REVIEW OF GRAMMAR RULES

Topic: SENTENCE VS. SENTENCE FRAGMENT

The common types of sentence fragments and their solutions are:

1. fragment that lacks a subject

Example: Laura ruined her new dress. Put it in the washing machine.
Solution: Add a subject to the fragment to make it a complete sentence.
Laura ruined her new dress. She put it in the washing machine.

2. fragment that lacks a complete verb

Example: From the darkened room came a flickering light. The television set.
Solution: Add either a complete verb or helping verb to make the sentence complete.
From the darkened room came a flickering light. The television set was still on.

3. fragment that is a subordinate clause

Example: Keyna wants to visit Kidapawan. Because her ancestors came from there.
Solution A: Combine the fragment with another sentence.
Keyna wants to visit Kidapawan because her ancestors came from there.
Solution B: Rewrite the fragment as a complete sentence, eliminating the subordinating
conjunction or the relative pronoun and adding a subject or other words necessary to make a
complete thought.
Keyna wants to visit Kidapawan. Her ancestors came from there.

4. fragment that lacks both a subject and a verb

Example: The new department store will open. Independence Day.
Solution: Combine the fragment with another sentence.
The new department store will open on Independence Day.

TOPIC: AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND VERB

A verb must agree with its subject in person and number.

Rule 1. A singular subject requires a singular verb. A plural subject requires a

plural verb
Example:
A good man is happy.
Good men are happy.

Rule 2. Some nouns (mass and abstract) have no plural form and demand a
singular verb.
Chalk, milk, coffee, patience, advice, information, music, jewelry,
baggage, furniture, gravel, generosity

Rule 3. Compound subjects connected by “and” demand a plural verb.

Laughter and tears are never apart.

Exception: When subjects refer to the same person or thing or express the
same idea, the verb is singular.
The Pope and Bishop of Rome is Pope IV.

Rule 4. When subjects are connected by “or” or “nor” the verb agrees with the nearest subject.
Either the boys or the coach is right.
Either the coach or the boys are right.

Rule 5. A collective noun takes a singular verb if it names a group acting as a unit and a plural
verb if it names a group acting as individuals.
The committee has submitted its report.
The committee have disagreed on the kind of report needed.

Rule 6. “None” and “All” take a plural verb when they indicate how many, and a singular verb
when they indicate how much.
None of us are perfect, we all make mistakes.
None of the gasoline was wasted.

Rule 7. Some nouns are plural in form but singular in meaning. They require singular verbs.
 Physics is the study of matter and motion.

Rule 8. Some nouns are plural in form and meaning and demand plural verbs.
All means have been utilized to insure the success of the project.

Rule 9. Indefinite pronouns like everyone, anyone, someone, somebody, no one, each, everybody,
all (meaning everything), neither, either, take a singular verb.
Paula rejoiced when she read her father’s letter. All was forgiven.
Someone is always ready to help.

Rule 10. Expressions like many a, more than one, not one, the number call for singular verbs.
Many a sick man has a new home in mission.
The number of volunteers is growing each year.
A number means many, thus it demands a plural verb.
A number of fresh graduates are without jobs.

Rule 11. For percentages and fractions, the verb agrees with the object of the preposition.
Three fourths of the donors are affluent people.
Three fourths of the doctor’s time is spent in hospitals and slums.

Rule 12. A plural noun that establishes a weight, measurement, period of time, or
amount of money normally takes a singular verb.
One hundred and fifteen pounds is a good weight for an eighteen-
year-old girl.
Thirty-six inches is not only a yard but also an ideal in beauty
contests.
In the nineteenth century, two years was not considered too long
for an agreement.

Rule 13. In a subordinate clause with a relative pronoun – who, which, that – as the subject, the
verb agrees in number with the antecedent of the relative pronoun.
Gloria Romero is one of the few remaining movie actresses who
still catch the fancy of the countless adoring fans.

Rule 14. In an inverted sentence order, the verb agrees in number with the subject which comes
after the verb.
Lined against the wall were six spies awaiting execution.

TOPIC - HELPING VERB + MAIN VERB

Formation of Tenses with Helping Verbs

The simple form (infinitive form) of the verb is used after the following:
may, might, can, could, will, shall , should, must, do , does, did, to
Examples
may go might go can go could go
will go would go must go
shall go should go do go does go did go

The past participle (d or ed form of the regular verb) is used in the passive voice (after all
forms of the verb to be) except in the progressive tenses.
Example
Active voice: A different lecturer presents each series of lectures.
Passive voice: Each series of lectures is presented by a different lecturer.

