Unit-6

Critical Reasoning
Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skilfully conceptualizing, applying,
analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation,
experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.

Critical reasoning argument

The premise (or premises) and conclusion represent the core of the argument. Remember that not all
arguments will have a conclusion, but all will have at least one premise, so we will always have at least a
partial core.

Premise

- The premise – the evidence

- Part of the core of the argument; present in every argument
- Supports the authors conclusion
- Can be a fact or an opinion; can be a description, historical information, statistical or numerical
data, or a comparison of things
- Often signalled by words or phrases such as because of since, due to, and as a result of

EXAMPLE:

Cats with long hair shed all over the house, so you should not get a long-haired cat. I have heard that they also
have lots of fleas.

P¹ Long-haired cats shed all over the house

P² Long-haired cats have a lot of fleas

C You should not get a long haired cat

Conclusion

- Part of the core of an argument; present in most arguments

- Represents the authors main opinion or claim; can be in the form of a prediction, a judgment of
quality or merit, or a statement of causality
 - Is supported by at least one premise
- Often signalled by words such as therefore, thus, so, and consequently (though note that harder
arguments might use such a word elsewhere in the argument in an attempt to confuse us)

EXAMPLE:

The dreamer rejected the ordinary. Jay invited the ordinary. Jay is no dreamer.

P1- The dreamer rejected the ordinary

P2- Jay invited the ordinary

C- Jay is no dreamer. It is clear from the given facts that this is the conclusion.

Practice: Identify premise and conclusion in the following arguments and label them as (p) and (c)
respectively.

1, People who are red/green colour blind cannot distinguish between green and brown. Gerald cannot
distinguish between green and brown. Therefore Gerald is red/green colour blind.

2, If Max were guilty, he would not ask the police to investigate. Therefore, his asking the police to
investigate shows that he is not guilty.

3, Train service suffers when a railroad combines. By dividing its attention between its freight and
commuter customers, a railroad serves neither particularly well. Therefore, if railroad is going to be a
successful business, then it must concentrate exclusively on one of these two markets.

4. Cars drive faster on long city blocks than on short city blocks. Long blocks are thus more dangerous for
pedestrians than short blocks.

5, The store's competitors claim that the store, in selling off the shirts at those prices, neither made any
profit nor broke even. Consequently, the store's customers must have been able to buy shirts there at less
than the store's cost.

ANSWER

1, P- People who are red/green color blind cannot distinguish between green and brown.

P-Gerald cannot distinguish between green and brown.

C- Therefore Gerald is red/green color blind.

2, P- If Max were guilty

P- he would not ask the police to investigate.

C- Therefore, his asking the police to investigate shows that he is not guilty.

3, P- Train service suffers when a railroad combines.

 P- By dividing its attention between its freight and commuter customers, a railroad serves neither
particularly well.

C- Therefore, if railroad is going to be a successful business, then it must concentrate exclusively on one of
these two markets.

4. P- Cars drive faster on long city blocks than on short city blocks.

C- Long blocks are thus more dangerous for pedestrians than short blocks.

5, P- The store's competitors claim that the store, in selling off the shirts at those prices, neither made any
profit nor broke even.

C- Consequently, the store's customers must have been able to buy shirts there at less than the store's
cost.

Premise and Conclusion Indicator Words

Words that introduce or appear in an argument premise include:

since (no temporal meaning) may be inferred from

as indicated by given that
because seeing that
for for the reason that
in that inasmuch as
as (non comparison meaning) owing to

Words that introduce or appear in an argument conclusion include:

therefore we may infer

wherefore it must be that
accordingly whence
we may conclude so
entails that it follows that
hence implies that
thus as a result
consequently

Assumptions

An assumption is something that the author must believe to be true in order to draw a certain conclusion;
however, the author does not state the assumption in the argument. The assumption itself might not
necessarily be true in the real world; the only requirement is that the author has to believe it’s true in
order to make his or her claim.

For example, what is the author of the below argument assuming must be true?

Amy got an A on the test. Therefore, Amy must have studied for a long time.
The author assumes that, in order to get an A on the test, it is absolutely required to study for a long time.
Note that the author is not just assuming that studying for a long time is one way to get an A on the test.
The author concludes that Amy must have studied for a long time, so that is the only way.

