
of time where we would place cameras and which areas would be ‘hotspots’ that require
the most attention. It was also a place for going over previous investigations, talking
about personal experiences and presenting evidence anyone may have caught on a
recording device. And sometimes, it was an opportunity to just chat about paranormal
topics; things that most investigators don’t have the chance to talk about outside of the
group. For most investigators, their family and friends are aware of their involvement in
a paranormal group but don’t feel comfortable discussing these topics with people who
There can be several inherent problems with the way these groups are structured
and operate. These groups can be unstable and temporary, sometimes not lasting more
than a few months or years, and may cycle through members often. If a team founder
does not know how to establish infrastructure or is not a strong leader, they will likely
have issues with intragroup conflict and organization. Since paranormal research is
entirely voluntary and unpaid, it can be difficult for all members to be able to attend
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meetings, investigations, and afford the equipment and other expenses. Career and
family also interfere with investigating, especially when teams must travel and then
spend time reviewing evidence. FPI had members quit the group due to other priorities,
and the process of interviewing and recruiting new members can be difficult and time
consuming.
There are several different reasons why people choose to seek out and join
paranormal groups. Some people become investigators for one major reason, but most
participants explained that they joined for a combination of reasons. These motivations
and goals for investigating are either personal or altruistic. Based on interview and
survey data, there are seven major reasons for becoming a paranormal investigator.
See Figure 5-1 for a breakdown in how often each of these reasons was mentioned by
participants. They are ranked from the least frequently expressed to the most, from
bottom to top:
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Frequency of "Reasons & Goals" Codes for Ghost Hunting
Helping spirits
Adding to knowledge
Helping people
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Figure 5-1. Bar chart of the frequency of each coded reason or goal for joining a ghost
hunting group. This graph reflects the interviews and surveys from the thirty-
four participants, which were coded for one or more of the listed motivations
for being on a paranormal team. There are seventy-one total coded segments
total.
Of the seven major motivations, four of them are primarily personal: prior
seeking a paranormal experience. Most investigators stated that they had a paranormal
experience prior to joining the group, and they joined to find out more about the
PSOBFL, recounted several strange experiences she had growing up. She searched for
a local paranormal group, and “joined because of personal experiences and to find
answers to the paranormal. I want to learn how and why the paranormal exists.” These
team members often have doubts or conflictions about their personal beliefs, which
can share their previous experiences and find commonality with others. Investigator Rita
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stated that her reasons for joining FPI were “to bond with like-minded people, assist
those who might be living in fear of the paranormal, and attempt to uncover more truth
to my beliefs in the existence of life after death.” Sharing similar interests is another
main reason for joining groups; some investigators stated that they simply had a
curiosity in the paranormal and wanted to learn more from a group where they could
I've always been fascinated in local lore and legends growing up. My
mother had a museum background and would take me to various
historical places. Each time, I always felt a connection to the history at
each. I would always think 'if these walls could talk'. As the paranormal
field became more credible in the late ‘90s, 2000s, I would frequently
watch paranormal shows, always wanting to do what they did. -Caleb
The last of the personal goals for investigating is to seek paranormal experiences.
Investigators who have this as their primary objective are often referred to as thrill-
seekers and are generally demeaned by other paranormal groups who claim more
looking for answers, since having these experiences as a group can help investigators
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The other four major reasons why people investigate are more altruistic in nature, as
they are aimed at assisting others outside of the individual. Adding to our knowledge of
the paranormal is often phrased as seeking out the truth, gaining a better understanding
of what the paranormal is, or obtaining evidence of the paranormal for the scientific
community. However, this evidence is not only proof for academia but also acts as a
validation for personal experiences and beliefs. Gail, from KPI, explained that she joined
for several reasons, including examining the paranormal evidence shown on television;
she joined because of her curiosity. Gail stated, “I watched Ghost Adventures with my
husband. Being a scientist, I was attracted to all the gadgets and wondered if the 'proof'
was truthful. I had to know for myself.” Another investigator interested in science,
George, stated that he wanted “to see if I could put science to work in contacting them
and record it for evidence.” Proof and evidence are not only the team’s goal when doing
they can substantiate their own beliefs as well as prove to the world the existence of
paranormal phenomena.
Teams that primarily do private, residential cases are more driven by the goal of helping
others. Residential cases take place in the home of a client, someone who has
contacted the team requesting assistance. The team may respond by simply answering
objective is to help put the client at ease and solve whatever paranormal problem they
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have. FPI’s founder, Bill, says that he started his group after being a client himself.
team. Impressed by their knowledge of the paranormal and their investigative methods,
similar, confusing situation that he was in. Bill explained that he “was a client in need. I
was intrigued of the process of investigation. After meeting a specific client, I felt I was
clients wasn’t the initial motivation for joining a group, investigator Eddie of War Party
Something I didn't really think I'd have a passion for is whenever we can
help people. That's a genuine good feeling when we can help somebody,
and make the boogey man go away, and get answers. Or just validate that
they're not crazy. But you know, I got into the paranormal to get some
answers. Like I said, the more answers I got, it raised more questions.
-Eddie
This meaningful interaction with clients is reiterated by nearly every investigator who
Helping a client to a point in where they feel safe and secure, and having
them cry on your shoulder while thanking you, is very meaningful. As I
stated, it is the most important reason I investigate. -Nate
experiences are more intimate than the thrill-seeking type of investigating. One of the
rarer motivations of joining a team is to seek spiritual encounters with deceased loved
ones. Suffering from grief, people look for consolation. There is an uncertainty about the
fate of loved ones after death, and when religious beliefs do not supply satisfying
The only thing I have never had experienced with is my son. I never have
been able to communicate with him, I've never been able to see him. So, I
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figure that means he must be at peace, you know. That's the only thing I
can think of. I mean, that was one of the reasons why we started doing
more researching, and really getting into it is because I wanted to contact
my son. But, it hasn't happened, so I figured he's at peace. He's probably
up there, if there is a God, saying 'God, you better watch out when my
mom gets here.' Because I've been to more children's funerals than I've
been to adults'. That's one of the reasons why we really started getting
heavy into it. -Emma
Paranormal investigators have a wide variety of reasons for joining a team and
conducting investigations. While some are initially interested due to paranormal reality
television shows, others are looking for explanations to previous strange experiences.
Part of the allure of investigating is for the thrill, and a major draw is the ability to assist
other people and spirits. Overall, they all have an underlying desire to learn more about
unexplainable experiences.
There were five types of investigations that I attended during the length of my
Three of the types can be considered public, and two as private. This refers to both the
location of the investigation as well as the level of discretion used by the teams. The five
types are:
The first type of public case is a more casual investigation at a “training ground.”
Some teams will find an informal public location for the group to practice investigating or
to train new members of the group. These investigations, while instructive, may be more
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employed for more serious cases. Teams often choose a local cemetery as their
training ground; its free to enter, and many cemeteries are reportedly haunted, so the
We usually take them...like Caleb just joined last, this past meeting. I think
he's gonna work out really good though. We usually take them to a
cemetery first, to get them used to the equipment that George and I have,
like the full spectrum video camera and stuff like that. So they get used to
using it…And we train them up there, and if they seem like they don't need
any more training, or they understand what you're saying, and talking
about, then we'll just let them go on the next investigation. But if they
seem like they need more training, then we don't let them go until we think
they're full-fledged ready to actually experience what you're gonna go
through. -Emma
The second type of public case is a location where groups can investigate if they
reserve a night and pay a fee to the location owner. This can be a beneficial way for the
owner to make extra revenue outside of business hours. It also gives teams the chance
and other historical buildings. I attended investigations of this type at the following
locations: The Old County Jail and Courthouse7 in Green Cove Springs, Antiques and
Uniques Collectibles8, the Tampa Theater9, the May-Stringer House Museum10, the
Seven Sisters Inn11, Old South Pittsburg Hospital12, and St. Albans Sanatorium13.
7 http://archives.clayclerk.com/paranormal/
8 http://www.antiquesuniquescollectibles.com/
9 http://tampatheatre.org/tour/ghosts-of-tampa-theatre-tour/
10 http://www.hernandohistoricalmuseumassoc.com/aboutus2.html
11 http://sevensistersinn.org/
12 http://osphghosthunts.com/
13 http://www.stalbans-sanatorium.com/
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The third type of public case is similar and includes public buildings, but I
distinguish these locations because they may not be available to ghost hunting teams
normally. These locations have offered investigations for teams as part of a special
event or conference. These locations include the Kenilworth Lodge14 and the Vault15.
conference and the 2015 Paranormal Kicks Cancer17 fundraising event. The Kenilworth
Lodge allowed investigators to go to the basement, the attic, and a specific room that
was reportedly haunted. The Vault hosted the Paranormal Kicks Cancer event in 2016,
The first type of private case is also a public location, but the owners request a
paranormal team for assistance. The owners might require that the investigation of the
location be kept confidential, asking the team to be discrete. These owners do not want
the general public to become aware that their location might be haunted and gain a
reputation, which might harm their business. The team will treat this case similar to a
document any strange activity, and presenting the findings to the location owners.
The second type of private case is a residential case. Paranormal groups are
often contacted by people, called clients, who feel they have paranormal activity
occurring in their home. The team will assess the reported claims and decide which
14 http://www.kenilworthlodge.com/
15 https://vaulttampacatering.com/
16 http://www.hauntedtravelsusa.com/me/haunted-travels-usa/2015-pia-gathering-9106.html
17 http://paranormalkickscancer.org/
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course of action to take. Sometimes the client just has some questions or wants to send
in a photograph to get the team’s opinion on it. If the client is experiencing things in the
home, it may warrant sending the team to the house to do an investigation. Greg, an
house, the team will take base readings using some of the equipment and interview the
clients. The questionnaire includes family history, medical history, and asks about the
paranormal occurrences in the home. The goal is to try to figure out what’s going on,
and why something paranormal might be there. If a full investigation is needed, the
team returns another night. Typically, the investigations consist of a series of EVP
sessions in different spots throughout the house. They try to capture as much as they
can using voice recorders, cameras, and other technological gadgets. The team
members will also try to “debunk” the client’s claims to see if there is a logical
investigations are not as sexy or exciting as what is portrayed on the paranormal reality
television shows. EVP sessions can last for up to an hour or more, with long pauses
and silence between each question the investigator asks aloud. Investigations can last
anywhere from four to ten hours, usually starting early in the evening and concluding
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So, after the investigation we'll go through the evidence, present anything
we have to them that we find that was profound enough that we feel that
either had to do with what they were claiming, or we came across that
could possible debunk what they were claiming. Cause that's a major
process as well, is going through and making sure we're covering all of our
bases. Touching on science, touching on physics, just making sure that
we're on the same page. They'll claim things that are happening, we'll try
to explain to them exactly what's going on. -Greg
After the findings are presented to the client, it is determined if another investigation is
required or if the client is satisfied. A team member, usually someone with the role of
case manager, may keep in occasional contact with the client with follow-up emails to
see if activity has resumed. This process closely mirrors the typical investigation
process that FPI conducted, along with several of the other groups I observed.
The War Party Paranormal team had an approach that was similar, but with a
unique objective; rather than focusing on the paranormal aspect, the team examines the
home life of the clients. For residential cases, the team examines the case to find an
appropriate “prescription” to help stop the client’s reported paranormal activity in the
home.
We work off the philosophy that most residential homes are some type of
dysfunction. There's something that knocks these people off center…if you
can find out what makes these people off center, take care of that, the
haunt goes away. Because it's parasites, it's spiritual parasites that feed
on that negativity, that weakness, whatever's happening, if there's a lot of
fighting, disgruntled feelings in the home, all this negative stuff as far as
what's happening in the home, if there's drugs, alcohol abuse. That raises
the activity in the home. If there's physical abuse, that raises the activity in
the home.
Then the prescription when we leave is, this is what you're going to do for
us. This is what you're gonna do. And I promise you, if you do this, your
activity is going to stop. You spent a lifetime building up your memories,
good ones - vacations, having fun, going on dates, this and that - all these
good things. You're going to eat dinner as a family, and you're going to
recount these memories, you're going to laugh. I want laughter. No scary
movies, no war movies, just watch comedies. Laughter is very strong. For
the next two weeks until you hear back from us, I want just silly-ass
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laughing. If you just gotta be silly and laugh, that's what I want you to do.