The past participle (d or ed of the regular verb) is used in the perfect tenses (after all
forms of have).
Active Passive
have taken have been taken
has taken has been taken
had taken had been taken
shall have taken shall have been taken
will have taken will have been taken
The –ing form of the verb is used with the verb to be:
is asking are asking
was asking were asking

TOPIC - TENSES OF VERBS

Simple Present Tense

Forms
Third Person singular -s = sees
Plural simple form = see
Uses
1. Expresses general truth
All children love to play
2. Expresses present fact
I am your teacher
3. Expresses permanent condition
Taal volcano lies in the middle of Taal lake.
4. Expresses habitual or frequent action
He frequently stammers.
Present Perfect Tense
Forms
Singular: has + past participle form of the verb.
has eaten
Plural: have + past participle form of the verb.
have eaten
Uses
1. expresses action in the past and is still going on in a period of time not yet ended.
I have conducted a review for two weeks now.
2. expresses an indefinite action
He has gone to Japan
3. expresses action just accomplished
He has just arrived.

Simple Past Tense

Form: d/ed for regular verbs.

Use: expresses time past and gone
He performed the experiment last week.
Past Perfect Tense

Form: had + past participle form of the verb (had eaten)

Use: expresses time prior to some other past action in the same sentence or paragraph.
She had lain in bed for two days before I came.
Simple Future Tense

Form: will + simple form of the verb (will visit)

Use : expresses time yet to come
We will go to the park tomorrow.
Future Perfect Tense

Form: will have or shall have + past participle form of the verb (will have
visited or shall have visited)
Uses:
1. expresses the first of two future actions
Before I start, my brother will have returned.
2. expresses an action that will be completed before a definite time in
the future.
We shall have reached the top of the mountain by sunrise tomorrow.

TOPIC - COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

When comparing two persons or things, use the comparative degree.

 Example: Which hat do you like better, the blue or the brown hat?

When comparing three or more, use the superlative degree.

Example: It was the strangest sight I have ever seen.

In forming the comparative degree use more or er, not both.

Example: Speak louder please. (not more louder)

In forming the superlative degree, use most or est.

Example: Paz is the tallest girl I know. (not the most tallest)

Do not use two negatives (not, never, hardly, only but – meaning only) in the same
clause.
Example: We could hardly drag one foot after the other. (not couldn’t)
You don’t ever need to worry about me. (not never.)

Do not give comparative or superlative forms of adjectives or adverbs, which because of

their meaning cannot be compared.
Example: It’s a unique exhibit. (not most unique, since unique means
single in excellence)
The decision of the judges was unanimous (not most unanimous)

Do not omit than when it is needed to complete a comparison.

Example:
Wrong – Your explanation is more convincing but altogether
different from his.
Right – Your explanation is more convincing than, but altogether
different from his.

When comparing a thing to members of its own class, exclude from the group the thing
compared by adding other or an equivalent word.
Example:
Wrong – Lead is heavier than any metal
Right – Lead is heavier than any other metal.
Lead is heavier than iron.

TOPIC – PARALLELISM – express parallel ideas in the same grammatical form.

To express parallel ideas in the same grammatical form, pair a noun with a noun, an
infinitive (to – verb) with an infinitive, a phrase with a phrase, a clause with a clause.
Example:
Wrong – The prisoners were accused of robbery, assault, and forging checks.
Right – The prisoners were accused of robbery, assault and
forgery.
1. Coordinate ideas are parallel. Co-ordinate ideas are equal in rank. They are joined by
co-ordinate connectives. The coordinate connectives most often used in parallel structures are
and, but or, nor.
Example:
Wrong – The supervisor recommended an increase in salaries and that other
expenses be decreased.
Right – The supervisor recommended that salaries be increased and that other
expenses be decreased.

2. Compared and contrasted ideas are parallel.

Example:
Wrong – He found acting in the theater more inspiring than to act in the movies
Right – He found acting in the theater more inspiring than acting in the movies.

