ADVANCED ENERGY ENGINEERING -

MODULE-2
CHANDRAJITH E
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT
SNGCET
 SOLAR ENERGY
• It is the most promising renewable and in exhaustible source of
energy.
• Clean and environmental source of energy.
• Sun radiates energy uniformly in all directions in the form of
electro magnetic waves within the wave length of 0.2 to 4 µm
• 8% ultraviolet radiation ( <0.39 µm ), 46% visible light (0.39 to
0.78 µm ) and 46% infrared radiation(>0.79 µm)
• UV radiation is absorbed by ozone layer and infrared by Co2 and
moisture in atmosphere.
• Sun generates energy at the rate of 3.8x 1023 Kw, earth receives
only 1.7x 1014 Kw.
• It is available intermittent , note study and changes direction
during the day and seasons.
 Solar Collectors
• A solar collector is a device that collects or concentrates solar
radiation from the Sun and transforms the radiation in to heat and
then transfer heat to a fluid ( air, water or oil).
• Solar thermal collectors are either non-concentrating or
concentrating.
• In non-concentrating collectors, the aperture area (i.e., the area
that receives the solar radiation) is roughly the same as the
absorber area (i.e., the area absorbing the radiation). Eg. Flat plate
Collector, Evacuated Tube Collectors.
• Concentrating collectors have a much larger aperture than the
absorber area. The aperture is typically in the form of a mirror that
is focussed on the absorber, which in most cases are the pipes
carrying the working fluid. Eg. Parabolic Trough Collector.
 Flat plate collector
• These collectors are simply metal boxes that have some sort of
transparent glazing as a cover on top of a dark-coloured absorber
plate. Absorber plates are painted with special coatings designed
to absorb and retain heat better than traditional black paint and is
usually made out of metal that is a good conductor -
usually copper or aluminium.
• The sides and bottom of the collector are usually covered
with insulation to minimize heat losses to other parts of the
collector.
• Solar radiation passes through the transparent glazing material
and hits the absorber plate. This plate heats up, transferring the
heat to either water or air that is held between the glazing and
absorber plate.
• Components are 1) Box structure 2) Transparent cover
• 3) Absorber plates 4) Tubes and 5) Insulation
Advantages and Dis-advantages
 Evacuated Tube Collectors
• Evacuated tube collectors are made up of a single or multiple
rows of parallel, transparent glass tubes supported on a frame
connected to a header pipe.
• Each tube varies in diameter from between 25mm to 75mm and
in length between 1500mm to 2400mm
• Each tube consists of a thick glass outer tube and a thinner glass
inner tube (called a “thermos-flask tube” )which is covered with a
special coating that absorbs solar energy but inhibits heat loss.
The tubes are made of borosilicate or soda lime glass, which is
strong resistant to high temperatures and has a high transmittance
for solar irradiation.
• air is removed or evacuated from the space between the two
tubes, forming a vacuum (hence the name evacuated tubes). This
vacuum acts as an insulator reducing any heat loss significantly
to the surrounding atmosphere either through convection or
radiation making the collector much more efficient than FPC.
• Inside the each glass tube, a flat or curved aluminium or
copper fin is attached at the centre. The fin is covered with a
selective coating that transfers heat to the fluid that is
circulating through the pipe over the plate.
• Usually of two types 1) Direct flow Evacuated Tube
Collector2) Heat Pipe Evacuated Tube Collector
 Direct Flow Evacuated Tube collector
• Direct flow evacuated tube collectors also known as “U” pipe
collectors. It contains a group of glass tubes and in the interior
of each glass tube there is a flat or curved aluminium fin
connected to a metal (generally copper) or glass absorber pipe.
The aluminium fin is covered with some coating which helps
in increasing its absorption of solar radiation however reduces
its radioactive heat loss.
• They have two pipes running through the centre of the tube.
One pipe acts as the flow pipe while the other acts as the return
pipe. Both pipes are connected together at the bottom of the
tube with a “U-bend”, hence the name
• The heat transfer fluid is water which circulates all the way
through the pipes, one for inlet fluid and the other for outlet
fluid.
 Heat Pipe Evacuated Tube Collectors
• Heat pipe evacuated tube collectors consist of a sealed metal
tube with the metal having high thermal conductivity usually
copper tube. This tube is linked with a black copper absorber
plate and is kept within a vacuum-sealed solar tube.
• The heat pipe is hollow and the vacuum is created in the space
inside. Within the heat pipe there is some fluid like alcohol or
purified water or a mixture of water and alcohol along with
special additives in little quantity.
• When solar light falls on the surface of the absorber, the liquid
inside turns in to vapour. Because of the absence of air liquid
boils at much lower temperature, as there is no heat loss.
• In this large amount of heat (latent heat) with a very little
difference in temperature are moved between the hot and cold
interfaces. At the hot interface( absorber plate) a fluid turns to
vapour and the gas flows and condenses on the cold interface (
heat exchanger ).
Advantages and Dis-advantages
No Evacuated Tube Collector Flat Plate Collector