And it works. It works. -Dan
determines the trigger for the paranormal activity, and gives a prescription for lifestyle
changes to make it cease. The team still conducts the investigation using technical
equipment and EVP sessions, but the end goal is not necessarily proof of the
paranormal. Instead, the main objective is to make the paranormal activity stop
altogether. All investigations, private or public, can be framed and conducted according
Conclusion
sources, this chapter presented general material about ghost hunting groups based on
data collection, sampling strategies, and field methods. I described how I joined a
paranormal team and the first ghost hunt I attended as a member of Florida Paranormal
Investigations. Then, I covered basic information about paranormal research teams and
the investigative process. This contextual information about the typical formation and
chapters. Several of these topics are illustrated in Chapter 6 through a selection of case
studies. The themes from this chapter are further analyzed and discussed in Chapter 7,
where I explore the cultural domain and epistemology of ghost hunters and the
paranormal field
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CHAPTER 6
CASE STUDIES: 3 HAUNTINGS
Overview
This chapter describes three case studies from my time as a researcher and
active paranormal team member. These case studies are drastically different in their
locations and context, but the same concept appeared repeatedly: that despite the
reliance on technological tools and devices, the most impactful experiences occurred
through bodily sensations and emotional contact. Chapter 4 emphasized the importance
of ethics and professional methodology; these case studies also reveal how, as a
Paranormal teams also have a set of ethics for their group conduct, and these ethical
codes are critical for guidance in some difficult situations. Objectivity is often the aim of
these groups, but the paranormal experience becomes a subjective experience of the
body. Even as the first case study shows, the body is not just for experiencing the
paranormal but also how investigators create performances to interact with each other
as well as the spirits. This revelation that the human body is the most fundamental ‘tool’
“The human body is the best tool in paranormal research”: Gender and
Performance at Old South Pittsburg Hospital
Nestled into the side of a rolling mountain and hidden within a small, quiet
served the surrounding community until its doors closed in 1998 when a new hospital
was constructed. According to the current owners’ website, “many lawsuits, wrongful
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deaths, child abuse deaths, and many tragic deaths due to fatal illnesses occurred”1 at
this location. And while the hospital’s three floors and sprawling wings exude a sense of
eeriness with its broken windows, crawling vines, and dimly lit halls, it also evokes a
feeling of loss. A dusty white lab coat hangs on the back of the door. The lunch menu is
still pinned to the corkboard in the nurses’ station. Bins of files and records are
scattered across the floor of a closet. The downstairs chapel is empty except for rows of
weathered wooden pews. But the sense of eeriness churns your stomach when you
turn down a dark hallway corner and find a wheelchair, or a child’s toy, likely left there
by another investigator to instigate paranormal activity, and you are reminded that the
hospital may still be abandoned, but you are also surrounded by spirits.
The seriousness of the place is lifted as you encounter other things; a large
chalkboard upstairs meant for recording patient procedures is filled with scribbles of
“penis removal”, “sex change”, and tagged by previous ghost hunters. The floor of an
operating room has large swaths of red paint on the floor to mimic blood, from when the
hospital was open as a Halloween haunted house in previous years. It becomes harder
to tell which objects are original to the hospital, and which were planted by the current
owners to enhance the experience. The wheelchairs lined up in the hallway are
practically begging to be used for races around the ward, which happened on more than
one occasion during our visits. The creepy reverence of the haunted hospital recedes,
and the place becomes a ghost hunter’s playground. The haunted hospital is many
things: a place to explore the boundary between the living and ghosts (both in a
1 http://osphghosthunts.com/
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to interact, and a stage for performance where investigators play roles for each other
Investigations included the opportunity to meet and work with several other groups. It
was FPI’s first major road trip with our new members, and the group leader Bill
coordinated with several other teams from the North Florida region to investigate the
hospital together. We carpooled for the seven-hour drive on a Friday, following major
highways north until we passed Chattanooga. We pulled off on an exit, stopping briefly
by a Walmart to purchase snacks, food, and other supplies for the weekend. We drove
through the small town of South Pittsburg, following the directions to a side street. We
pulled into a small parking lot behind the hospital, joining several other cars belonging to
the other teams. The owners met us outside and unlocked the back doors, leading us
into a break room just inside. We were briefed on the history of building, given the rules
and restrictions, and asked to sign a waiver. No drinking, no drugs, keep the back doors
locked, and so on. But besides that, we were given free reign of the hospital; we could
investigate any time of day or night until we had to leave on Sunday. We unloaded our
bags from the car and were led to a wing of the hospital on the main floor that had
power and running water. Each of the rooms in that hallway had two mattresses, and
rooms were connected by joint bathrooms. We brought our own sheets, towels, and
With our things unpacked we began exploring the hospital, equipped with
flashlights and basic paranormal tools like voice recorders and K2 meters. The rest of
the building didn’t have electricity, so the only light came from patches of sunlight
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filtering through crusted windows. During the day, some of the hallways and rooms were
pitch black, so dark you couldn’t see your hand in front of your face. Ethan dared me to
walk from one end of a completely dark corridor to the other without a flashlight; I was a
chicken and couldn’t do it. As we walked down the hallways, punctuated by squares of
pale light and patches of darkness where doors were open or closed, it felt like eyes
were on us. It felt safe enough when I walked around with others, but whenever I went
alone from my room to the break room for meals, I hurried my steps.
Figure 6-1. A hallway at Old South Pittsburg Hospital. Toys were placed around the
building to help trigger paranormal activity from the child spirits reported to be
haunting this building.
During one of the nights there, the three groups were gathered by the leader of
experiment. We gathered up lab coats, strait jackets, stethoscopes, and other medical
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items that had been left around the hospital. The owners said we could use any of the
objects in the building, and investigators often used what they found to try to appeal to
the ghosts for an interaction. So, we dressed ourselves as doctors and nurses (and one
mental patient) and climbed the hallway staircase to a large operating room.
The objective of this experiment was to reenact the sights, sounds, and activities
that might be familiar to the ghosts there, to stimulate paranormal activity and
encourage communication with them. The investigators split off into two groups; most of
the men set up cameras and equipment in the hallways but the women stayed in the
operating room. I stood in the corner of the room observing as they reenacted a medical
check-up, with a pregnant investigator as the willing victim. She laid down on the single
operating table in the room, and the rest of us gathered around her, pretending to poke
her with instruments and asking medical questions. Some of the questions turned silly,
and soon all the women were giggling and enjoying the fun of the reenactment. The
men, in contrast, were patrolling the halls in serious silence, ready to catch any
paranormal activity such as sounds or shadows with their technological equipment. The
atmosphere in the operating room was relaxed and playful, like playing dress up and
pretend. We had our roles and were playing out a performance, a dramatization and
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Figure 6-2. The female members of the groups, and FPI leader Bill, reenact a medical
checkup in the operating room.
After about forty-five minutes, we reconvened and returned downstairs. The men
didn’t note any apparent activity, but there were always the voice recorders to check
later for EVPs. Despite the collaborative nature of this exercise, we didn’t work with the
other groups again for the rest of the weekend. Instead, the paranormal teams operated
separately, investigating in small groups. The hospital was large enough that we only
When I asked Bill what the most important tools were for paranormal research,
he replied, “The human body is the best tool in paranormal research.” His reasoning
was that although scientific instruments can measure electro-magnetic fields and take
pictures and record audio, these devices cannot differentiate between phenomena that
technology plays a prominent part in how ghost hunters conduct investigations and
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record anomalies, the most impactful paranormal phenomena is experienced and
interpreted through bodily senses. And in this scenario of the medical performance, the
Men and women seemed had their own role during the reenactment. These roles
were not defined by experience or age, but by sex. Women were the actresses, the
role-players, the dramatizers. Men acted as the solemn scientific documenters. This
divide did not appear to be self-realized among the investigators; if it was, it was not
verbalized. Gender does seem to influence the role of investigators, and different
fancy camera set-up with infrared attachments lightheartedly dubbed it the “Masculinity
3000.”
But men, more often than women, seem inclined to embody more of a detached
more intuitive and rely on bodily senses for identifying paranormal activity. The psychics
of the groups studied for this research consisted of both men and women, though more
often women. In different paranormal groups, men are nearly always the ‘tech experts’
and nearly all the case managers are women. Since women rarely fulfill the role of tech
expert, it seems that men have the flexibility to move between both extremes of
equally by both genders, it is interesting that the roles of men are more varied than
women’s roles. However, these are not absolute gender roles. There are wide variations
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within the field that may contradict these generalizations, but overall these are the
prominent patterns that arose during my time as a participant. Saide (2013) examined
gender, arguing that gender is not a predictor of paranormal beliefs and that a wider
context is needed. Saide lamented about “the annoying false dichotomy I often hear
where women are more ‘emotional’ while men are more ‘logical’” (Saide 2013:29). While
be reinforced by paranormal investigators not through their beliefs but through their
methods of investigation.
with a paranormal group called War Party Paranormal Research. I was introduced to a
few of their members at a paranormal conference earlier that year, but this was my first
investigation. I found parking in the crowded downtown and wove through the bundles
of sun-burned tourists to a local pizza parlor. Spotting the team, I elbowed my way
through the crowded restaurant and greeted them. Around the table sat a man and
three women, who all seemed a little nervous and unsure about me but still gave me a
friendly smile. I sat with them and explained what my research was about, including an
image prompt activity that I wanted to try with them. “She wants to do a psych test on
us!” One of the women joked. I laughed but reassured them that wasn’t the intention of
the activity. Dan gave me an overview of what their group does for investigations, about
their method of finding the clients’ “dysfunction,” and their goal of helping the client cure
it. One of the women, Christine, started chatting about their experiences at the antique
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store that they investigated the night beforehand. After finishing the pizza, we walked
over to the fort. Christine was especially talkative; I was grateful for this, due to my own
nervousness. She said her husband didn’t used to believe in the paranormal and was a
skeptic, but after the team visited a cemetery ‘something’ followed her home and
strange things started happening around the house. At this cemetery, Christine
described visions that she was having of various spirits. She checked the areas of the
cemetery she was in and found that it correlated to the types of spirits she saw: a man
shaking his fist at her in the Jewish area, and children around her when she was in the
baby section. She claimed no prior knowledge of the areas of the cemetery she was in,
defending herself. “Why was I the only one seeing this? Was I going crazy?” she
exclaimed. Although she felt verified in her experiences because of how the visions
correlated to the areas, she still expressed fear that the group would label her as crazy
or lying.
When we got to the fort, we climbed the stairs to the top of the gun deck to watch
the cannons fire. Walking around, we ended up downstairs by the ‘dungeon room’. This
small inner room was once storage for gunpowder, but during a siege was used to
hoard trash and was boarded up once it was full. When it was discovered in the 1900s
bones, rumors burst that it was a secret dungeon with the remains of prisoners. This
myth has been perpetuated by several television series, including popular paranormal
reality shows. To get inside the inner room, you crawl through a narrow opening.
Christine was apprehensive about going in due to her claustrophobia, but I assured her
that I’d go with her. After we crawled through, we stood up in the small dimly lit space. It
was quiet, the thick coquina walls muting the noises from the rest of the fort and
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downtown. I felt stuffy and warm, but Christine said she felt chilly. Standing still, she
described feeling an energy in the room. We paused for a few minutes, listening and
observing the room until more tourists entered. After we crawled out, we regrouped with
the other team members just outside and Christine excitedly exclaimed, “Ooh, I felt
something! It felt colder in there.” She was eager to compare her experience to the
While the other group members continued exploring the fort I sat with another
woman, Sherry, to do an impromptu interview. She described how she first got started
in ghost hunting back in the 1970s, and she elaborated on several of her experiences.
Despite the number of people walking by and standing around us, she was undeterred
and was very open and talkative. After the fort visit, I went with the group back to their
hotel since we still had a few hours until the investigation. I took this opportunity to chat
with a few of the members and do the image prompt activity. As I sat with Sherry and
held each image out, Sherry gave a straightforward description of the image in almost
technical terms. When I did the image prompt activity with Christine, her responses
were markedly different; Christine felt emotional responses to the images and described
Before leaving the hotel, I walked outside with Christine to find Dan sitting at an
outdoor table with two hotel guests. A device sat on the table between them, giving off
soft static sounds. I asked Dan to describe what the device was. He called it a Portal,
which scans through radio stations quickly. He was asking the Portal questions, the
three of them listening closely for any response. Christine and I pulled up some chairs
to observe. Dan looked at me, then turned to the Portal. “Can you say her name?” He
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asked, pointing a finger in my direction. Within seconds, an unmistakable word emitted
from the speakers. “Stephanie.” We gasped. “Did you hear that?” I squeaked, unsure if
what I heard was what everyone else heard. Everyone nodded and agreed, laughing
with excitement. Dan asked it to say everyone’s names, and a series of other questions.
“Who are you? Where are you from? Say a number!”. Although I didn’t hear any other
distinctive answers, it all seemed in good fun. The hotel guests talked about their own
paranormal experiences at their work place. I asked Dan to explain a little bit how the
Portal worked, thinking that it would help the hotel guests understand it. I inquired how
he differentiated between the radio static and the paranormal voices. His response was
slightly defensive, making me think that my question came across as skeptical. Before I
could explain why I was asking, rain began pouring down. Dan grabbed the Portal and
we ducked for cover. I made a mental note to be more careful. Investigators can be
cynical of academics and skeptics and feel attacked if their beliefs or experiences are
questioned.
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Figure 6-3. The Portal device.
store frequented by both nightly paranormal tour groups and ghost hunting teams. I had
been to the store several times before with FPI, but this was my first time visiting with a
different paranormal team. Dan started bringing in black, bulky cases of equipment from
the car. “I only brought three!” He laughed, pulling out an assortment of cameras, voice
recorders, and other tools. I took out my voice recorder and camera, checked the
batteries, and stuffed a few extra batteries in my pocket. I joined Christine and Trish, the
third female investigator, in one of the back rooms. The walls were lined with tables full
occasionally asking questions and observing the K2 meters to see if we would get any
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responses. Dan walked back and forth across the store with his cameras and
equipment, popping in and out of the back room periodically. I noticed that there didn’t
seem to be a set plan or structure for the investigation that night. The team members
Figure 6-4. War Party Paranormal Research team members conduct an EVP session
using the Portal device in the garage of Antiques and Uniques. The Portal sits
on a shelf in the right side of the image. There are voice recorders placed
around the room. An investigator stands in the background holding an
infrared camera to document the EVP session.