3. Correlative constructions are parallel. Correlative constructions are formed with the relative
conjunctions both _ and _, either _ or _, neither _ nor_, not only_ but also _.
Example:
 Wrong – To gain entrance, they tried both persuasion and to force their way in.
Right - To gain entrance, they tried both persuasion and force.

4. Place correlative conjunctions immediately before the parallel items.

Example:
Wrong – The team both felt the satisfaction of victory and the disappointment of
defeat.
Right – The team felt both the satisfaction of victory and the disappointment of
defeat.

5. In parallel construction, repeat an article, a preposition, or a pronoun whenever necessary to make

the meaning clear.

A
Before the meeting, I talked with the secretary and treasurer. (The sentence may mean I talked with one
person. He holds the double office of the secretary and treasurer.)

Before the meeting, I talked with the secretary and the treasurer. (The sentence means I talked with two
persons.)

B
The weather was a greater handicap to the invading army than their enemy. (This sentence means that the
invaders would rather fight the enemy than the weather.)

The weather was a greater handicap to the invading army than to their enemy. (This means that the
invaders had the harder job.)

TOPIC - CONSTRUCTION OF QUESTIONS

1. The first type of question is the simple question that asks for a yes or no answer.
When your main verb is be put the verb before the subject.

Example:
Disciplined people are happy. = Are disciplined people happy?

When your verb is a verb phrase, put the helping verb first, followed by the subject, then the main verb.

Example:
The students are studying. = Are the students studying?

When your verb is other than be, change the original verb into a phrase composed of do, does, or did and
the simple form of the verb and then put do, does or did before the subject.

Example:
His speech sounds witty and spontaneous. = Does his speech sound witty and
spontaneous?

2. The tag question or conversation question is a short question added to the statement. Observe the fact
about conversation questions:

a. When the statement is affirmative, the question is negative. When the statement is negative, the
question is affirmative.

b. When the verb in the statement is a single form of be, the verb in that question is the same form.

Example: Jim is from General Santos City, isn’t he?

You’re not a politician, are you?

c. When the verb in the statement is a single form of any verb except be, the verb in the question is
the same form (simple, s, or past) of do.

Example: Mr. Lopez goes to his office early, doesn’t he?

 Mr. and Mrs. Lopez go to the office early, don’t they?
Mr. Lopez went to the office early, didn’t he?

d. In most other cases, the verb in the question is the first function (auxiliary) verb of the verb
phrase.

Example: Jimmy’s parents are visiting him, aren’t they?

They’ll come another time, won’t they?
e. When the verb phrase in the statement is constructed with used to or have to, the verb in the
question is do.

Example: Gina used to live in Madrid, didn’t she?

We have to work hard, don’t we?

f. The second word of a conversation question is always a subject form of the personal pronoun or
the expletive there; it is never a noun or any other noun substitute.

Example: This is hard lesson, isn’t it?

Two boys worked outside, didn’t they?

3. Information question asks for specific information and begins with one of the following question words:
who, whom, whose, what, which, where, why and how.

Who, whom, whose ask for persons.

Which for things, whose for ownership;
Where for place, when for time;
Why for reason, and how for manner or condition.

TOPIC - AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN AND ITS ANTECEDENT

The word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.

She is one person whom I trust. (The antecedent of whom is the word, person)
He gave me a batch of papers, which he asked me to correct. (The antecedent of which is the
phrase, a batch of papers)

He is a good cook, which nobody can deny. (The antecedent of which is the clause, He
is a good cook)
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender, and person.

Singular The girl came with her parents. (feminine gender, third person)
Plural The girls came with their parents. (Third person)

Singular The man bought his camera. (Masculine gender, third person)
Plural The men bought their camera. (Third person)

First Person I wish you had told me earlier.

Second Person You should have brought it yourself.
Third Person The woman revealed that she was over forty.

1. Singular Pronouns refer to singular antecedents.

Anyone may be absent if he has a good excuse.

Everyone finished his work before the end of the hour.
Every book is in its place

2. A pronoun agrees with the nearer of the two antecedents.

He likes anything or anybody who can help him.

 He likes anybody or anything which can help him.
Neither Ricky nor his companions would admit that they cared to come.

3. When the antecedent of a pronoun is a collective noun, the pronoun is either singular or plural
depending on the sense of the sentence.