Assumptions fill a gap in the argument; the gap is represented by the arrow in the diagram above. If we
insert a correct assumption into the argument, it makes the argument stronger:

Amy got an A on the test. Studying for a long time is the only way to get an A. Therefore, Amy must have
studied for a long time.
Therefore Amy must have studied for a
Amy got an A on the test. long time.
Studying for a long time is
(premise) the only way to get an A (conclusion)

(assumption)

Types of Critical Reasoning Questions

Critical Reasoning Questions can be categorized into five major types.

1. Strengthen the Argument

2. Weaken the Argument

3. Find the Assumption

4. Find the Conclusion / Draw Inference

5. Paradox Questions

Strengthen Argument

In strengthen-the-argument questions, the type of premises given should be examined. The premises could
be presented in the form of

 Statistical Data – numbers, percentages, ratios, etc

 Causal Data – the data may be in the form of a cause – effect relationship

 Analogy – arriving at a conclusion through likening it to a similar situation

Here the conclusion is already given in the argument. One of the choices if true further supports or
reinforces the conclusion. This means that the conclusion is further strengthened if a choice is true. The
question is phrased in one of the following ways.

1. Which of the following, if true, strengthens the argument?

2. Which of the following, if true, least weakens the argument?
3. Which of the following, if true, adds credence to the argument?
4. Which of the following, if true, reinforces the argument?

Example
 Astronomer: Most stars are born in groups of thousands, each star in a group forming from the
same parent cloud of gas. Each cloud has a unique, homogeneous chemical composition.
Therefore, whenever two stars have the same chemical composition as each other, they must
have originated from the same cloud of gas.

Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the astronomer’s argument?

(A) In some groups of stars, not every star originated from the same parent cloud of gas.

(B) Clouds of gas of similar or identical chemical composition may be remote from each other.

(C) Whenever a star forms, it inherits the chemical composition of its parent cloud of gas.

(D) Many stars in vastly different parts of the universe are quite similar in their chemical
compositions.

(E) Astronomers can at least sometimes precisely determine whether a star has the same
chemical composition as its parent cloud of gas.

Solution - Let’s break it down:

Conclusion: “Therefore, whenever two stars have the same chemical composition as each other, they
must have originated from the same cloud of gas.”

Premise: “Most stars are born in groups of thousands, each star in a group forming from the same parent
cloud of gas. Each cloud has a unique, homogeneous chemical composition.”

The given conclusion considers the implication of two stars having similar chemical composition, whilst
assuming on a basic level that if he/she were to compare the chemical composition of the stars and the gas
cloud they seem to have originated from, then they would be exactly the same.

Any answer choice that supports the author’s assumption, will strengthen the argument.

Before you consider each answer choice in turn, remember that your focus should lie with the chemical
composition of the stars, and how if they’re similar to each other and to the origin gas cloud, they’re likely
to have originated in the same cluster.

Option A - cannot clearly portray a significant relevance between where stars are born (different clouds of
gas) and whether they have the same chemical composition. The ambiguity of this option is in fact rather
likely to weaken the argument, than strengthen it.

Option B- focuses on how far apart clouds of gases are from each other; something that has no relevance
to the chemical composition.

Option D - also deviated from the main focus of the argument by talking about stars in different parts of
the universe.

In the case of option E- any findings on the astronomers’ part could strengthen or weaken the argument.
Merely their ability to somewhat precisely determine whether a star has the same chemical composition as
its parent cloud of gas, does little to support the author’s conclusion.
Option C - is pretty clearly the winner, because it very explicitly states that “Whenever a star forms, it
inherits the chemical composition of its parent cloud of gas.”. Hence, C is the answer.

Weaken the Argument

In this question type, the conclusion is already in the argument but with a questionable assumption. One of
the choices if true weakens the conclusion. The question is phrased in one of the following ways.

1. Which of the following, if true, weakens the conclusion?

2. Which of the following, if true, least strengthens the argument?
3. Which of the following, if true, jeopardizes the argument?
4. Which of the following, if true, questions the validity of the argument?
5. Which of the following, if true, damages the argument?

Example

In many pre-schools, children commonly tend to get colds before their resistance develops,
and the colds become much less frequent. It is clear that a child requires several colds
before white blood cell concentrations rise high enough to effectively deal with colds.

Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens this theory?