We moved to the garage located behind the storefront and set the K2 meters and
the Portal on a table. After a short period of quietly observing the surroundings,
Christine starting probing with questions. She asked if her other family was there, in
spirit. The K2 responded, blipping green lights. She continued to ask questions to verify.
Standing near the Portal, Christine said she heard the Portal’s static gave some clearer
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words, seemingly responding with an “I love you”. During this session, the flashlight that
was left on (with the casing unscrewed just enough so that a slight touch would make it
go on or off) started getting softer, then lit up bright. I observed quietly. Christine
became more emotional and felt like it was her uncle or her father trying to
communicate with us. After a few minutes the responses stopped, and they ended the
EVP session. There was some disagreement from other team members on whether the
devices had actually responded; or if they did respond, if it could have happened due to
natural causes rather than paranormal ones. This caused some frustration with
Christine, but this type of disagreement is a common occurrence among groups. When
one team member experiences something more personal and meaningful, other team
members may question the validity of the evidence. The team wrapped up the
investigation around midnight, gathering their equipment and packing the car while
The investigation throughout the night had a relaxed atmosphere. At Old South
Pittsburg Hospital the teams engaged in playful reenactments, but the large scale of
that location lent a heaviness and seriousness to the investigations. Here at the
Antiques and Uniques store, War Party Paranormal Research team members seemed
comfortable. It was a place of familiarity, since they had been to this building several
times before and were friendly with the store owner. However, the investigation still
presented some complexity: investigators on a team often vary widely in their personal
beliefs, their levels of skepticism, and in how they interpret the technological devices
used to interact with the ghostly entities. The equipment does not show obvious or
definitive proof of the paranormal, but rather indicates changes in the atmosphere or
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surroundings which could be caused by something paranormal (for example,
caused by something normal, however. The investigators must assess the context of
the devices; if they had just asked a spirit to make the room colder and the temperature
drops, measured by a thermometer, then they thank the spirit for interacting with them.
During EVP sessions, investigators ask the ghosts to create these types of
environmental changes as a way of proving their presence. When they interpret these
devices as being affected by paranormal causes, this becomes evidence that the ghosts
While some of the evidence from the devices is compelling (the Portal spitting out
words and phrases relevant to the questions asked by investigators), each investigator
has a different perception about what constitutes valid evidence of the paranormal. As a
team, they generally agree that some anomalous experiences and affects to the devices
are unexplainable, and thus may support the claim of a haunting. But individually, they
may disagree on the causes of those anomalous experiences and measurements of the
disagreements and tensions within the group. An investigator, like Christine, may have
experiences during the investigation that they perceive as personal and meaningful.
This is usually due to that member’s past experiences or personal life, including if they
have any deceased loved ones. One of the reasons investigators become involved in
paranormal groups is because they are seeking answers and consoling about a
deceased loved one. If that investigator has an experience during an investigation that
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investigators about the validity of that experience can create disunity and disgruntled
members.
Ghost hunting groups rarely interact with demonologists. Very few hauntings are
believed to be caused by negative or demonic beings. However, FPI had one case
where the nature of the client’s experiences was beyond the team’s expertise. This was
one of the most intense cases I experienced while working with FPI. The client’s claims
and the deliverance itself demonstrated how the supernatural can affect a person’s life.
While most clients report paranormal phenomena in their homes with varying degrees of
fear and curiosity, some people have their lives turned upside down by things they can’t
explain.
months prior, FPI received emails from a young woman living in a small town outside of
violent sort; her cupboards were flung open, dark shadows darted across the house,
and she reported long scratches appearing on her skin deep enough to draw blood.
This woman also had two young children. She seemed desperate for help. This was
one of the few cases I’d worked on with FPI where a client claimed to be physically
attacked and harmed. When a client brings us these claims, FPI must decide how to
handle the situation. First, the group attempted to assess the mental condition of the
client and consider if the injuries are self-inflicted or inflicted by another person. In
follow-up interviews with this young woman, Hannah, the team determined that she was
in sound mind and had no intentions of harming herself or others. Whether this activity
was paranormal or psychological became mostly irrelevant, and FPI’s goal was to
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resolve the situation either with an investigation or by connecting Hannah with another
person who could help. The intent of some cases is to capture evidence to provide proof
explanations. In this case, the only goal was to stop the paranormal activity and help the
The team arrived, set up the DVR system in the back bedroom, and held several EVP
sessions in different locations in the house. Nothing unusual occurred, no one on the
team had any unusual experiences, and the devices did not pick up any unusual audio
or video. But in the following days, Hannah reported continued paranormal activity
throughout the house. In some instances, the violence seemed to escalate drastically.
Hannah’s experiences were, frankly, terrifying. When the bathroom door closed, she
peeked under the door and saw a pair of old black shoes facing the mirror. When she
was coming inside the front door with groceries, a ghastly figure resembling a witch
blocked her way. Determined to not be intimidated, Hannah said she cursed at the
figure and marched right through it to get inside. She saw the same figure again later
inside the house. FPI kept in touch with Hannah almost daily either by email or phone,
and some of those phone calls were panic-stricken and tearful. After FPI’s initial
investigation, the team leader Bill contacted a few people in his network of paranormal
arranged a date for two demonologists to drive down and meet with FPI and Hannah to
perform a deliverance.
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A deliverance, the demonologists explained, is not a full-blown exorcism. Rather,
confrontation between the demonologist and the client. When Bill and I arrived at
Hannah’s house, the demonologists Carl and Benjamin had begun talking with Hannah.
After a few more minutes of conversation about the paranormal activity that had been
taking place, they settled down to begin an in-depth interview. Hannah asked if I could
sit with her during the interview. My presence may have helped Hannah open up to the
two male strangers, by having someone she knew beside her. If it’s a stretch to call me
a female friend, I was at least a confidant who had been supportive the last few weeks.
The demonologists asked her to remember back as early as she could remember, and
to recount nearly everything that had happened in her life. They asked her to describe
her paranormal experiences. Then, the demonologists asked her about trauma in her
past, having her recall all the negative experiences she’s had since she was a child. I
sat silently by her side throughout the interview as she narrated her life. Despite having
heard about some of the traumatic events already from previous conversations, I was
shocked to hear about the extent of how much this woman had suffered in her life. And
despite the horror and terrible nature of her histories, she still managed to see the bright
side of everything, bringing humor and light-heartedness into her storytelling. Carl and
Benjamin sat quietly across from her, nodding and listening closely, and only
occasionally asking questions to clarify. When Hannah was done, she leaned back in
her chair and blew her nose with a tissue. I reached out and held her hand, hoping she
would accept is as a signal of comfort. With her face towards the window, eyes gazing
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Although Hannah appeared to hold herself together during the interview, I could
tell it still shook her up to have to describe the darker periods of her life. After the
interview, we all took a long break to recoup before the next part of the deliverance.
Although I wanted to be present during it, Benjamin was adamant that I shouldn’t be
inside the house during the process. He argued that since I was not Christian, that I
would not be protected, and the demon could jump from Hannah to myself. I was
permitted to sit outside on the front porch, with the front door open so that even though I
couldn’t see what was happening in the living room, I could still hear what was going on.
The demonologists resumed their spots across from Hannah. Bill took the spot
by her side. Carl held out a sheet of paper, on which he had been taking notes during
the interview. Keywords were jotted down, correlating with all the negative aspects that
related to Hannah’s life history: Abuse. Rape. Drugs. Jealousy. Hate. The deliverance
started with Carl stating each of the keywords aloud. “Abuse, I banish you from this
woman!”. After each declaration, Hannah was instructed to breathe out, cough, or spit.
This physical expelling represented her release of the demons from her body.
Occasionally she’d also let out a belch, at which the demonologists applauded. Hannah
was embarrassed, but Carl reassured her that any bodily function to expel the demon
was appropriate. He said that previous clients had even farted, and Hannah expressed
gratitude that she had not done that in front of them. Carl and Benjamin went through a
list of about fifty keywords. The process of going through each one, and banishing each
demon, took almost three hours. At the end of the list, Carl asked, “Now, are there any
other demons still in this woman? If so, make yourself known!” I heard Hannah
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Figure 6-5. The demonologists use frankincense during the deliverance.
Hannah felt like there was still something, some demon, still hanging on inside of
her. Hannah whimpered, trying to describe what she was feeling and hearing. Carl and
Benjamin addressed the demon directly, demanding a name, demanding that it release
her. They invoked Jesus and the archangels, their voices rising in volume, yelling over
and over again reaching a crescendo. Their shouting stopped abruptly, and I heard
them gasp. Hannah had gone limp in her chair. A moment later she recovered and sat
up, claiming to have no memory of the past hour of the deliverance. After some final
words and blessings, I was allowed back inside the house. The deliverance was
deemed a success. When I walked in and saw Hannah, she appeared drastically
different. Her face was calm and serene. She was busy cleaning up the living room,
gathering cups and starting the dishes. Earlier in the day she looked tired, haggard, and
worn thin; but now she seemed energetic and renewed. Their work complete, the
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demonologists stayed for a few minutes to observe her and make small talk. We
A few days later, I called Hannah to check up on her. She said she was doing
very well, she was sleeping well at night, her kids were behaving like little angels, and
she had no further paranormal activity. I was ecstatic to hear the news that she had
finally found some peace. Every few weeks after that the team’ case manager would
send an email to check in, and it appeared that whatever had happened on that Sunday
had worked. Hannah’s health, job, and family life had all improved. Bill counts this case
Here the theme of the body appears again. I was not allowed in the house during
the deliverance because I was not protected by Christianity – not only my soul, but my
body. The demonologist was concerned that the demon would ‘hop’ from Hannah to
me. I was considered vulnerable to harm, both spiritually and physically. Here we see
an overlap between the concepts of the body and soul. Prayers were used to protect the
spirit and body from spiritual attack, because spiritual beings, including demons, are
believed to have the ability to affect or injure the body. In addition, no technological
devices were used for the deliverance. The demonologists had no need for
documentable proof, not for themselves or anybody else, because the deliverance was
based on sensory experiences and religious belief. Their objective was to get rid of the
demon through their methodical, structured process. Carl and Benjamin invoked saints
and archangels from the Catholic religion, referencing a variety of religious entities
throughout the deliverance. They worked together smoothly and confidently. Their tools
were a Holy Bible, holy water, a gold cross, frankincense, and pen and paper for taking
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notes during the initial interview. Most paranormal teams do not work with
demonologists, and do not investigate cases with demons. When FPI learned about the
extreme experiences the client was having, the team knew it did not have the resources
to resolve the situation. The first investigation which yielded no evidence and the client
reported continued activity, so FPI looked for a different resolution – one that includes
bringing in an outside expert. This is a strategy that teams often use, whether it is
paranormal problem.
The significance of this case was that it worked. The client, Hannah, reported
that all strange activity in her home had ceased. There could be many explanations for
what the client experienced and how the deliverance changed it – whether a demon
aligned. The point is, it didn’t seem to matter. We didn’t question it. The team members,
whether more religious like Bill or more skeptical like others, were content with the
outcome. The client was satisfied, and the objective was met – no more paranormal
activity.
Conclusion
After attending over 40 paranormal investigations over the course of four years, I
could fill this chapter with dozens of anecdotes. There were moments of playfulness
when we goofed off in between EVP sessions, bringing humor to otherwise tense
situations. There were times that I nearly fell asleep, sitting for an hour in a silent, pitch
black room illuminated only by the small green and red dots from the EMF meter and
voice recorder. Some investigations were more exciting than others, and some were
deadly serious. This chapter presented three case studies from drastically different
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types of investigations. But the common theme of all of them was the significance of the
body, and how people relied on sensory experiences to derive meaning. Investigators
observe their surroundings for signs of the paranormal, but also engage in performative
variables but their activity is interpreted as paranormally influenced, based on how the
investigators perceive the sights and sounds of the tools. If the K2 flashes after asking a
question, or if the Portal emits relevant words, then investigators tie the activation of the
tools to the communication of spirits. In the case of the deliverance, the body is a vessel
vulnerable to spiritual attack. The initial paranormal investigations by FPI failed to solve
the client’s problem, and demonologists were contacted to assist. Because the tools
and methods used by the demonologists are religious, there was no need for
technological correlation; scientific proof was irrelevant. Despite the varying usage of
technological devices, in each case the body played a role in how individuals
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CHAPTER 7
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Overview
types and processes of investigations, and presented three case studies. In this
chapter, I discuss more abstract notions. The first section explores the cultural domain
of the paranormal: what things are considered paranormal, how paranormal concepts
are structured and related, and how investigators distinguish between believing and
knowing. This is done through an examination of the freelist activity results and pile sort
In the next section, I focus on the epistemology of ghost hunters. I examine the
investigators’ beliefs, and how they substantiate these beliefs through personal
negotiate their place in society by distinguishing themselves from other social entities:
other paranormal groups, paranormal reality television shows, ghost tours, and
academia. These groups also get involved in their local communities by hosting
fundraising events and providing the free service of private residential cases. The last
section presents a grounded theory model to understand the various practices of ghost
hunting groups, concluding that paranormal researchers are driven by a desire for both
self and social validation. The analysis in this chapter draws on the data from the
surveys, the freelist activities, interviews, and participant observation notes. Qualitative
data was uploaded into the analytical program MAXQDA, where it was coded according
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to the ethnographer’s codebook1. When applying codes to the transcribed texts, the unit
of analysis was segments of text. To review major themes, I was able to explore the
segments within each coded group for signs of patterns. The key word in context
(KWIC) method was also used to identify significant concepts and draw comparisons
across the transcribed texts. Through these methods, the central theme of validation
This first section explores the cultural domain of the paranormal. Cultural
domains are sets of things that are all the same type or category (Bernard 2011).