The council postponed the date of its meeting. (as a unit)

The council welcomed their guests. (as individual)

4. Two or more nouns preceded by a single article takes a singular verb.

The barber and surgeon was the same person in the Middle ages.
The barber and the surgeon are different individuals today
The President and Armed Forces commander-in chief was busy during the flood.

TOPIC - VOICE OF VERBS

The Passive Voice

Although in the usual order of the English language, the subject is the doer of the action, there are some
sentences in which the subject is the person or thing that receives the action. The part of the sentence
which indicated to the reader that the subject receives the action is the verb construction. Sentences in the
passive voice always contain some form of the verb be which would not be present if the subject were the
actor. The main verb follows be and is in the past participle form of the verb.

When to use the passive voice:

1. When we don’t know the performer of the action.

His book was stolen.

2. When it is preferable not to mention the performer.

Miss Santos was given some bad advice.

3. When we wish to emphasize the receiver rather than the performer.

Ben was assigned a project.

4. In a situation of social and historical significance, when the work, resulting from action is as
well or better known than the performer, as in the case of famous music, writing, paintings
and inventions.
The electric light bulb was invented by Edison.

TOPIC - MOOD OF VERBS

Verbs express mood as well as tense and voice. A verb expresses one of the three moods: the indicative
mood, the imperative or the subjunctive mood.

You use the indicative mood to make a statement or ask a question. You use the imperative mood to
express a command or make a request.

Indicative mood: He leaves the house at 7:00 a.m.

Imperative mood: Leave the house at 7:00 a.m.

The subjunctive mood in English has two important functions in contemporary formal English namely:

1. To express, indirectly, a demand, a recommendation, suggestion, or statement of necessity.

Example:
 ● We demand (or recommend or suggest) that he leave the house at 7:00 a.m.
(The subjunctive mood drops the –s from the third person singular.)

● It is necessary that he be here on time.

(The subjunctive mood uses be instead of am, is, or are.)

2. To state a condition or a wish that is contrary to fact. This use of the subjunctive always
requires the past tense.

Examples:
● If he were smart, he would leave the house by 7:00 a.m.
(The subjunctive mood uses were, not was.)
● They spoke to me as if I were a child.

● I wish I were the Secretary of Education.

Patterns for contrary-to-fact conditional sentences:

Contrary-to-fact conditional sentence in the present tense:

If Clause Result Clause

If + past tense would )

could ) + simple form of the verb
were should )
might )

Example: If I went to the United States today, I would visit Washington.

Contrary-to-fact conditional sentence in the past tense:

If Clause Result Clause

If + past perfect tense would have )

could have ) + past participle form of the
should have ) verb
might have )

Example: If I had gone to the United States last year, I would have visited
Washington.

Contrary-to-fact in mixed condition:

If Clause Result Clause

If + past perfect would )

could ) + simple form of the verb
should )
might )

Example: If I had obeyed my parents’ advice, I would not be in trouble now.

TOPIC - AVOIDING MISPLACED MODIFIERS, DANGLING MODIFIERS AND

REDUNDANCY

A. Misplaced Modifiers.

Rule: Place phrase and clause modifiers as near as possible to the words they modify.

Confusing: She was wearing a scarf around her neck which she bought in Italy.
Clarified: She was wearing around her neck a scarf which she bought in Italy.

Confusing : The milkmaid milked the cow sitting on a stool.

Clarified : Sitting on a stool, the milkmaid milked the cow.
: The milkmaid, sitting on a stool, milked the cow.
B. Dangling Modifiers

Rule: A modifying phrase or clause must clearly and sensibly modify a word in the
sentence. When there is no word that the phrase or clause can modify sensibly, the
modifier is said to dangle.

Wrong : While in the bowling alley, the car was stolen.

Right : While we were in the bowling alley, the car was stolen.

Wrong : Reading in the library, the siren of a passing ambulance distracted me.
Right : While I was reading in the library, the siren of a passing ambulance distracted
me.

C. Redundancy

Rule: Avoid wordiness by eliminating superfluous words and the unnecessary repetition of ideas.

Wordy: After descending down to the edge of the river, we boarded a small raft which
was floating there on the surface of the water.

Better: After descending to the edge of the river, we boarded a small raft.

Wordy: The game is played with tiny, little round balls, which in my opinion, I think are
made of steel.

Better: The game is played with tiny balls, which I think are made of steel.