A. Children commonly spread viruses and bacteria in a small, closed environment.

B. The use of Vitamin C increases resistance to the common cold and decreases its
frequency.
C. Parents stock up on cold medicine that alleviates the symptoms of a cold after a child
gets sick.
D. There are many strains of the cold virus, and children develop resistance to individual
strains.
E. White blood cells fight infection, and their production levels are stimulated by high
infection levels.

Explanation –

The question is stating that the body’s immune system requires numerous infections to be properly
stimulated. It is a causal argument that tries to explain an observation.

Premise #1: Children tend to get fewer colds as they progress through pre-school.

Premise #2: (unstated assumption)

Conclusion: It takes several colds to activate a child’s immune system.

Analysis: This is After This, Therefore, Because of This fallacy. It observes that as children go through pre-
school the number of colds goes downs. From this, the creative author develops the theory that a child’s
immune system requires them to get several colds before it is fully activated.
The best way to weaken a causal argument is to suggest an alternative causal factor.

Reviewing Answer Choices

(A) Not relevant.

(B) Not relevant.

(C) This choice presents another possible reason to undermine the argument, but the medicine deals with
symptoms, not the cold per se. So it is not reducing an instance of a cold but simply decreasing its
symptoms (no more runny noses!).

(D) This choice suggests an alternative explanation for the apparent improvement in a child’s ability to fight
colds: the child simply becomes immune to individual viruses. So, the theory that a child’s immune system
needs high white blood cell concentrations isn’t the case; it is an issue of exposure to certain strains. By
suggesting a different causal process to explain the reduction in colds, it weakens the argument.

(E) This choice strengthens the argument, but the question asks for what weakens it.

Trick opposites - are sometimes used as junk answer choices on Strengthen/Weaken questions. If the stem
asks for what weakens the passage, you’ll find a perfect answer choice for what strengthens it, and vice
versa. Choice (E) in the above question about colds is an example of a trick opposite.

Assumption

Assumption questions are often considered some of the hardest among Critical Reasoning questions, and
this comes as no surprise because these questions can be tricky indeed. In Critical Reasoning problems,
an assumption is information not stated in the argument that has to be true in order for the argument’s
logic to hold. Simply put, an assumption is something the argument takes for granted in reaching its
conclusion. Look at this very simple argument to demonstrate what we have just said.

All kids are excited when they get new toys. Therefore, Tim will be thrilled when he gets the new radio-
controlled car we bought him.

This argument has a small gap (scope shift) between the evidence and the conclusion. The evidence is
about kids, and the conclusion based on this evidence is about Tim. One thing this argument expects you
to take for granted, therefore, is that Tim is a child. Without assuming this, the argument would make no
sense, so the argument must assume that Tim is a child.

This example demonstrates two more important characteristics of assumptions, which will help you
double-check your answers.

1. Adding the correct assumption to the argument will strengthen the argument.

2. Adding the negated assumption to the argument will weaken the argument.

Let’s first try to add our assumption to the argument:

All kids are excited when they get new toys. Tim is a child. Therefore, Tim will be thrilled when he gets
the new radio-controlled car we got him.
This argument is stronger because the new premise (assumption) eliminates the gap between the evidence
and the conclusion. Now the evidence (first premise) is about children, and the second premise includes
Tim in that category, making the evidence directly applicable to Tim.

[Note: Even though the correct assumption will strengthen the argument, not every answer that
strengthens the argument must be assumed. (Remember: all squares are rectangles but not all rectangles
are squares. Beware of logical fallacies.)]

Negate the assumption

Now, see what happens if you negate the assumption and add it to the argument:

All kids are excited when they get new toys. Tim is not a child. Therefore, Tim will be thrilled when he gets
the new radio-controlled car we got him.

The argument is weaker because its conclusion has become purely speculative. You have no logical
grounds to predict anything about Tim’s reaction, because the second premise (assumption) does not now
connect the first premise (evidence) to the conclusion.

Here’s what you must remember about assumptions, based on what’s covered here…

1. An assumption is information not stated in the argument that must be true for the argument’s
conclusion to hold. An assumption is unstated vital information that the argument takes for
granted.

2. When the correct assumption is added to the argument, it will strengthen the argument.
HOWEVER, not every answer choice that strengthens the argument must be assumed.

3. When the correct assumption is negated, adding it will weaken the argument.

Paying attention to these three rules of thumb will help you identify and double-check the correct answers
to Critical Reasoning assumption questions.