People within a cultural group share cultural domains. For this ethnography, the cultural
group of interest is the community of paranormal investigators. Despite how distant the
teams may be regarding their location or methods, they all share a cultural domain of
there are relationships among the items within the domain. Cultural domains are not
always apparent and conscious; they are mental categories and reflect how people
classify things. These domains exist outside of the group members, meaning that the
domain is experienced outside of individuals and shared across the people in the
subculture. However, this does not indicate that all members are in complete agreement
on the items that belong in the cultural domain. My aim is to examine the items that
paranormal investigators agree and disagree on. The goals of the freelist and pile sort
activities are to elicit all the items in the cultural domain of the paranormal and
determine how the items within the domain are positioned, related, and organized. In
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2004, Tobacyk published A Revised Paranormal Belief Scale. It divided paranormal
beliefs into separate categories: traditional religious belief, psi, witchcraft, superstition,
spiritualism, extraordinary life forms, and precognition. These categories are compared
with the results of the freelist and pile sort activities, to demonstrate that the paranormal
cultural domain for ghost hunters is drastically more complex than the domains
proposed by Tobacyk. This indicates that scholars who study paranormal beliefs across
Freelist Activity
paranormal realm, the survey given to participants included a freelist activity. The
freelist activity consisted of two questions: 1) Based on what you know about the
paranormal and paranormal research groups, can you list all of the things that fall under
the category of “Paranormal”? and 2) Can you list all of the things that are considered
“Paranormal” that you believe exist? Underneath each question was space for
The raw data required some management before I could begin analysis. On the
survey, the freelist activities were on two separate pages. I anticipated that participants
would fully fill out the first freelist activity, which asked them to list all things that fall
under the category of the paranormal, and then repeat a handful of those entries on the
second page to list the paranormal things that they believed in. If that were the case, I
would only be using the entries from the first freelist activity to gain an understanding of
all the things that are considered paranormal. However, many participants either filled
out only one of the freelist activities or filled out both but included additional items on the
second page. For each participant, I compared the two lists. If there were additional,
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unique entries listed on the second page, I considered those as additions to the end of
the first page. I did not repeat entries that were listed on both pages. Because of this
result, I did not use the second freelist activity to examine beliefs, as it appeared to not
be an accurate reflection of participants’ total beliefs. But like Bernard notes, “many of
the most interesting domains are things that people don’t have easy lists for” (Bernard
2011:347).
Seventeen participants completed the freelist activity (out of the total thirty-four
participants). These participants entered a total of 180 items for both of the free lists
(For the full table of all freelist entries sorted by frequency, see Appendix B). If a
participant wrote “ghost”, I included it when tallying the entry for “ghosts”. I also
considered “things moving” and “moving objects” as the same type of entry. After
cleaning the data in this way, the number of distinct types of entries fell to 101. Using
ghosts topped the lists with the most entries among all participants. However, the
consecutive results were somewhat surprising. Figure 7-1 is a scree plot of all the
freelist entries. Entries listed by only one participant were not included in the following
analysis and pile sort, because they are not shared by other paranormal investigators.
Figure 7-2 shows the frequency of the freelist entries that were mentioned by more than
one participant, providing more information about what items are collectively agreed on
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Frequency of Freelist Entries
12
10
Figure 7-2. Scree plot of the freelist entry frequencies submitted twice or more by
participants.
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The twenty-seven paranormal entries that were submitted twice or more are:
intelligent, orbs, dreams, entities, growls, hauntings, mists, residual, séance, sounds,
and tarot. Based on my observations with the groups, this is not an exhaustive list of
start thinking about how these concepts are structured and related to one another, pile
A pile sort exercise takes all the freelist entries and puts each one into a pile.
There can be any number of piles, as long as the things within each pile are somehow
related to each other. In determining what goes with what, researchers can see how
things are connected, similar or dissimilar, and grouped into hierarchies. To begin, I
started with a simple pile sort of the freelist entries submitted more than once (shown in
Figure 7-3).
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Figure 7-3. Initial pile sort of the freelist entries. This pile sort only includes the freelist
entries that were listed more than once by participants.
This pile sort exercise resulted in four major categories: things that haunt, other
these four groups based on my time with paranormal teams. There seems to be
discrete categories of things that go together (typically haunting things) and don’t go
together (other types of creatures or religious beings). Things that haunt included
entries that were most like ghosts. Other paranormal beings included non-haunting
beings, although these seem different enough to warrant separate subcategories. Signs
of a haunting include a variety of ways that someone might say indicates that place is
haunted – but again, there are a few distinctly different subcategories that could be
made here. In the metaphysical category, the entries may have little to do with either
beings or hauntings.
To gain a fuller understanding, I decided to conduct pile sorts with all the freelist
(see Figures 7-4 and 7-5). Again, these categories are intuitively created based on
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participant observation and personal experience with ghost hunting groups. I explain
each of these piles and why they are differentiated. There are seven major piles, with
several subcategories in each. The main groupings are: haunting entities, non-haunting
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Figure 7-4. Pile sort of all the freelist entries submitted by participants. Items are
categorized into seven major piles with subcategories in each.
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Figure 7-5. A simplified version of the second pile sort. It shows the major groupings in
each of the seven categories.
Haunting entities
In the pile of haunting entities, there are five subcategories: ghostly beings,
spirits, entities, poltergeists, and types of energy. I chose to create a pile of haunting
entities because during an investigation, team members try to determine the cause of a
haunting. They assess the claims, do EVP sessions, and may bring in a psychic to gain
information about the entity causing paranormal activity. The most generic term for this
entity is ghost, but investigators use several other terms to refer to these beings such as
spirits or entities. These terms refer to the survival of a living person’s soul or essence
after death. The term entity can also be a broader term for a human or non-human
person in the household. This expression of psychic energy can cause paranormal
activity, although the person is unaware of it. Poltergeist activity is often thought to be
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caused by an increase in an individuals’ hormones, such as in an adolescent or a
similar occurrence where the body’s energy is responsible: “Well you have a buildup of
your own body's energy, and it's strong enough to make shadows on the wall, or move
objects. We've seen things happen…Kids are stronger than adults depending on their
own personal body. But they're able to have enough energy to make things happen.”
The fifth category is types of energy. Types of energy include energy, plasma, and
ectoplasm. The terms plasma and ectoplasm are never really discussed in the context
of an investigation and seem to refer more to the media depictions of the paranormal in
films. Energy in general is discussed quite a lot. It is included in this category because
types of energy are thought to cause paranormal activity, whether they originate from a
paranormal source or a human source (such as the poltergeist). But this concept of
I was the only one in there, and like I said it was a theater, so you got a lot
of energy from the actors, from the crowds, from the things that have been
supplied, like donated – “hey my grandfather passed away, here’s all his
hats and suits” you know, that type of thing. -Amy
When you walk into a room and two people have been fighting, there's an
energy there. Or two people arguing. Like where does that come from?
Why is that there? You can walk in and feel that the room's tense. So, I
think there's more to human connections than we currently understand.
-Greg
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Typically, after we’ve gone through an investigation, I need a shower. A
hot shower. To me that helps cleanse it. I can’t just go lay down and go to
sleep. I need to shower. That’s to wash away the energy. -Abby
When entering a room, investigators comment on the energy felt in it. They describe the
ability of ghosts to manipulate things in terms of the amount of energy it takes. They
may offer their own energy to the ghosts, to help the ghost turn on a flashlight, light up
an EMF meter, or make a knocking sound. Energy is the currency of the paranormal
realm.
The second group of entities include aliens and UFOs, Bigfoot, other cryptids,
and other types of creatures. I chose to separate entities into haunting and non-
haunting because the paranormal research teams I worked with focused primarily on
investigating haunted locations. They did not spend time investigating other forms of
paranormal beings. Other types of groups do that: MUFON, Mutual UFO Network, is an
promotes UFO research, and educates the public on the UFO phenomenon.2 There are
groups that focus on researching and hunting for Bigfoot. In fact, while aliens and
Bigfoot were among the top submissions for the freelist entry, several investigators
argued that these things were not paranormal – they believed they could be considered
normal because they were physical, biological beings. There are other types of teams
and groups that investigate these non-haunting paranormal entities. The alien category
includes the terms extraterrestrial life, abduction, UFOs (unidentified flying objects) and
USO (unidentified submerged object, like a UFO but seen at sea). For the Bigfoot
2 https://www.mufon.com/about.html
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category, almost a third of the participants listed the term Bigfoot. They did not use any
similar terms (such as sasquatch, yeti, or Florida’s own swamp ape). Bigfoot is probably
the most well-known type of cryptid. A cryptid is defined by the oxford Dictionary as “an
The other cryptids listed (Mothman, Chupacabra, and the Jersey Devil) were submitted
by one participant. Each of these cryptids are legendary figures connected to specific
locales. The subcategory of other creatures includes creepers, humanoids, witch, and
ghoul. These were listed only once in the freelist results, and do not seem to be as
shared among investigators. The challenge with determining what belongs in the
cultural domain is that different terminology is used to describe the same thing.
This category refers to things that could be used to explain how the paranormal
works or ways of describing it. There are three subcategories: explanations, statements
that the paranormal is unexplainable, and cultural contexts. Time travel is typically
thought of in terms of science fiction and advanced technology, but similar scientific
concepts have been used to explain paranormal phenomena. Nate stated that “If I have
to say my strongest belief I am leaning to, that would be the string theory of multiple
existing dimensions existing all in the same place at the same time.” From a different
I think some orbs that are out there are actually time travelers. They come
through a dimension. And if you focus in on those orbs, you can actually
see them in the orbs, you can see faces. And I think that that's how they
travel, so fast.
3 https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/cryptid
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Parallel dimensions are included as another freelist item in this subcategory.
Additionally, in this first subcategory are portals, which refer to a doorway between our
physical world and the spiritual world through which paranormal beings can travel. The
fourth item is a statement that “a paranormal rule structure that is followed”, indicating
that paranormal beings and activities are regulated by some sort of structure that limits
and enables them to do certain things. The second subcategory includes two entries
that say the paranormal is unexplainable; quite the opposite of the first subcategory.
pursuit of evidence and objective understandings, some team members like Mike
admitted that “all we have is good stories. We deal in coincidences, we deal in the
unexplained. We don't ever really rule anything true paranormal phenomena because
we don't know what that is.” Emma, a founder of PSOBFL, argued that “anything's that
unexplainable, is paranormal to me... If I can't explain it, it's paranormal. That's the way I
feel. Isn't that the definition of what paranormal is?” The third subcategory in this pile
folklore/legend would not constitute as part of the cultural domain of paranormal things,
they are closely related subjects since many ghost stories are rooted in historical events
or local folklore.
Signs of a haunting
The largest pile consists of things that can indicate a haunted location. These are
nearly all sensory: seeing, hearing, and feeling unexplainable things. Apparitions and
shadows are how a ghostly entity manifests itself to become visible. Other visual
phenomena include lights and mists. Hearing disembodied voices is among the most
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mentioned freelist item. Investigators report hearing these voices with their own ears, or
as only being audible with a voice recorder (called an EVP, discussed in the Scientific
Things section). Growling is another reported sound, and investigators often correlate
changes can apply to both humans and animals. Atmospheric changes such as “cold
spots” (temperature drops) are also thought to be caused by a haunting, when a spirit
can manipulate the temperature by drawing heat from the air. The last of the sensory
type of energy left in a space. The subcategory of haunting types was placed in this pile
because it includes the terms residual and intelligent, which describe whether the
Doing the EVP session is not always the answer…you don't know if what
you're speaking to is a residual energy or an intelligent energy, based on
the claims. If it's residual energy, that's based on a claim, you're not going
to do an EVP session. Don't waste your time. -Mike
The paranormal research teams assess all these signs of paranormal activity when
investigation differently. If a client claims that certain objects are being manipulated and
moved, an investigator may place a piece of tape under the object to test if the object is
moved during the investigation. Sometimes these are referred to as “trigger objects”,
meant to “trigger” paranormal activity (see Figure 7-6). Object manipulation and sights
an intelligent haunting.
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Figure 7-6. Photograph of trigger objects at Old South Pittsburg Hospital. The two teddy
bears are meant to attract the spirit of a young child who reported haunts this
location. The note on the wall requests that investigators do not move the
bears, so that if later on a bear is found in another spot if can be considered
evidence of the spirit’s interaction.