1
Quick heat generation Slow heat generation

2 Collector efficiency on higher temperature is

Collector efficiency on higher temperature is high
3 Heat loss in the tubes during the daytime is
negligible (evacuated tubes)
4
Convection and Conduction losses are low.
low.
Heat loss in the collector & tank during the
day-time is high due to convection.
Convection and Conduction losses are high.

5
Temperature range from 60deg. to 120 deg. Temperature range from 60 deg. to 80 deg.

6 The collector glass tube absorbers being

The collector fins & tubes being flat the
cylindrical the incident sun's rays on the tubes is
incident sun's rays will be at 90 degrees at
at 90 degrees throughout the day. Hence peak
noon only for peak absorption
heat absorption always.
7
It has low maintenance Its required high maintenance.

8
High cost Low cost
 Concentrating (focusing) collectors
• Concentrating collectors intercept direct radiation over a large area
and focus it on to a small absorber area. The collector in concentrating
type consists of a concentrator and a receiver.
• Receiver is a device that is able to convert the solar radiation in to a
different kind of energy. This can be either a heat absorber (to harvest
thermal energy) or a photovoltaic cell (to convert solar radiation to
electric energy).
• In order that the sun's rays should always be focused on to the
absorber tube, the concentrator has to be rotated. This movement is
called tracking
• Focusing collectors may be :-
• Line focusing type – The collector pipe, through which working
fluid flows, may be considered as a line. Eg. Parabolic Trough
Collector.
• Point focusing type – In the case of point focusing, the point to be
considered will be a small volume through which fluid flows. Eg.
Parabolic Dish Collector.
 Parabolic Trough Collector
• The parabolic trough collector is of line focusing type solar
collector. It is having the shape of a cylindrical parabola.
• It focuses the sunlight onto its axis where it is absorbed on the
surface of the absorber tube and transferred to the fluid flowing
through it.
• Cylindrical parabolic collector usually offer temperatures
between 150°C and 400°C with concentration ratio between 10
and 80, and are generally used for generating steam for
electricity generation
 Parabolic Dish Collector
• The parabolic dish collector is of point focusing type solar
collector. For point focusing type, the receiver is placed at the
focus point of the concentrator.
• In this case, the tracking system is provided to track the sun
automatically for all times.
• These collectors can have concentration ratio ranging from
100 to a few thousand.
• Around 2000°C temperature can be achieved by this collector
and are used for generating steam for electricity generation.
 Flat Plate & Focusing Solar Collectors-
Comparison
• The absorber area of a concentrator system is smaller than that
of a flat-plate system for the same solar energy collection
• Because less heat is lost in concentrated system, the working
fluid can attain higher temperatures than in a flat-plate
collector of the same collecting surface.
• As higher temperatures can be achieved, focusing collector is
used for power generation.
• Little or no anti-freeze is required to protect the absorber in a
concentrator system.
• Out of the beam and diffuse solar radiation components, only
beam component is collected in focusing collectors as diffuse
component cannot be reflected and is lost.
• Costly tracking systems have to be used in focusing collectors
 Solar thermal electric systems
Solar direct thermal applications involve the direct use of heat for
various applications like,
•Solar water heater
•Solar Cooker
•Solar Crop dryer
•Solar Distillation or Solar still
•Solar Pumping
•Solar Space heating
•Solar Space cooling
•Solar furnace
 Solar Cooker
• Simplest of all design
• A double walled glass cover is placed inside a blackened box
which is well insulated and made airtight.
• Maximum temp 160 0C.
• In multi-reflector reflectors are mounted over the oven body.
More radiation is reflected in to cooker. Max temperature- 200
to 250 0C.