Example
Although many doubts have been raised as to the accuracy of age estimation for a recently found
African artefact, all this criticism has no grounds. To estimate the age of the artefact, archaeologists
used a radiocarbon dating method known to be highly accurate in estimating the age of organic
materials.

The conclusion above depends on which of the following assumptions?

A) Modern dating methods are generally more accurate than older dating methods.

B) Written records report that artefacts similar to the one recently found were being used at the
time indicated by radiocarbon dating method.

C) The recently uncovered African artefact is made of organic material.

D) Some of the scientists who doubt the accuracy of the age estimations are very young.

E) Radiocarbon dating cannot accurately estimate the age of objects and materials that are more
than 60,000 years old.

Answer explanation - This is not a very hard question, but before you try to predict a correct answer,
analyze the argument to see what was concluded and what evidence was offered to support that
conclusion. The argument concludes that criticism has no grounds, that the age estimation was accurate.
This conclusion is supported by a single piece of evidence: the radiocarbon dating method used is highly
accurate in estimating the age of organic materials.

If you were careful, you noticed that the evidence was somewhat limited; specifically, the method was said
to be accurate in dating ORGANIC materials. To conclude that the method was accurate for the African
artefact, the argument must assume that the artefact was organic OR that the method effectively used for
dating organic materials is equally effective when it comes to dating non-organic materials. The correct
answer choice therefore must be an assumption that creates one of those connections.

A) Modern dating methods are generally more accurate than older dating methods. This choice is clearly
irrelevant to the argument, since the one method discussed is not compared to any others. You can
eliminate this option without further testing it.

B) Written records report that artefacts similar to the one recently found were being used at the time
indicated by radiocarbon dating method. This one may be tempting because such information, if added to
the argument, would strengthen it. Remember, however, not every strengthening option must be
assumed. Test this option by negating it to see whether it ruins the argument’s logic.

 The criticism has no grounds.

 No written records report that artifacts similar to the one recently found were being used at the
time indicated by radiocarbon dating.

 Radiocarbon dating is highly accurate for estimating age of organic materials.

Well, you can see that although adding this information might strengthen the argument, it is not
information that must be assumed. Even if the information is not true, the argument could still be valid.

C) The recently uncovered African artefact is made of organic material. Correct. If you add this information
to the argument, you strengthen it by connecting the stated evidence to the stated conclusion. If you
negate this information and say that the recently uncovered African artefact is NOT made of organic
material, then your evidence becomes irrelevant, as you know only that radiocarbon dating works for
organic materials but have no idea whether it would have worked on the non-organic artefact.

D) Some of the scientists who doubt the accuracy of the age estimations are very young. Even if they all
were very old, this would not change a thing, at least as long as you don’t have information that links
scientists’ age and validity of their doubts.

E) Radiocarbon dating cannot accurately estimate the age of objects and materials that are more than
60,000 years old. You don’t know the age estimated, so this information is irrelevant.

Find the inference

In this question type, the conclusion is already given. If the statements in the argument are true, one of the
choices also must be true. If there are two premises, it is possible to make two inferences. The questions
appear as follows:

1. If the statements in the arguments are true, which of the following must also be true?
2. Which of the following statement can be inferred from the passage?
3. Which of the following is implied in the passage?

Inferences often have very little to do with the conclusion and for each premise, you can have an inference.
So, the inferences made from the premises need to be mapped with the given options to deduce the right
answer option.

Example –

A television news network has recently been criticized for failing to give as much time to
individuals who do not believe climate change is occurring as they do to scientists who
believe climate change is occurring, even though the network does give equal time to all
sides of the debates over immigration, tax reform, and gun policy. The network claims that
they only give equal time to both sides of a debate when one side cannot be definitively
proven by existing scientific research.

Which of the following can be correctly inferred from the information given above?

A. The television news network believes that the existence of climate change has been
definitely proven by existing scientific research.
B. The television news network believes that it is important to avoid debate on
scientific discoveries.
C. If the news network gave the same time it gave to scientists to individuals who
don’t believe in climate change, it would increase its ratings.
D. There are no effective counter arguments against climate change that might sway
 viewers to believe that climate change is not occurring.
E. No individuals who spoke on the network and who did not believe climate change
was occurring were scientists.