The last item in this category is a problematic one: orbs. If there were any one thing that
ghost hunters disagree the most about, it’s orbs. Orbs refer to the round, ball-shaped
spots that are frequently photographed by investigators. Some people claim to have
seen them in person. For believers, orbs are thought to be either manifestations of
energy or spirits. For skeptics, all orbs are the result of dust, bugs, lens flare, or from
other natural explanations. This schism in belief is further discussed in this chapter in
Religious and spiritual concepts occasionally overlap with paranormal ones. This
pile includes five subcategories. Death, near death experiences, and the afterlife reflect
the participants’ concern with human mortality. Santeria and Voodoo are two religions
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which were not practiced by investigators but were sometimes blamed for creating and
causing paranormal activity. Spirit guides are a believed to be spiritual beings who
personally protect an individual. Spirit guides are often associated with angels, but they
do not always have a religious connotation. Angels and demons are two religious
beings that were frequently mentioned in the freelist activity. This challenged my own
preconceptions about the paranormal; I presumed that paranormal entities were distinct
from religious beings. Ghost hunters investigate the paranormal, but rarely attempt to
conversations with paranormal investigators. Demons, on the other hand, could have
been categorized as part of haunting entities. I placed it in this pile due to its religious
origin, and the religious approach that demonologists use to confront them when they
do occur as part of a haunting. The demonic haunting has been largely popularized by
paranormal television shows and films. Several investigators commented on the rarity of
demonic hauntings:
I hate it when you can't figure out what they [the haunting entities] want.
And you never want to say the D-word, you know, it's a demon. Which I've
never encountered. But everybody wants to. -Dan
Possession is another item in this category, referring to demonic possession. Again, this
concept was rarely related to the paranormal team’s usual activities, apart from the case
study in Chapter 6 about the deliverance. It was a surprise to find religious entities on a
paranormal beliefs, but Emmons and Sobal (1981) argue that they are distinct.
Religions are treated as socially normative systems whose members conform to a set of
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beliefs and belong to an established social organization. Paranormal beliefs, on the
These two piles represent different categories of people, tools, and evidence
or the laws of nature”.4 . The term scientific here is used loosely to refer to the more
empirical and technical nature of the ghost hunters’ methods and devices.
The entries for each subcategory are not exhaustive, and only reflect the entries
Metaphysical people could also include sensitives or empaths, terms to describe people
who can sense things beyond normal human capabilities. Each of these terms refer to
specific types of intuitive abilities, but they were often used interchangeably. 5
4 https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/metaphysical
5 For an explanation of the different types of psychic abilities, see the International Academy of
Consciousness’ article: http://uk.iacworld.org/full-list-of-different-types-of-psychic-abilities-here/
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Metaphysical tools include types of divination, although the ones submitted for the
freelist activity are not typically used in a paranormal investigation. Divinatory tools used
during investigations include dowsing rods and pendulums, and crystals are sometimes
worn for spiritual protection (see Figure 7-7). Individuals may experience strange
dreams or astral projection, which they consider as part of the paranormal category.
Figure 7-7. An investigator using dowsing rods. Dowsing rods are used to interact with
paranormal entities during an EVP session.
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Figure 7-8. Scientific tools used in paranormal investigations. The basic toolkit of an
investigator includes a flashlight, voice recorder, and camera, but some
teams buy or make more advanced equipment.
phenomena (see Figure 7-8). Again, Table 7-1 is not a comprehensive list of all the
tools6 and types of evidence, only the ones from the freelist activity. ‘Manmade sensors’
reflect the idea that investigators can sense and measure the paranormal through
environmental changes. EMF pumps increase electromagnetic fields, which are thought
to provide an energy source for paranormal entities to produce activity. REM Pods
measure electromagnetic fields. K2 meters weren’t listed but are the most popular tool
for measuring electromagnetic fields due to their relatively affordability and ease of use.
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Technological evidence includes EVPs, EMF fluctuations, and anomalous photographs.
These three freelist entries account for the most popular types of evidence that
investigators gather from interactions with a paranormal entity. When enough evidence
is obtained, a team may declare the location as haunted. This amount varies between
Another way that these categories can be viewed is as a taxonomy. Figure 7-9
displays how the paranormal is split into five categories, which are further subdivided.
This table displays the hierarchical structure and relationships between cultural domain
items. It re-sorts major categories from the pile sorts, dividing the paranormal into five
sections: entities (haunting and non-haunting), signs (sensory and evidence), people
explanations.
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Ghosts
Shadows
Spirits
Poltergiests
Apparitions
Haunting
Energy
Energy Plasma
Ectoplasm
Orbs
Demons
Bigfoot
Entities
Mothman
Cryptids
Chupacabra
Jersey Devil
Aliens
Aliens
UFOs
Non-Haunting
Spiritual Spirit guides
Angels
Creepers
Humanoids
Other creatures
Witch
Ghoul
Things moving
Growling
Disembodied voices
Sounds
Scratching
Knocking
Lights
Sensory Sights Mists
Paranormal
Seeing haunting entities
Signs
Feelings
Human
Unexplainable behavior
Animal
Atmosphere changes
Dreams
EVPs
Evidence EMF
Ghost photos
Investigators
Psychics
People
Metaphysical Mediums
Clairvoyants
Cameras
Technological EMF readings
REM pods
Divination
Tools Séance
Tarot
Metaphysical
Ouija
Crystals
Astral projection
Unexplainable
Time travel
Portals
Explanations Parallel dimension
Paranormal rule structure
History
Folklore/Legend
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Cultural domains are useful for understanding how local knowledge is produced.
These freelist and pile sort exercises analyzed data provided by participants to uncover
what things are paranormal and how those things are related. Tobacyk defines
paranormal phenomena as “those that, if genuine, would violate basic limiting principles
of science” (Tobacyk 2004:94). Although this belief scale is an improvement from the
entities from the pile sort would fall under the category of extraordinary life forms. But
there are other phenomena that don’t easily fall into one of the seven categories. There
are phenomena that many people consider paranormal, but also as something natural
categories. Considering the wide variety of paranormal items submitted in the freelist
activity, and the complexity of some of these beliefs, a more accurate survey would
include more questions. While investigators share similar ideas about what items belong
in the cultural domain of the paranormal, their own personal beliefs vary widely. The
next section will compare the transcripts of two investigators to demonstrate the coding
This section contrasts two investigators’ interviews, illustrating how coded text
codebook used for analyzing the texts was created after assessing the first few
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interviews, and continuously revised throughout the coding process until it reached peak
accuracy. The codebook includes eighty-seven individual codes grouped into 8 main
groups of codes (see Figure 7-10). Figure 7-10 shows seven groups, and the eighth
group includes the image prompts (each image prompt was coded within the interviews
for easier comparison across texts). To see the full codebook, see Appendix C.
Figure 7-10. The main classifications of codes in the codebook. The descriptions for
each category encapsulate the individual codes within each group, and do not
include every single code. For the full codebook, see Appendix C.
investigations and interviews and an initial, intuitive analysis of the texts. However,
throughout coding process it was necessary to add new codes that appeared in the
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transcriptions. I returned to the textual data multiple times, applying codes to new
themes that appeared to be relevant. For example, after coding two transcripts major
differences appeared. I realized that the physical places of where the experiences
happen might be significant to the meaning of the experiences. I went back through the
text and coded for Home, and Travel. After coding for these two places, it appeared that
these codes of Home and Travel correlate strongly with themes of psychic experiences
The results of two coded transcripts revealed major differences between the two
participants. Once the two interviews were transcribed and coded, the frequency of
each code was calculated for the two interviews and compared. The results of those
frequencies are graphed to illustrate those comparisons (see Figure 7-11 and Figure 7-
12). Analyzing the frequency of the codes (i.e., the content of the interviews) reveals the
variation that can exist between paranormal investigators in how they view the
paranormal, how they employ investigative methods, why they become involved in
paranormal teams, and how they view their place as a paranormal investigator in
Western society.
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Code Tim Charlotte
Technology 5 2
Science 4 0
Evidence 6 4
Haunted Location 7 5
Home 0 4
Psychics 0 10
Health 0 6
Death 0 3
Orb 5 4
Demon 1 3
Ghosts 3 8
Paranormal Experience 3 9
Family 0 10
Sanity 0 4
Positive 2 3
Skepticism 3 0
Uncanniness 2 9
Fear 0 5
Definitive Real 3 1
Figure 7-11. Frequency of codes from two transcripts. This figure only includes the
codes that were applied more than once throughout the documents. Certain
cells are highlighted to indicate a major difference in frequency. Green cells
indicate that the codes appeared two more times in one transcript than the
other. Yellow cells indicate codes that appeared three more times in one
transcript than the other. Red cells highlight codes that appeared four or more
times in one transcript than the other.
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Frequency of Codes
Fear
Positive
Family
Ghosts
Orb
Health
Home
Evidence
Technology
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Charlotte Tim
Figure 7-12. Bar graph of the frequency of codes applied to Charlotte and Tim’s
interview transcripts.
technology, and evidence in paranormal investigating. His career as a doctor has likely
emphasized his goal to catch hard evidence (documentation via photograph or audio).
His intentions in the paranormal group are for discovery and seeking the truth, in tune
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In addition, Tim solely referred to public haunted locations. Public locations, as opposed
to private residences, are sites that allow ghost hunting groups to visit and investigate
for a fee. Often these places are museums, jails, courthouses, stores, or other historical
buildings that have a reputation as being haunted and use the additional income for
maintain the premises. Some of these places, like the Stanley Hotel or the St. Augustine
Lighthouse, became especially famous for their haunted reputation when they were
shows. Tim listed several locations that he and the team had visited, whether they were
local, in state, or a road trip to other regions in the United States. He spoke of them in
awe, and he explained how he viewed haunted locations as places where he could
The last experience I’ve had, it was in the attic in Mae Springer. And it was
like I was sleeping up in the attic for a long time, I was up there dozing off.
And I like to go in the hauntiest place, just kinda hang out by myself. -Tim
His sense of sacredness in the haunted locations aligned with his attitude towards the
paranormal in general. He spoke very positively of the paranormal encounters he’d had,
and many of these encounters were very personal or meaningful to him. This meaning
that he finds in the paranormal is likely related to his spirituality, as he stated his
religious views very clearly and connected those views with a specific paranormal
experience:
“I’m a very strong Christian, and I believe very strongly in Jesus, and I
think that I’m protected. We were up at Seven Sisters in Ocala…I was
looking at my cameras and we were on a table just looking at our cameras
and there’s this huge orb right here, right in front of my heart, right in front
of here, and I was looking down at it. -Tim
Some authors contrast the skeptical technical investigators with the more spiritual ones,
arguing that the technology-emphasis comes from investigators who do not have
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sensory experiences or strong spiritual beliefs (S. Hill 2011). But this transcription
reveals a paranormal investigator who combines his views as a scientist and a doctor
and views on the paranormal. She began her interview by describing her metaphysical
abilities in relation with her ancestry, attributing her psychic abilities to her grandmother.
Well see my grandmother was gifted. She was born with a veil over her
eyes, when she was born. And back in her day when you’re born like that,
they usually take you out and shoot you, because they called them
witches back in them days. So, whatever it was that she was... She could
tell you things before they happened. Which was pretty crazy. Scary,
sometimes, when you’re little, but it passed onto myself, and my
daughters, they also see and experience things. -Charlotte
This focus on her family is drastically different than the previous interview. Tim never
mentioned any of his family or close friends, only his interactions with his team
members and other teams. For Charlotte, having intuitive abilities was an inherited trait
passed down maternally, and was even passed to her own daughters. These abilities
are described by Charlotte as being impressive, but unusual and often scary. Charlotte
also described many of these experiences as occurring in her own home, as opposed to
Tim who described them solely in other locations he visited. Psychic abilities in general
are nearly always discussed in terms of the paranormal, as the abilities allow certain
individuals greater insight into the non-empirical world that ghost hunters are attempting
to contact, communicate with, and document. In this case, Charlotte explained how her
abilities led her to search for answers to her unexplainable experiences, and she found
the local paranormal research group PSOBFL. Offering her services as a medium, she
became involved in the group. Her intentions of joining and being involved in the
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paranormal team are similar to Tim’s in that she wants to learn more about the
paranormal, but she also strongly stated that she wanted to help other people.
phenomenon, and to share that knowledge with others. However, Charlotte consistently
included iterations of fear, not only of the paranormal or psychic experiences, but fear of
You run into people who think you’re crazy, and well ‘you need help, go
get on medication’, you know, they Baker Act you…This is my first group
and I’ve really enjoyed it, being able to go out and catch things, and tryin’
to figure out how they explain it. Which, you can’t. -Charlotte
Charlotte struggles with her own personal paranormal and psychic experiences, while
trying to defend her own sanity and sound mindedness to others who do not share a
belief in the paranormal. The way she narrated her paranormal experiences indicated a
defensive nature and included specific details and phrasing to support her story as a
‘real’ occurrence. Charlotte said most of her family besides her daughters did not share
the belief in the paranormal, nor a desire to discuss paranormal experiences. The
combination of her paranormal experiences being scary in nature and the repression of
that fear without someone to discuss those experiences with is partially what led her to
PSOBFL.
who share a similar set of beliefs and a forum for talking about paranormal experiences,
which can be a therapeutic process when those experiences have been traumatic.
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Charlotte strongly feels the sting from the social taboo of talking about the paranormal in
public as a reality; interestingly, Tim did not express similar emotions, despite being a
unrelatable to others.
Another difference that appeared between the two interviews was that Charlotte
discussed health issues frequently, while Tim did not specifically relate to his own body
or health. Charlotte made clear connections between her bodily health and her psychic
abilities.