• In parabolic type cooker- sunrays are made to reflect from

parabolic surface to focal point where utensil for cooking is
placed. Max temperature up to 450 0C
• It is a device used to convert saline water in to pure
drinkable water process is called distillation.
• It consists of blackened basin containing saline water at a
shallow depth.
• A roof like transparent air tight cover of glass is provided
on top.
• The impure water on the basin is heated and the vapor
produced is condensed to purified water on the cooler
interior of the glass.
• Condensed water flows down the slope of the roof and is
collected in a trough.
• Solar still may provide 15 liters/day/10 m2.
• Solar space cooling either uses vapor compression or vapor
absorption refrigeration system.
• In vapor compression a heat pump is used to drive the
compressor.
• In vapor absorption cycle an absorbent is used along with
refrigerator. ( usually lithium bromide- water or aqua- ammonia
combination).
• In absorber tank absorbent absorbs the low pressure refrigerant
vapor coming after heat exchange with air to be circulated in
room and hence solution becomes strong.
• The strong solution is pumped to the generator through
recuperator. In the generator strong solution is heated by the hot
water from solar collector so that refrigerant is vaporised to
leave weak solution of absorbent within generator.
• This weak solution is circulated back to absorber tank again
through recuperator. In recuperator week solution exchanges
heat to strong solution.
• The refrigerant vaporized in the generator is then passed
through the condenser to form liquid after rejecting heat.
• This high pressure liquid refrigerant then passes through
expansion valve where it evaporates to low pressure low
temperature.
• This low pressure low temperature vapor absorbs the heat
from warm air from room so that air becomes cool and is
circulated to back to room
• Now the hot vapor is passed to the absorber tank where it is
absorbed by the absorbent to form strong solution
 Solar Thermal Power Generation
• Solar thermal electric power plants generally use concentrated
sunlight obtained through various mirror configurations to focus
the sun’s energy to produce high temperature heat.
• The heat energy is then transferred to a fluid or gas, which is
used in a typical power plant cycle to convert the heat energy to
mechanical energy and then to electricity.
• Most of the solar thermal power generation works based on
Rankine cycle. The Rankine cycle system consists of a pump,
boiler, turbine, and condenser.
• The hot fluid from solar collector while passing through
evaporator boiler ( Heat Exchanger) exchanges its heat to
vaporize the working fluid used in Rankine cycle. Which in turn
expanding in turbine while produce the power.
• After expansion vapor is condensed in the condenser using
cooling water and is circulated back to evaporator using pump.
• Solar thermal power cycles can be broadly classified as low,
medium and high temperature cycles based on temperature
generated inside the collector. For low temperature cycle flat
plate collector , for medium temperature cycles parabolic
trough/dish collector and for high temperature central tower
technology with heliostat are commonly used.
 Solar Photovoltaic Systems
• Photovoltaic energy conversion (PV) is a direct conversion
technology that produces electricity without the use of a
thermodynamic cycle or a working fluid.
• The basic unit of a photovoltaic system is the photovoltaic
cell, also called solar cell that directly converts solar
radiation into electricity. It is based on the photoelectric (or
photovoltaic) effect.
• photovoltaic effect is the generation of a potential difference
at the junction of two different materials in response to
electro-magnetic radiation.
• This effect is exhibited by materials called semiconductors
(such as silicon).
 Principle of Solar Cell
• Very thin silicon slices called silicon wafer is the heart of PV
Cell. Silicon atom has 4 outer electrons which are weakly bound
to the nucleus of atom called valence electrons. Normally these
electrons are bonded with electrons of other silicon atom to form
covalent bond and hence have no freedom of movement.
• If the silicon is doped (doping-introduction of impurities into
the semiconductor crystal to change its conductivity) with a
small quantity of an element that has five valence electrons in an
atom and it can fit into the silicon crystal structure (such as
phosphorus/arsenic), some extra electrons are created (as the
fifth valence electron does not create a covalent bond). Such a
doped material is called an n-type semiconductor, because the
extra electrons carry a negative charge.
• Alternatively, if the silicon is doped with an element that has
only three valence electrons (such as boron/gallium) absence of
an electron in a covalent bond or holes, are created. This is a p-
type semiconductor.
• In n type semiconductor if sufficient energy is provided
(energy of incident radiation) the electrons will move freely.
But the direction of movement is random. So no electricity is
produced.
• To make the electron flow unidirectional a driving potential is
needed. The easy way is to produce a p-n junction. Once they
are joined the free electrons from n side will migrate to p
region and fill the holes. This way a depletion region is formed
where there is no free electrons and holes.
• Due to the migration n side boundary becomes slightly
positively charged and the p side boundary negatively charged.
Hence an electric field is created which provides the driving
potential.
• The n region is the upper layer where light falls. Once light
reaches the depletion region penetrating through the n layer,
the photon energy of solar radiation is sufficient to create an
electron-hole pair. But the electric field in the depletion region
drives the holes and electrons out of the depletion region.
• Hence electron concentration on n region and hole concentration
on p region becomes so high that a potential difference is
developed between two. As soon as a load is connected the
electrons will pass through the load and will combine with the
hole. In this way PV cell continuously gives DC current.
• To increase the performance the top n layer is very thin and
heavily doped where as the player is thick and lightly doped.
This will increase the width of depletion layer and more electron
hole pair is generated. This results in more power generation.
• Another advantage is with thin n layer more light can reach the
depletion layer.
• A single solar cell produces 0.5 volt and 3 A. So number of cells
connected in series ( called module) will increase voltage where
as if connected in parallel will give more current.
 Solar PV Power Generation System