Explanation-

Whenever you are asked to make an inference from an argument presented, remember that inferences
don't need to be interesting or surprising - they only need to be guaranteed.

The argument here states that a television network has been criticized for not giving as much time to
climate change deniers as it does to those who believe in climate change even though they do give equal
time to all sides of the debates surrounding other issues like tax reform and immigration. The network
claims that this is because they only give equal time if one side of the debate cannot be definitively proven
by science.

Since the network does not give equal time to both sides of the climate change debate, that means that
people at the network believe that it fits the exception given and that one side (the side that believes in
climate change) has been definitively proven by science, which matches answer choice A "The television
news network believes that the existence of climate change has been definitely proven by existing
scientific research.".

Among the other answers CHOICE B, "The television news network believes that it is important to avoid
debate on scientific discoveries." can be discarded because while the network does not give equal time for
all sides of the debate in some cases, it does not provide a blanket dismissal of debating all scientific
discovery.

Choice D "There are no effective counter arguments against climate change that might sway viewers to
believe that climate change is not occurring." can be eliminated since while the network believes the
science has been settled, this is not the same thing as claiming that no one will be swayed by the
arguments against climate change.

Choice E "No individuals who spoke on the network and who did not believe climate change was occurring
were scientists." is a bit harder to eliminate since the stimulus tells you that the people who believe that
climate change is occurring are scientists, but it doesn't specifically say that the individuals who don't
believe in climate change aren't scientists, so "No individuals who spoke on the network and who did not
believe climate change was occurring were scientists." can be eliminated.

Choice C "If the news network gave the same time it gave to scientists to individuals who don’t believe in
climate change, it would increase its ratings." can also be eliminated since even though some people
criticize the network for its current policy, it is unknown how a change in policy would affect overall
criticism of the network (and in turn how that would effect ratings).

Paradox questions
Paradox/Discrepancy questions will ask you to choose the answer choice that explains the paradox in the
given argument. A paradox refers to the coexistence of two seemingly contradictory pieces of information.
The correct answer choice will logically explain why those pieces of information are not actually
contradictory. Key words you might see are explain, paradox, or discrepancy.

A Paradox question may be worded as:

1. Which of the statements below provides the most likely explanation for the two seemingly
contradictory statements above?
2. Which of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the paradox outlined above?
3. Which of the following, if true, best explains the reason for the apparent discrepancy described
above?

EXAMPLE-

In 2009, there was a sharp increase in the number of people who were reported to have
died in the country during the first week of the year, compared with the first week of the
previous ten years. There seems to be no reason to explain this disproportionately high
number of deaths especially because the reports were widespread in the country and
there was no epidemic spreading through the country at that point in time. Moreover,
most of the deaths were not among the young and could not even be attributed to binge
drinking in celebration of the new year.

Which of the following can then explain the discrepancy?

A. The government announced in 2008 that estate taxes, payable by the heirs on
someone's death, would be abolished effective from the new year.

B. Astrologists predicted that 2009 was a good year to die in, for salvation of the
soul.

C. The statistic is an anomaly that has no logical explanation.

D. The price of some cancer drugs and chemotherapy increased by 10% in January
2009, making treatment more expensive than before.

E. An earthquake in one of the cities during December 2008 made hospital care
availability more difficult for regular illnesses.

EXPLANATION –

Step 1: Analyzing the Argument

For no apparent reason, there seems to have been an increase in the number of reported deaths in the
first few weeks of 2009. The argument eliminates some likely reasons, such as spreading epidemics. The
correct option must explain the reason for the abnormal number of reported deaths.
Step 2: Eliminating Options

Option (B) does not seems to imply that people voluntarily died to satisfy the astrological predictions. Even
if we were to accept that to be true, it does not explain why there was an increase in people dying right
after the year begins. If the entire year is a good year to die in, why not die in December 2009?

The question asks for an explanation and saying that there is no valid explanation is no good. Option (C)
can be eliminated.

Option (D) is an interesting, attractive option. However, the problem with the option is the timeline. If
treatment became expensive only that year, why are people dying immediately? Could they not have done
something to improve their health or sought other options?

Option (E) discusses only one city while the argument clearly states that this phenomenon was widespread
and observed throughout the country. The option therefore, does not justify why the numbers went up in
other parts of the country.