I died, literally. I had my lung removed and died on the table. Ever since
then, you know, the activity has been more. And the visuals have been
more, hearings been more. -Charlotte
Charlotte states that her abilities increased after her near death experience, attributing
those increased abilities to her near-pass with the spiritual realm. This connection was
also made when she discussed her grandmother and described how her grandmother
was born with a veil, which could either have been the cause of the premonition abilities
or an indication of them. However, her discussion of health is not only related her own
“I’ve helped people that were sick. You now, they’d explain what was
going on, while’s they were explaining I could see, you know, like…my
uncle, he wasn’t feeling well. I said well, you know I could see this spot,
growing on his lung. And he went to the hospital, and now he’s got stage 4
lung cancer, and he’s got less than six months. That’s my only uncle. You
know, my only uncle I have left.” – Charlotte
Charlotte conveys experiences where she was able to assist another person’s health
with her psychic abilities. Contrary to the paranormal experiences that she describes as
negative and scary, these were the only experiences that she described positively.
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While not necessarily a pleasant experience, Charlotte clearly emphasizes her desire to
help people. In this example with her uncle, her intervention may also help her with her
grief. In believing that she is helping others, she finds a sense of meaning,
paranormal and why they joined the paranormal teams. These contrasting differences
The analysis of these two transcripts yielded interesting and informative data
transcribed interviews, these people joined paranormal groups for two major reasons: to
discover truth/knowledge about the paranormal, and to help other people. Tim aimed to
use his scientific knowledge to uncover more about how paranormal phenomena
worked, while Charlotte wanted to help others through her metaphysical abilities (who
were either being negatively affected by the paranormal, suffering from health issues, or
who were socially stigmatized for talking about the paranormal in public like she was).
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of emotional responses depending on the context of the experience, the person’s
meaningful and confirming his religious beliefs. Charlotte, on the other hand, found her
her own home. Tim was prepared for a paranormal experience and Charlotte felt like
her private life was intruded upon; this difference is a variable that affects the way these
related to the type of paranormal experience. Referencing back to Table 7-1, there are
two types of ways to interact with the paranormal: via scientific evidence (orbs,
experiences). Tim interpreted meaning through the evidence of orb photographs, which
validated his religious beliefs and his orientation with the spiritual world. Charlotte found
meaning in using her abilities to help others but experienced the paranormal through
bodily senses; these experiences caused fear and apprehension due to their intrusive
and threatening nature, since they were not sought after and occurred in her home. For
Charlotte, being able to help others is a consolation for the stress she otherwise
endures.
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approach, where the cultural tradition is assumed to stem from and be shaped by
experiential sources, rather than cultural tradition shaping the experience. If we treat
explore the effects of these experiences. The impact of paranormal experiences and the
role of the belief in the paranormal on the individual is demonstrated in these two
interviews. These investigators are not merely thrill-seeking adventurers who hunt
ghosts as a hobby on the weekend, but rather are members of a community that
are not expressed as a simple shock moment, but rather as complex processes that can
elicit strong emotional reactions and create, refute, or affirm an individual’s religious or
spiritual beliefs.
The first section of this chapter discussed the cultural domain of the paranormal,
based on the freelist entries and pile sort exercises. The cultural domain encompasses
all the things that fall under the umbrella term of “the paranormal,” which are shared by
more than one investigator. Then, I presented a comparison between two interviews to
demonstrate how textual data was coded, revealing thematic structures and relations. In
this section, I first focus on how paranormal beliefs are formed, supported, and
concepts from the first section. These beliefs are supported in several ways, including
through personal experience, sharing that experience with others, and correlating it with
technological devices. Then, I discuss how ghost hunters define their place in society:
through their interaction with the community, and through their relationships to the
media, other teams, ghost tourism, and academia. These two major themes, verifying
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beliefs and negotiating place, lead to the underlying pattern of all these topics: seeking
validation. Figure 7-13 presents a model which illustrates how each of these facets of
ghost hunting are connected and related. These themes are discussed in the following
sections.
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Figure 7-13. Grounded theory model for paranormal team practices.
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Epistemology: Orbs, Bigfoot, and Aliens
This ethnographic research aligns with the findings from Thun’s study of ghost
hunters (2013), whose underlying motivation is a quest for truth. Thun observes how
experience becomes a way of knowing, and the imaginary and reality are negotiated
and contested through the use of scientific devices and personal sensory experiences.
This research with Florida paranormal research teams confirms the centrality of
experience, and the debate about what is ‘real.’ However, it dives further into the
clients describe a fear of being called crazy, or express doubts in their senses and
experiences with others who can verify them. These methods of verification provide
Perhaps the most hotly contested paranormal object in the field of ghost hunting
is the orb. The term orb describes the semi-transparent floating spheres that appear in
photographs but are not typically visible to the human eye. There are two opposing
views to orbs, and lot of opinions in between. Orbs are often interpreted as paranormal
skeptics argue that all orbs are either dust, moisture, bugs, lens flare, or other visual
artifacts. Of the seventeen participants who talked about orbs, six expressed a strong
belief in them (35%), three staunchly dismissed all orbs (18%), and eight people
explanations (47%). Some investigators absolutely love orbs and attribute most orb
photographs or video to paranormal causes; other investigators simply stated, “Orbs are
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bullshit.”7 The eight investigators whose beliefs fell somewhere in between had a variety
of explanations for what orbs are, as well as what defines them as “real” paranormal
phenomena.
You know if you catch an orb, and you blow it up, they all have different
faces in ‘em. -Charlotte
Like it’s not a ghost, it’s energy. It’s what Jack says, and it makes perfect
sense – “Orbs are to ghosts as Doritos are to him.” Food, all it is, is food.
And I think the presence of more energy, more orbs, means that there
could be more paranormal activity, because of the fact there’s food there.
But yeah, I think a lot of the time it’s mistaken for dust or fog. -Amy
There are such things as orbs. They are a naturally occurring ball of light.
That's all they are. They're not paranormal. They're very normal. They're
extremely rare. You are very fortunate if you ever get to see one. - Eddie
Orbs have certain criteria that they have to follow, for it to be an orb. You
can tell that these aren't orbs. Because orbs, first thing they have to do is
emit their own light. And if it's not emitting its own light, then it's not
energy. Energy emits energy. And you can tell water vapor, bugs, and a
lot of it is just dust. But it's, if you get a true orb, it doesn't have a
predictable flight path. -Sherry
Orbs are one of the few things in the paranormal field where people heatedly debate the
cause of the phenomena. Orbs are discussed as being either paranormal (e.g., spirits or
energy) or not paranormal (e.g., dust, bugs, rain). Their existence is not debated,
because there are thousands of orb photographs posted on the Internet, and nearly
every investigator, even a skeptical one, has captured a photograph full of orbs
(especially when investigating dusty, old historical buildings). Skeptics don’t argue that
orb photographs don’t exist, just that they can be explained by natural causes.
creature reported in forested regions around North America. Of the six paranormal
7 Indicating that no orbs found in photographs can be considered paranormal, and that all of them have
natural causes (e.g., insects, dust, moisture, lens flare, digital artifact).
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teams I interviewed, only one of them expressed an interest in researching and
‘hunting’8 Bigfoot as a team. But in terms of belief, a large proportion of investigators are
open to the possibility of Bigfoot. Out of the seventeen investigators who discussed
Bigfoot, four stated unwavering belief (23%), one dismissed Bigfoot’s existence, and
twelve believed Bigfoot was possible with three of those participants requiring scientific
evidence to prove it (71%). For those twelve people who were open-minded, they gave
the reason that “Anything is possible.” They wouldn’t declare that he doesn’t exist, but
also would not say they were absolutely convinced that he does.
I believe. I mean, I don't disbelieve, I don't believe... I'm just kind of... in
the middle. Same thing with Bigfoot. Until I experience it, I can't say that
he doesn't exist, I can't say he exists. That's the way I feel, I'm right down
the middle of the road on anything. -Emma
I’m sure that people have seen something, and there’s a possibility, I
mean…it’s a big world, there’s a lot of wilderness out there. Anything
could be living out there. -Abby
For the four investigators who asserted firm belief in Bigfoot, they supported their belief
I believe in it. Too many people have seen things or something similar.
There's a lot of forest and areas that haven't been explored. Something's
gotta be out there and it just seems to me, they're not really coming after
people, they're just, leave us alone and we'll leave you alone. -Lyanne
Well, I will tell you without a shadow of a doubt, from personal experience,
Bigfoot does exist. So I definitely, definitely believe. No, I don't believe in
that, I know that. I don't understand people who don't believe in it. They
say, "Nothing could be out there that we don't know about." Bullshit. They
find new species every day. In that area, in Arkansas, I guarantee you
there's places there today that no man has ever set foot in. -Eddie
8 Going to the state park to camp and see if they experience any of the reported Bigfoot phenomena;
seeing tracks, hearing Bigfoot calls, or finding Bigfoot himself.
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In the first quote, Lyanne points to the collection of Bigfoot reports as significant
evidence. Eddie, on the other hand, supports his belief with a personal experience that
the amount of unexplored land where, like an undiscovered species, he could live. Their
arguments indicate that skeptics who deny any possibility of Bigfoot lack an
aliens or UFOs, often conflating the two terms. Of those sixteen, ten people described
unequivocal belief (63%), zero denied any possibility of them, and six were open to the
possibility (38%). Five investigators had personal experiences; three of them staunchly
believed and two were open to the possibility but left room for doubt. When talking
about Bigfoot, the reaction was often a shrug and saying, “anything is possible,” since
Bigfoot hasn’t necessarily been disproven yet. But when talking about extraterrestrial
For UFOs, to be honest with you, as big as this universe is, to me, you
may think this is harsh. I think you gotta be a fool to think there's not
somebody else out there. We're still discovering things that we don't know
about, on this planet. As much technology we have, we're still coming
across stuff that we don't know. -Gary
It is arrogant of us to think that we're the only ones around. The almond-
eyed, triangular gray faced image has been around for years. It's been
viewed in hieroglyphics. It's been viewed in cave drawings. It's been
viewed on different continents of people that had no idea how to
communicate with each other. That's gotta mean something. Have we
been visited? Maybe. Have we been observed? Probably. I think there's
gotta be something else out there. There's gotta be. -Greg
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Anybody that can look up at the sky at night, and see all these stars, and
all these galaxies, and all this, and think we're the only people here, are
absolutely nuts. -Eddie
These investigators reiterate the sentiment of possibility and discovery but are more
understandings of our universe, or in the case of Bigfoot, of our environment. While the
information, they also argue that science is still behind and cannot prove or disprove
experience but based on probability; the universe is so grand and unexplored that we
All participants believe that paranormal activity exists, in varying ways and to
strange things on investigations, or trust other people who report experiences. For
investigators, belief is not a matter of faith. It’s a matter of experience. And when those
experiences are personal, intense, and validated by others, those beliefs become
knowledge. Eddie asserted that “No, I don't believe in that, I know that” Bigfoot exists,
because of his personal experiences. His first experience was with his wife in their
cabin, where they saw it walk by a window. He described his second experience:
Every year we went and camped for a week and went hunting. I had heard
Bigfoot before. And it’s a sound that if you ever hear it, you will never
forget what it sounds like, when it does its scream. And we were sitting
there at camp, and first of all there's no alcohol at camp, so rules any of
that out. And we were sitting there, there were four of us. We were sitting
around the campfire, and it screams. And it wasn't too damn far off. And it
did it twice. And it was kinda funny to watch four grown men, who were
sitting around the campfire, quietly get up and walk over to their tent, take
out their rifle, come back to the campfire, lay the rifle across their lap, and
then sit back down. But if you hear it, you'll never forget it. -Eddie
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Eddie’s description of the two encounters includes stating how the other people present
also witnessed the phenomena, validating that it occurred and was not a personal
delusion. In his second story, he also builds his own credibility by stating that: 1) he
camped and hunted every year, thereby inferring a familiarity with the woods and
wildlife; 2) no alcohol was present, so the experience was not caused by inebriation or
altered state of mind; and 3) describing how the other three men, also experienced
hunters, reacted in the same way with apprehension. This structure of the paranormal
story reflects discourse analysis Wooffitt (1992) used to study ghost stories, which are
carefully crafted due to their taboo and problematic nature. To be taken seriously and
buffer against social rejection, speakers deflect negative reactions (e.g., hostility and
skepticism) by including components to support their sanity, their intelligence, and their
senses.
In this case, Eddie not only included these details to gain credibility but to also
support his own belief in the encounter. He is confident in his own knowledge of normal
and abnormal sounds of the forest, and in his own bodily senses of sight and hearing.
This confidence is not typically expressed when investigators describe experiences they
had when they were alone. Ward (1977) notes how people confirm and validate their
supranormal experiences when they are shared with others, which returns an emotional
that occurred on an investigation, where both him and another investigator saw a face
appear in a window. When he saw it, he pointed it out to the other investigator who
verified that she also could see it. Then, she took a series of photographs to document
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the phenomena. Out of twenty-seven photographs, Eddie stated that the face only
Steph: How did it make you feel, having that validation that she saw it?
Eddie: Well it always makes you feel good, especially when you have a validation that
you see it. It's one thing to have a personal experience nobody else
experiences, just you. Then it’s, am I really seeing this, or what? But to
have both of us, and that many times, and to be there that long. And then
to get it in one photo. Why it didn't show up in more photos, I have no
idea. But that was a very interesting night.