• It has following elements.

• Solar Array: This element converts solar isolation in to useful
DC electrical power.
• Battery Storage: It is used to store the energy produced
• Blocking Diode: It allows the power generated in array to flow
towards battery or grid. Without it battery would discharge
back through solar array at the time of no isolation.
• Inverter/ Converter : It converts the battery bus voltage to AC
frequency and phase to match with the utility grid. It contains
suitable set up transformer and power correction circuits.
• Switches and Circuit Breakers : It permits battery as an
isolated part
• Solar PV Power systems are broadly classified in to three
• 1) Stand alone power system
• 2) Central or Grid connected system
• 3) Hybrid System
 Stand alone power system
• It is located at the load center and is more relevant in remote
area where no access to grid supply.
• It requires storage ( battery) to meet the demand during night
and low irradiation time.
• Cost effective storage is the major challenge.
• Typically lead acid batteries are used.
• Inverter converts DC to AC.
• Charge controllers are to regulate charge transfer and to
prevent battery from excessively charged and discharged.
• When load is less stored in battery and when sun is not
available battery supplies the load through inverter.
 Central or Grid connected system
• In this system PV panels are connected to grid through
inverters without battery storage and all excess power is fed to
grid.
• During inadequate sunshine power is maintained from grid.
• Grid interactive inverter must be synchronized with grid in
terms of voltage and frequency.
• PV modules are coming with inverters are integral component.
 Hybrid System
• Hybrid means solar clubbed with conventional diesel generator
system.
• When sun light is available in plenty power is derived from PV
cell and during other time generators are used for continuous
supply.
Economics of Solar Power
Sustainability Attributes of Solar Power