To understand why Option (A) works, understand that the argument does NOT state that the number of
deaths went up but rather that the REPORTS went up. If option (A) is true and legal heirs do not have to
pay any taxes from January 1, 2009, that would explain why the reports of deaths have gone up. Some
people could have died in the last few days of 2008 and the heirs could have waited to report it. Also
notice that the argument indicates that the reports were primarily about the older population.

Option A is the correct answer.

Tips and tricks to understand and solve critical reasoning

1) Read the question stem first.

This will allow you quickly categorize the type of Critical Reasoning question (Strengthen, Weaken,
Inference, etc.) and let you focus on identifying the premises in the stimulus. Questions such as, “Which of
the following can be correctly inferred from the statements above?” and, “If the statements above are
true, which of the following must also be true?” signify that you are dealing with an Inference question.

2) Speculate what you think the correct conclusion is.

Sometimes this may be difficult to verbalize, but having an outline or framework of what the “must be
true” answer should include will help to eliminate some answer choices.

3) Evaluate the answer choices using your speculated answer.

You want to carefully read all 5 answer choices. As you read the answers, compare them to the answer, or
the outline of the answer, you speculated. Some answers are obviously incorrect – either they are too
narrow in scope, too extreme to be always be true, or do not follow the criteria laid out in the stimulus.
Eliminate these answers. For other answer choices that seem attractive, keep them as possibilities. Once
you have read all of the answer choices, you can then compare your list of possible answers using the
criteria that the correct answer must be always be true.

4) Become a Defence Lawyer.

When comparing your list of possible answers, try to come up with plausible scenarios that would prove
the answer being considered not true. Just because the stimulus says that “everyone sitting in the dentist’s
office waiting room at 9:00 a.m. was a patient” does not necessarily mean that they were waiting for an
appointment. Some could have already finished their appointment, and some could have been there
dropping off another patient. Like a defence lawyer, you need to find every scenario in which an answer
choice might not be true in order to eliminate it from your options.

5) Be aware of exaggerated or extreme answers.

Because the correct answer must always be true, modifiers that exaggerate an element of the premise or
make an extreme claim usually signify an incorrect answer. If the stimulus says, “Some of the widgets
produced by Company X were defective,” an attractive, yet incorrect answer choice may exaggerate this
statement with a modifier such as “most” by claiming, “Most of Company X’s widgets were found to be
defective.” Furthermore, answers that include the terms “always”, “never”, “none” and the like are good
indicators that the answer will not be true 100% of the time.

6) Be aware of answers that change the scope of the stimulus.

On more difficult Inference questions (as if they were not difficult enough), the test makers will tempt you
to select an answer choice that slightly changes an element of the facts laid out in the stimulus. For
example, the stimulus might discuss the decrease in the violent crime rate in City A over a certain time
period.

The attractive answer that follows all of the elements of having to be true 100% of the time, but is still
incorrect might discuss decrease in the murder rate of City A over that time period. While the answer
would seem to fit the bill, the murder rate is not the same as the rate of violent crime – this changes the
scope of the initial stimulus and we can therefore rule that answer out.

The correct inference or conclusion on Critical Reasoning Inference questions is very close to what is stated
explicitly in the stimulus. Remember, the right answer choice on these question types must be true 100%
of the time.

Tutorial
Exercise 1

Q1. One summer, floods covered low-lying garlic fields situated in a region with a large mosquito
population. Since mosquitoes lay their eggs in standing water, flooded fields would normally attract
mosquitoes, yet no mosquitoes were found in the fields. Diallyl sulfide, a major component of garlic, is
known to repel several species of insects, including mosquitoes, so it is likely that diallyl sulfide from the
garlic repelled the mosquitoes.

Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?

(A) Diallyl sulfide is also found in onions but at concentrations lower than in garlic.

(B) The mosquito population of the region as a whole was significantly smaller during the year in which the
flooding took place than it had been in previous years.

(C) By the end of the summer, most of the garlic plants in the flooded fields had been killed by waterborne
fungi.

(D) Many insect species not repelled by diallyl sulfide were found in the flooded garlic fields throughout the
summer.

(E) Mosquitoes are known to be susceptible to toxins in plants other than garlic, such as marigolds.

Q2. A study revealed that a major part of the accidents involving two wheelers takes place when they are
being driven at speeds above 50 km.hr. It is also observed that the two wheelers are driven at this speed
mostly on roads having scanty traffic.

