What are the importance of genetics in agriculture?

Key terms
Term Meaning
The use of an organism, or a component of an
organism or other biological system, to make a
Biotechnology product or process.

The sequencing, analysis, and cutting-and-pasting

DNA technology of DNA

A technique to make many copies of a specific

Polymerase chain DNA region in vitro (in a test tube rather than an
reaction organism)

A technique used to separate DNA fragments

Gel electrophoresis according to their size

DNA that is assembled out of fragments from

Recombinant DNA multiple sources

A molecular biology technique that makes many

DNA cloning identical copies of a piece of DNA, such as a gene

The process of determining the sequence of

DNA sequencing nucleotides (As, Ts, Cs, and Gs) in a piece of DNA.
Biotechnology
Biotechnology can include both cutting-edge laboratory techniques and
traditional agricultural and culinary techniques that have been practiced for
hundreds of years.

Biotechnology is used in the production of products we see in everyday life,

such as alcohol and penicillin. It can also be used to develop new medical
treatments, such as the gene therapy.

Biotechnology has additional applications in areas such as food production

and the remediation (cleanup) of environmental pollution.
 DNA technologies
Many examples of modern biotechnology depend on the ability to analyze,
manipulate, and cut and paste pieces of DNA. DNA technology is important
to both basic and applied (practical) biology.

Examples of DNA technologies

 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a widely used DNA manipulation
technique, one with applications in almost every area of modern biology.
PCR reactions produce many copies of a target DNA sequence starting from
a piece of template DNA. This technique can be used to make many copies of
DNA that is present in trace amounts (e.g., in a droplet of blood at a crime
scene).

 Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to visualize (directly see) DNA

fragments. For instance, researchers can analyze the results of a PCR reaction
by examining the DNA fragments it produces on a gel.

Gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments based on their size, and the
fragments are stained with a dye so the researcher can see them. They can
then be used as a way to compare how similar DNA samples are to one
another.
 DNA fragments migrate through the gel from the negative to the positive
electrode.

After the gel has run, the fragments are separated by size, with the smallest
ones near the bottom (positive electrode) and the largest ones near the top
(negative electrode).

 In DNA cloning, researchers make many copies of a DNA fragment of

interest, such as a gene. In many cases, DNA cloning involves inserting a
target gene into a circular DNA molecule called a plasmid. The insertion is
done using enzymes that “cut and paste” DNA, and it produces a molecule of
recombinant DNA.

The plasmid can be replicated in bacteria, making many copies of the gene of
interest. In some cases, the gene is also expressed in the bacteria, making a
protein (such as the insulin used by diabetics).
 Insertion of a gene into a plasmid.

 DNA sequencing involves determining the sequence of nucleotide bases (As,

Ts, Cs, and Gs) in a DNA molecule. In some cases, just one piece of DNA is
sequenced at a time, while in other cases, a large collection of DNA
fragments (such as those from an entire genome) may be sequenced as a
group.

Bioethics
Biotechnology has the potential to provide benefits to people and societies,
but it can also have negative effects or unintended consequences.

It is important that biotechnology innovations (like other technological

innovations) be carefully tested and analyzed before they are released for
general use. Clinical trials and government regulation help ensure that
biotechnology products placed on the market are safe and effective.

In addition, biotechnology innovations may raise new ethical questions about

how information, techniques, and knowledge should or shouldn’t be used.

Examples of bioethical considerations

 Privacy and non-discrimination: Should your health insurance company be
able to charge you more if you have a gene variant that makes you likely to
develop a disease? How would you feel if your school or employer had
access to your genome?

 Safety, health effects, or ecological impacts of biotechnologies: For

example, some genetically engineered crops can make their own insecticide,
reducing the need for chemical spraying. However, this raises concerns about
plants escaping into the wild or interbreeding with local populations,
potentially causing unintended ecological consequences.

 Difficult decision-making for individuals: For example, a couple may learn

via prenatal testing that their fetus has a genetic disorder. Similarly, a person
who has her genome sequenced for the sake of curiosity may learn that she is
going to develop an incurable, late-onset genetic disease, such as
Huntington's.

Common mistakes and misconceptions

 Science alone cannot determine how these biotechnology should or
shouldn’t be used. Biotechnology is not inherently unsafe, untested, or
unpredictable, and scientific research and development can make new
information, techniques, and knowledge available. However, it's important
for all members of society to have their voices heard in the conversation
about biotechnology inventions and products that can affect our everyday
lives.

 Clones are not formed instantly. A common belief is that if a clone is

created, it would appear at the same age as the original. For example, if an
embryo of an organism is cloned, it must have time to develop into a full-
grown individual, much like any other embryo. Because the clone grows and
has its own experiences, it may not act anything like the original, even if it is
a genetic copy.

Image of the taxidermied remains of Dolly the cloned sheep, in the National
Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh.

In addition, not all clones are created artificially. Clones are simply identical
genetic copies, and many organisms naturally reproduce through cloning. For
example, bacteria reproduce by binary fission, during which they copy their
DNA and divide into two.