Eddie could validate his experience not only by sharing it with another person, but with
verified by another person. Hausmann (2011) studied how the sense of the profound
organization. However, he stated that in the team he worked with, “they encountered
ghosts largely on an individual basis” (34). In contrast, I found that most paranormal
experiences that occurred during investigations were shared between more than one
member. During a trip to Old South Pittsburg Hospital with FPI, two investigators
experienced something while walking down the halls early in the morning. Bill and Ethan
were on their way to the break room and rounded the corner. Standing in the hallway in
front of them stood an apparition, clear as day. I was following close behind, but I was
still in the previous hallway by the nurse’s station. They both rushed back towards me
and grabbed paper and pens from the nurse’s station counter. I watched as they drew a
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picture of what they saw. Figure 7-14 is a photograph of the two investigators, holding
experienced before discussing it with each other, to see if the other person saw the
same thing. Once their drawings were complete, they described the apparition to me.
They had turned down the hallway and saw a girl in a dress standing by the wall. The
little girl had a stunned expression, then promptly disappeared. This method of
something is that with the latter, the individual is defining reality. When expressing
beliefs or saying they don’t know something, there is room left for doubt or uncertainty.
Knowing something exists means that the person is not questioning their senses, their
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tools, or the word of others. Table 7-3 and Figure 7-15 list the top twenty words found in
the interview transcriptions. These word frequencies point towards the things
investigators talked about the most. The word “know” was the third most used word,
while the word “believe” was the eighth. Investigators were more likely to express their
Figure 7-15. Word cloud generated from the most frequent words found in the coded
interviews, image prompts, and notes. Includes words with a frequency over
100.
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Table 7-3. Continued
Rank Word Frequency
7 time 181
8 believe 158
8 group 158
10 house 131
11 ghost 127
12 first 121
13 seen 112
14 experience 104
14 never 104
16 stuff 103
17 feel 102
17 investigation 102
19 anything 100
20 tell 99
*Originally, the word “know” was listed at 637 times, due to transcriptions including “you
know” as a filler phrase. After adjusting for these, the resulting word count for “know”
dropped to 294.
their role in society. They define themselves in relation to their local community, other
paranormal teams, the paranormal reality television shows, ghost tours, and the field of
science. Through these relations, they define what they are and what they are not.
These practices work to carve out a social niche for these teams while defending the
team against social rejection. Just as the individual ghost hunter finds a sense of
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belonging within the group, the paranormal teams seek to legitimize their position in
Western society.
Of the six groups I interviewed, three of them were actively involved in their local
community. A few years ago, PSOBFL began offering haunted walking tours in
downtown Bradenton, FL. The founders researched the local history, planned the
walking route, and developed a script. They provide K2 meters, to give participants a
sense of how ghost hunters use equipment to take environmental measurements. This
business not only provides the team with additional revenue to help cover the costs of
investigating, but also spreads awareness about their team. PROOF, a team based out
of Tampa, hosts an annual event called Paranormal Kicks Cancer (PKC). 9 The entry
fees are donated to BASE Camp children’s cancer foundation.10 They are also involved
and vendors. Both events are attended by other paranormal groups, strengthening their
social network. One of those groups is KPI, who participate in other events and charities
in their local region of Kissimmee. For example, one of their interactions with their
community is managing a booth at a library’s annual trick or treat event, handing out
candy and educating the public on the scientific tools and methods used by their
paranormal team.
The PKC event is an example of how teams can bond and create social relations
that ultimately benefit their contributions to their local community and create a social
network. However, the relationships between paranormal groups is not always positive.
9 http://paranormalkickscancer.org
10 http://www.basecamp.org/
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Intra- and intergroup conflict can occur when investigators clash in their personal
beliefs, in their investigative methods, or in their views of how the team should function.
Sherry: Dan and I run a different kind of team. The other teams, a lot of teams you'll find
they have very dictator-like founders and rigid structure rules, and that you
have to obey.
Dan: They're not open to each individual's beliefs, spiritual beliefs or religious.
Sherry: It's like, you have to do this, you have to do that. There's like ten forms you have
to fill out.
Steph: Do you think there's a reason the founders are like that?
Dan: Some people have a problem with authority. It's a power trip. My team, my way.
These amateur teams can be difficult to manage due to their informal structure.
When team members and founders disagree on methods and decision-making, it can
create tensions, disunity, and separations from the group. Like this intra-group conflict,
disagreements between groups create opposition and social discord within the
paranormal community. When teams distinguish themselves from other groups based
on their investigative methods, they usually base their disagreement on how scientific or
unscientific other teams are. Bill believed there were four categories of groups11: 1)
“weekend warriors” who just investigate local places like cemeteries for fun, sometimes
trespassing or using unethical methods; 2) “ghost hunters” that were more serious
about investigating, but still thrill-seekers; 3) “paranormal investigators” who are more
serious-minded than ghost hunters ; and 4) “paranormal researchers” who are the most
professional, the teams who “are really trying to find the answers.” This hierarchy of
11 In this dissertation, I refer to paranormal teams by a variety of terms without inferring any distinction
between them. I use the terms “ghost hunter”, “investigators”, and “researchers” interchangeably for ease
of reading. These categories expressed by participants do not reflect my own usage of the terms
throughout the ethnography.
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groups criticizes the thrill-seeking teams and gives more respect to the “researchers”
who engage in more scientific investigations. Bill considered himself as part of the third
As a “paranormal investigator,” Bill defined his role as assisting others. The purpose of
his investigations was primarily to consult the clients, determine the extent of the
paranormal activity, and educate the clients on 1) debunkable activity, and 2) the nature
prescription for clients12, Bill reveals that a key part of residential cases is learning about
clients’ personal lives. This level of interaction with the clients does not typically occur
have mixed feelings about the tours in historic cities. These ghost tours, or haunted
tours, are led by tour guides who are often not part of paranormal research groups. Bill
criticized the ghost tour guides in St. Augustine for giving false information to tourists
and misrepresenting how paranormal research works. Bill paraphrased one of the St.
Augustine ghost tour guides as saying to a group of tourists during a particularly quiet
night, “The ghosts must’ve went away- they go to Disney world for a year and a half.
They’ll be back.” Most of the tour guides do not take the field of paranormal research
seriously, and only engage in it for commercial gain. Paranormal tourism is a profitable
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industry in many historic cities. The popularity of some locations, such as the St.
shows such as Ghost Hunters. Once televised as a haunted location, the businesses or
locations investigated on a TV show can increase their admission prices to match the
increased number of visitors. However, paranormal tourism can get people more
paranormal group to join. Most investigators enjoy haunted tours, appreciating them for
their entertainment value and the business they bring to the local economy.
Similarly, paranormal reality television shows are both enjoyed and repudiated by
paranormal groups. On one hand, the shows may be the reason they became
interested in the paranormal. These television series demonstrate that everyday people
can investigate the paranormal. The shows also made it more acceptable to talk about
the paranormal concepts, relieving some of the stigma surrounding paranormal beliefs
and experiences.
I have to thank Jason and Grant for that. [referring to Ghost Hunters].
They were huge in that change. A lot more people admit it now, that would
never have admitted it before. I don't agree with a lot of the ways some of
them do it, but yeah it's a lot easier now. More people believe. -Eddie
On the other hand, investigators criticize the shows for their dramatization,
192
Overall, most investigators noted that Ghost Hunters is the most accurate
representation of what they do. Like the distinction between paranormal teams, they
place an emphasis on scientific methods. But like ghost tourism, most investigators still
science. What this research has uncovered is that many teams have a complicated view
and relationship with the field of science13. They are attracted to technological devices
and scientific concepts, which are adapted for documentation and explanation of the
paranormal. These tools are considered more objective, as hard evidence. They are
few do come from scientific backgrounds, but most of them are referring to their
practices during investigations. When I questioned Bill about his views on academic
science, he replied:
I think we get looked down on. I think we are not respected. They have
better technology and more resources than us. So we have to come at it
with a more amateur type view.
As much as paranormal teams adapt scientific tools and jargon to their investigations,
they still feel shunned by the academic community. Some investigators don’t feel like
they are taken seriously, that scientists will not accept their experiences and evidence
as valid. They view people who deny possibilities because of lack of evidence as
“arrogant” (see previous section about UFO beliefs). Bill also expressed a frustration
with accessing scientific research, annoyed that most scientific work wasn’t clearly
13 This section does not address the way these groups present themselves. S. Hill (2011, 2012)
characterizes these groups as pseudoscientific, promoting bad science to the public. This section
describes the paranormal team’s relationship to scientific tools and the scientific community, to
understand where these groups position themselves socially.
193
translated for the public. Paranormal teams want to be like academic scientists but feel
marginalized by academia’s dismissal of their evidence and experiences. But they have
hope for the future, that eventually paranormal teams will help “uncover the truth” and
most groups lie somewhere in between these two main objectives, wanting to both find
from four other social entities and by involving themselves in their community. This
negotiation of place reflects the treatment of the self and Other by several authors
(Hallowell 1955, Hess 1993, Leistle 2014). Hallowell (1955) discussed how the Ojibwa
culture provided orientations for the self, and defined a person’s role by how they
interacted with other people and with spirits. The previous section on epistemology
establishes a relationship between the people and the spirits they seek. Investigators
orient themselves as the communicators between realms, using tools and sensory
experiences. They also orient themselves socially, defining their place in Western
culture by identifying the “Other”: paranormal reality television shows, ghost tours,
academia, and other groups who are viewed as professional, scientific, or ethical. This
194
examined how those concepts are perceived and believed in based on personal and
shared experiences; and it explained the ways that paranormal teams define their
dissertation, I’ve illustrated how the original three research questions can be answered.
Local teams form together due to different motivations and investigate several types of
locations. They use technological and metaphysical tools to verify their experiences and
contributors to their local community. And as the case studies showed, investigators
interpret different meanings from their paranormal experiences, seeking and finding
corroboration for their spiritual beliefs. Figure 7-16 presents the grounded theory model
again, illustrating how ghost hunting practices and concepts are connected by a
195
Figure 7-16. Grounded theory model of investigators’ practices.
position, role, and purpose; both in their cosmology, as well as within their society.
When investigators verify their personal experiences with other people or with
technological devices, they support their beliefs. When that verification is strong
enough, where they are confident in their bodily senses and trust devices or the word of
others, their beliefs are expressed as knowledge. Verification techniques are crucial for
allaying social stigma. Many investigators still convey a fear of social rejection, feeling
that their paranormal beliefs and ghost hunting practices are viewed as taboo or
196
abnormal by the rest of society. Methods of validation and the support of their team
It's hard for me to bring it up at work. Because a lot of people don't accept
that. A lot of people think its witchcraft, voodoo. A lot of people think it's
evil. A lot of people think you're nuts. But I think they're more open now,
than back in the early 70s and 80s. -Katie
The fear of social rejection is so strong that it prevents many investigators from talking
about their unexplainable experiences in public, or even to their friends and family. But
how they feel they fit into society. Prior experiences are one of the main motivations for
seek out the groups to find explanations, to connect with like-minded people, and feel
personal meaning.
We were at the Audubon Society House in Key West, and I was on the
porch, where that was where a bunch of little kids died of acute fever way
back when. And I was just sitting there, just kinda vegging out on the
porch, rocking, and Dave came outside and took a picture and there was
like 5 orbs right around me. Like one, two, three, four, five, and two right
here, little kids. Like little orbs, I think that little kids were attracted to me
and wanted me to tell them a story. So, I thought it was pretty cool. -Tim
In this case, Tim describes an experience centered on photographic evidence, his belief
in orbs, and the presence of the other investigator, Dave. The documentation and the
other investigator’s presence serve to validate Tim’s belief in orbs as spiritual entities.
Furthermore, Tim tied historical information to the placement of the orbs, believing that
the orbs embodied the spirits of children. Not only did he think the orbs were attracted to
him, but that they sought to actively engage with him. Tim interprets this experience as
having very personal, profound meaning. The interaction of the spirit orbs gives Tim an
197
intimate relation with, and orientation within, the spiritual world. As this example
demonstrates, gaining a sense of belonging (in a spiritual aspect) is one of the forms of
self-validation.
Paranormal teams work to define their place in society because until the
paranormal television shows increased their social acceptance, they were positioned as
counter-cultural groups with abnormal beliefs. Investigators perceive much less social
taboo now than a few decades ago, and paranormal beliefs are more mainstream.