Which of the following can be concluded from the given paragraph?

A. Accidents do not take place because of heavy traffic.

B. It is not possible to drive two wheelers at speeds above 50 km/hr on the roads having heavy traffic.

C. Two wheelers drivers tend to become reckless while driving on roads having scanty traffic.

D. Most of the accidents involving two wheelers take place on roads having scanty traffic.

E. Accidents involving four wheelers also take place at speeds above 50 km/hr.

Q3. The Supreme Court in its land mark judgement gave women the right to terminate their pregnancy as a
constitutional right.

Which of the following, if true, can go against the Supreme Court's judgement?

A. In several other countries abortion is illegal.

B. An unborn child should be treated as a person and every person has a fundamental right to live.

C. The elected representatives of one of the states rejected the proposal to make abortion illegal in a 30-70
vote.

D. If a foetus can be treated as a person, an embryo from which the foetus is formed should also be
treated as a person.

E. None of these

Q4. The number of instances where judges have made unwanted remarks in open courts against other
constitutional/ statutory bodies or persons who were not before them is increasing. There is a need to
bring such behaviour of judges within the purview of judicial standards.
Which of the following can be inferred/concluded from the given information?

A. There is a set of judicial standards which the judges are expected to follow

B. Till now no one has set any standards for judges.

C. It is not desirable for the judges to pass such comments on other constitutional/ statutory bodies in their
absence.

D. Freedom of expression cannot be exercised while in official capacity.

E. None of these

Q5. Insurance Company X is considering issuing a new policy to cover services required by elderly people
who suffer from diseases that afflict the elderly. Premiums for the policy must be low enough to attract
customers. Therefore, Company X is concerned that the income from the policies would not be sufficient
to pay for the claims that would be made.

Which of the following strategies would be most likely to minimize Company X's losses on the policies?

A. Attracting middle-aged customers unlikely to submit claims for benefits for many years.

B. Insuring only those individuals who did not suffer any serious diseases as children

C. Including a greater number of services in the policy than are included in other policies of lower cost

D. Insuring only those individuals who were rejected by other companies for similar policies

E. Insuring only those individuals who are wealthy enough to pay for the medical services

Q6. A conservation group in the United States is trying to change the long-standing image of bats as
frightening creatures. The group contends that bats are feared and persecuted solely because they are shy
animals that are active only at night.

Which of the following, if true, would cast the most serious doubt on the accuracy of the group's
contention?

A. Bats are steadily losing natural roosting places such as caves and hollow trees and are thus turning to
more developed areas for roosting.

B. Bats are the chief consumers of nocturnal insects and thus can help make their hunting territory
more pleasant for humans.

C. Bats are regarded as frightening creatures not only in the United States but also in Europe, Africa,
and South America.

D. Raccoons and owls are shy and active only at night; yet they are not generally feared and persecuted.

E. People know more about the behavior of other greatly feared animal species, such as lions, alligators,
and greatly feared animal species, such as lions, alligators, and snakes, than they do about the behavior of
bats.

Q7. Toughened hiring standards have not been the primary cause of the present staffing shortage in public
schools. The shortage of teachers is primarily caused by the fact that in recent years teachers have not
experienced any improvements in working conditions and their salaries have not kept pace with salaries in
other professions.

Which of the following, if true, would most support the claims above?

A. Many teachers already in the profession would not have been hired under the new hiring standards.

B. Today more teachers are entering the profession with a higher educational level than in the past.

C. Some teachers have cited higher standards for hiring as a reason for the current staffing shortage.

D. Many teachers have cited low pay and lack of professional freedom as reasons for their leaving the
profession.

E. Many prospective teachers have cited the new hiring standards as a reason for not entering the
profession.

Q8. Many business offices are located in buildings having 2-8 floors. If a building has more than 3 floors, it
has a lift.

If the above statements are true, which of the following must be true?

A. 2nd floors do not have lifts

B. 7th floors have lifts
C. Only floors above the 3rd floors have lifts
D. All floors may be reached by lifts

Q9. If highways were restricted to cars and only those trucks with capacity of less than 8 tons, most of the
truck traffic would be forced to run outside highways. Such a reduction in the amount of truck traffic would
reduce the risk of collisions on highways.

The conclusion drawn in the Ist sentence depends on which of the following assumptions?