Ghost hunting groups which actively seek out paranormal experiences struggle to
legitimize their practices and be taken seriously: by the public, by each other, and by
academic scientists. If the paranormal groups can build their credibility by utilizing
their relationship with the local community, then they can establish their cultural
significance and achieve a sense of social belonging. These personal and social
methods of validation aim to avoid and deflect social rejection, because the paranormal
is still stigmatized despite its popularity it popular culture. These ghost hunting groups
actively work to lessen that stigma, because they know how transformative, meaningful,
198
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSIONS
paranormal community, whose identities are both sensationalized by popular media and
socially marginalized. The objective of this ethnography is to reveal the motivations for
embodied and interpreted by investigators, and how paranormal teams negotiate their
interviews to produce a thorough and detailed study. This theoretical orientation situates
this research project squarely in a gap in the literature, filling the space left between the
Chapter 2 explored the history of the paranormal in Western society, from the
understanding the theoretical and methodological approaches of this study. The focus
on phenomenology, experience, and narrative analyses provided insight into how these
approaches are well suited for this ethnography. Chapter 4 discussed the ethical
argued for a consciously ethical approach to study the subculture of ghost hunters. In
Chapter 5, I explained the methods of data collection and described my entry into the
world of ghost hunting. I then presented basic information regarding the teams’
199
formation and functioning based on firsthand observations. In Chapter 6, I provided
Chapter 7 I analyzed the data to construct a cultural domain of the paranormal, explore
themselves to their local community, other teams, television shows, ghost tourism, and
academic science. These two themes, verifying one’s beliefs and negotiating social
During this ethnographic research, I had to validate my own position in the world
of ghost hunters. To gain the trust of the investigators, I needed to demonstrate that I
was both a legitimate academic researcher and paranormal investigator. I did this by
meetings, and social events. I listened to people tell their stories without criticism or
skepticism. The continuous ethnographic research and participant observation over four
years helped avoid the “deference effect” (Bernard and Ryan 2010:33) – where
participants tell you what they believe you want to hear. One-time questioning could be
vulnerable to that, but I was able to confirm participants’ information by observing them
in action, to see if their statements matched their actual practices. Initially, investigators
would preface their stories with a phrase like “You’re going think this is nuts,” and
hesitate to share their experiences and beliefs. But by building relationships and
200
teams or questioning the authenticity of their experiences. It’s in how this subculture
forms, how it navigates social obstacles to find a niche, and how these investigators
engage with one other, with social organizations of science and the media, and with the
non-empirical world.
Paranormal Possibilities
experienced “anxiety over the nature of rationality [which] manifests itself publicly as
struggles are consistent with what I witnessed among Florida ghost hunting teams, I
also saw hope – when investigators could relieve their self-doubt, any uncertainty about
what causes the paranormal activity or about their own place in society evolves into a
sense of possibility.
When investigators express uncertainty about the existence of Bigfoot, they say
“anything is possible.” When they admit that they don’t know exactly what an orb is, they
imagine a dozen explanations that it could be. The paranormal is, to them, a realm of
religion. Because the paranormal is still unexplainable, it’s anyone’s game. It’s
accessible to anybody who desires to explore it. Ghost hunting groups see themselves
as pioneers, doing the work that others can’t (helping clients with their paranormal
201
to psychic mediums. This is the attraction of ghost hunting, where the possibilities
budding field, paranthropology already has several prominent researchers but has room
to grow in the exploration of the paranormal, supernatural, and anomalous. The focus of
also shaped and interpreted through a particular cultural lens. Scholars in the
anthropology of religion and uncanny anthropology may also have interest in this
subfield, as the topics of interest overlap. This research establishes a more holistic
framework for approaching the study of the paranormal in culture by examining not just
people’s beliefs, but their practices as well. The anthropological theories and methods
and thoroughly understood in Western society by decoding the thoughts, behaviors, and
around the world. Future research could include an analysis of schemas, for observing
1 http://paranthropologyjournal.weebly.com/
202
and analyzing the cultural models of the paranormal, a haunting, or a paranormal
investigation. The components, processes, agents, and contexts for each of these
especially to contrast what the ideal model for paranormal investigating is as opposed to
beliefs, and engagement in ghost hunting teams. In Chapter 5, presented the results of
the survey questions about participants’ motivations for joining a paranormal team. In
one case, a participant was explicit about their initial reason for learning about ghost
hunting. Emma stated that she and her husband wanted to contact their deceased son.
She said they never made contact with him, so she believes his soul must be at peace.
In Chapter 6, I described how Christine heard the Portal device emitting words and
phrases that she believed came from her deceased relatives. She felt that this was a
very meaningful and emotional experience. While there are studies about bereavement
investigators. This research would further illuminate how investigators process grief and
loss, view the concepts of death and the afterlife, receive emotional support from other
These topics and analysis were outside the scope of this dissertation,
2 https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/ghost-stories-visits-from-the-deceased/
203
there is still much that can be learned from these groups. To paraphrase the
investigator Eddie, ‘the more answers I got, the more questions it raised.’
204
APPENDIX A
SURVEY
205
Figure A-2. Survey, page 2.
206
Figure A-3. Survey, page 3.
207
Figure A-4. Survey, page 4.
208
Figure A-5. Survey, page 5.
209
Figure A-6. Survey, page 6.
210
Figure A-7. Survey, page 7.
211
Figure A-8. Survey, page 8.
212
Figure A-9. Survey, page 9.
213
Figure A-10. Survey, page 10.
214
Figure A-11. Survey, page 11.
215
APPENDIX B
FREELIST ACTIVITY ENTRIES
Table B-1. Table of free list entries sorted by frequency. From top to down, it is sorted
by the entries that were listed the most often by participants to the least often.
Free List Entry Frequency
ghosts 10
EVPs 8
angels 7
demons 7
shadows 6
apparitions 5
disembodied voices 5
Bigfoot 5
psychic 4
spirits 4
things moving 4
aliens 3
EMF 3
orbs 3
poltergeists 3
possession 3
UFOs 3
voices 3
dreams 2
entities 2
growls 2
hauntings 2
mists 2
residual 2
séance 2
sounds 2
tarot 2
abduction 1
ability of manmade sensors of various types to detect paranormal
planes/dimensions 1
ability of the paranormal to affect physical matter 1
afterlife 1
astral projection 1
bleeding' walls 1
cameras 1
chupacabra 1
clairvoyant 1
216
Table B-1. Continued
Free List Entry Frequency
confused and sad 1
creepers 1
cryptid 1
crystals 1
death 1
disembodied footsteps 1
divination 1
door closing for no reason 1
doors banging 1
dream traveling 1
ectoplasm 1
electrical doings 1
EMF pumps 1
emotions felt in a room 1
energy 1
evil and good 1
exorcism 1
feelings around you of something 1
folklore/legend 1
ghost cat 1
ghost photos 1
ghosts and other paranormal activity may exist in a parallel
dimension we can not currently understand 1
ghoul 1
haunted business 1
haunted homes 1
history 1
humanoids 1
infants stare at nothing consistantly 1
intelligent 1
intelligent conversations 1
investigators 1
Jersy Devil 1
lights in the sky 1
medium 1
mothman 1
near death experiences 1
object manipulation 1
other creatures 1
ouija 1
217
Table B-1. Continued
Free List Entry Frequency
Overpowering fear 1
Paranormal is anything unexplainable no matter what 1
plasma 1
portals 1
REM pods 1
santeria 1
scratching on walls 1
seeing spirits of soldiers 1
seeing white flashes of light 1
spirituality 1
spirit guides 1
strange animal behavior 1
telekinesis 1
time travel 1
unexplained voices/smells/emotions/physical
feelings/darkness/light/shifts in temperature 1
unknown atmosphere changes 1
unknown attitude changes 1
unknown bug infestations 1
unknown multiple knocks 1
unplugged devices power on 1
unrested spirits 1
unsolved/unexplained 1
USOs 1
voodoo 1
waking up with unknown scratches/bruises 1
what I saw 1
witch 1
218
APPENDIX C
THE ETHNOGRAPHER’S CODEBOOK
Table C-1. The ethnographer’s codebook. After reviewing themes from the narratives,
text segments were coded by topic into eight major categories.
Code Frequency
1 Investigation Methods 0
1.1 Native American 15
1.2 History 20
1.3 Ethics 11
1.4 Rituals 7
1.5 Objectivity 3
1.5.1 Technology 28
1.5.2 Science 26
1.5.3 Evidence 45
1.6 Place 1
1.6.1 Public Case 9
1.6.2 Private Case 5
1.6.3 Travel 4
1.6.4 Haunted Location 25
1.6.5 Home 19
1.6.6 Cemetery 8
1.7 GH Methods 60
2 Group Dynamics 0
2.1 Competition 20
2.2 Clients 8
2.3 Identity 10
2.4 Community 18
2.4.1 Paranormal Event / Conference 8
3 Paranormal Entertainment 0
3.1 TV 25
3.2 Ghost Tourism 18
4 Body 0
4.1 Psychics 25
219
Table C-1. Continued
Code Frequency
4.2 Body 7
4.3 Health 10
4.4 Loss / Trauma 5
4.4.1 Death 14
5 Types of Paranormal Phenomena 3
5.1 Out of Body Experience 10
5.2 Orb 27
5.3 Demon 15
5.4 UFO/Alien 32
5.5 Bigfoot 19
5.6 Ghosts 23
5.7 Paranormal Experience 40
6 Narratives of Paranormal Experience 0
6.1 Meaning 6
6.2 Family 41
6.3 Religion 15
6.4 Sanity 6
6.4.1 Questioning Sanity 4
6.4.2 Defending Sanity 1
6.5 Beliefs 12
6.6 Emotions 2
6.6.1 Negative 6
6.6.2 Positive 13
6.6.3 Acceptance 7
6.6.4 Seeking Validation 7
6.6.5 Skepticism 28
6.6.6 Responsibility 3
6.6.7 Feeling in Danger 5
6.6.8 Taboo / Can't Talk About It 30
6.6.9 Uncanniness 12
220
Table C-1. Continued
Code Frequency
6.6.10 Comfortable 4
6.6.11 Awe 7
6.6.12 Confusion 6
6.6.13 Fear 33
6.6.14 Trust 1
6.7 Reality 0
6.7.1 Definitive Not Real 1
6.7.2 Definitive Real 15
7 Reasons & Goals 12
7.1 Want Personal Paranormal Experience 2
7.2 Prior Paranormal Experience 19
7.3 Looking for Answers 21
7.4 Interest / Curiosity in Paranormal 12
7.5 Adding to Knowledge 11
7.6 Helping People 18
7.7 Helping Spirits 8
8 Image Prompt Activity 0
8.1 Image 147 11
8.2 Image 46 11
8.3 Image 41 11
8.4 Image 45 11
8.5 Image 132 11
8.6 Image 149 9
8.7 Image 21 11
8.8 Image 62 11
8.9 Image 113 10
8.10 Image 39 11
8.11 Image 28 9
8.12 Image 95 11
221
APPENDIX D
IMAGE PROMPT ACTIVITY
Table D-1. Descriptions of the image prompts. The image prompt activity consisted of
presenting each image, printed on a 4-inch by 6-inch piece of cardstock, to
the participants and asking for their verbal response.
Image Image Description
Number
1 A painting of a Native American woman holding a feather and abalone
shell, burning sage
2 A painting of a mountainous landscape with two classic UFO’s and a man.
3 A photograph of a woman standing in a cemetery at dusk, with dozens of
“orbs”
4 An abstract image of ten shadowy figures
5 An image still of the Wright-Patterson film showing Bigfoot walking through
the woods
6 A photograph from the 1977-1979 Enfield Poltergeist case, showing the
daughter jumping mid-air in her bedroom with her family onlooking
7 An infrared photograph taken during an EVP session, where the ghost
hunters are seated in a large hall of a historic building
8 A photograph of a haunted tour, showing the tour guide dressed in
historical attire and carrying a lantern
9 A historical photograph showing table tipping, with two men seated on
either side of the female Spiritualist medium
10 A historical painting depicting a female witch or possessed woman being
restrained by a man and a priest, with black creatures being expelled from
her mouth
11 A historical woodblock print depicting four people standing in a circle with
their arms raised towards a floating figure in the middle
12 An artistic rendering of a sleeping woman overlaid with an image of her
sitting upright, and with two hands and a heart transposed in the corner of
the image
222
APPENDIX E
FLORIDA PARANORMAL INVESTIGATIONS MISSION STATEMENT, CODE OF
HONOR, AND ARTICLES OF ORGANIZATION
Mission Statement
for privacy]; who were not content with involvement with prior paranormal groups and
the onslaught of misleading paranormal television programs. Both individuals are eager,
genuine, and sincere about finding real and truthful answers to the unknown. FPI has
use of modern day techniques and technology. We believe that in time with the use of
these methodologies in parallel with our experiences, our research efforts will help to
bring in a solid understanding and ultimately provide undeniable proof of the unseen
world that coexists alongside us. Because we want to provide physical, tangible
evidence, we do not rely on the use of mediums and psychics to accomplish this.
Our main goal is to assist those who are experiencing problems with possible
look for authentic evidence of the activity being experienced and will do our best to
Our goals:
223
• To provide professional investigations at sites with suspected paranormal activity
at no cost or compensation of any kind.
• To share any exceptional discovery with other groups if it could benefit the
paranormal scientific community under expressed permission of the client.
we go against this foundation at any level will defeat all purpose of our existence.
Listed below are standards set by FPI founders for all members to know,
10. WE DO NOT CHARGE FOR OUR SERVICE! – We do not charge for our
services for two reasons. First and foremost legal liability. Since we are aware
224
that ghosts can be active more days then others we cannot guarantee results.
The second reason is we want to be able to offer this service to anyone no
matter what their social status.
11. ORBS ARE NOT PARANORMAL – it has been proven in the scientific world that
orbs can exist and have been recreated in a lab environment. We do not believe
that they are contributed to anything paranormal. Also in short, how can you use
something that could so easily be recreated as evidence?
225
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1992 Telling Tales of the Unexpected: The Organization of Factual Discourse. Hemel
Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
her Bachelor of Arts in anthropology in the spring of 2010. She was then accepted into
Master of Arts degree in anthropology in the fall of 2012, Stephanie continued in the
graduate program for the doctorate degree but turned to the subfield of cultural
anthropology. Inspired by the popularity of the paranormal reality television shows and
personal stories from family and friends about uncanny encounters, she decided to
study the cultural phenomena of ghost hunting. Stephanie received the Ph.D. in
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