A. The roads outside highway would be as convenient as highway for most drivers of trucks..
B. Most of the roads outside highways are not ready to handle truck traffic.
C. Most trucks that are currently running in highway have a capacity of more than 8 tons.
D. Cars are at greater risk of being involved in collisions than are trucks.

Q10. There are numerous reasons why individuals want to run their own businesses. Some foresee more
personal satisfaction if they succeed in launching their own business, while others are mainly interested in
the prospect of larger financial rewards. Since 1980s and early 1990s, tax regulation and liberal policies
have encouraged increasing number of venture capitalists and entrepreneurs to start new enterprises.
Since 1990, one and a half million new ventures have been started. Not all have succeeded.

The above statement makes which of the following assumptions?

A. Success in starting a new business largely depends on sound financial planning

B. Venture capitalists are motivated by non-monetary gains
C. Social incentives motivate investors just as much as financial rewards
D. None of these
Q11. If highways were restricted to cars and only those trucks with capacity of less than 8 tons, most of the
truck traffic would be forced to run outside highways. Such a reduction in the amount of truck traffic would
reduce the risk of collisions on highways.

Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the conclusion drawn in the second sentence?

A. Highways are experiencing overcrowded traffic mainly because of sharp increases in car traffic
B. Many drivers of trucks would rather buy trucks with a capacity of less than 8 tons than be excluded
from highways.
C. The number of collisions that occur near highways has reduced in recent years
D. Trucks that have a capacity of more than 8 tons cause a disproportionately large number of
collisions on highways

Q12. Offshore oil-drilling operations involve an unavoidable risk of an oil spill, but importing oil on tankers
presently involves an even greater such risk per barrel of oil. So, if we are to lessen the risk of an oil spill
without reducing our oil usage, we must invest more in offshore operations and import less oil on tankers.

Which of the following, if true, seriously weakens the argument above?

A. Importing oil on tankers is currently less expensive than drilling for it offshore.
B. Tankers can easily be redesigned so that their use entails less risk of an oil spill.
C. The impact of offshore operations on the environment can be reduced by careful management.
D. Oil spills caused by tankers have generally been more serious than those caused by offshore
operations.

Q13. By this work "light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history;" and this implies that man
must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance
on this Earth. Now the case wears a wholly different aspect.
Which of the following best captures the essence of the passage?

A. Man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of
appearance on this Earth

B. Man must be included with other organic beings

C. Man need not be included with other inorganic beings in any general conclusion respecting his
manner of appearance on this Earth

D. Man must be excluded from other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner
of appearance on this Earth

Q14. The sole object of this work is to consider, first, whether man, like every other species, is descended
from some pre-existing form; secondly, the manner of his development; and thirdly, the value of the
differences between the so-called races of man,
Which of the following best captures the essence of the passage?

A. The work seems to locate whether man is descended from some pre-existing form

B. The work seems to locate whether man is descended from gods, the manner of his development,
and the value of the differences between the so-called races of mammals
 C. The work will not locate whether man is descended from some pre-existing form, but the manner
of his development

D. The work seems to locate whether man is descended from some pre-existing form, the manner of
his development, and the value of the differences between the so-called races of man

Q15. The sense of smell is of the highest importance to the greater number of mammals. But the sense of
smell is of extremely slight service, if any, even to the dark coloured races of men, in whom it is much more
highly developed than in the white and civilised races. M. Houzeau asserts that he repeatedly made
experiments, and proved that Negroes and Indians could recognise persons in the dark by their odour.
Which of the following best captures the essence of the above psssage?

A. Sense of smell, as experiments have shown, is directly related to the colour of the skin and the
darker the skin, the greater the sense will be

B. Sense of smell, as experiments have shown, is directly related to the colour of the skin and the
darker the skin, the lesser the sense will be

C. Sense of smell, as experiments have shown, is not related to the colour of the skin at all

D. Sense of smell, theory suggests, is directly related to race and the darker the skin, the lesser the
sense will be

Q16. Persons who consume large amounts of Tablet ‘F’ often have fewer colds and more cheerful
dispositions than the average person. Therefore, I am going to start taking extra 'Tablet F' right away
because I am tired of getting depressed.
The author makes which of the following assumptions?

A. Tablet F cures colds

B. Tablet F is necessary in extra supplements.

C. Tablet F helps to prevent depression

D. Tablet F quickens healing from surgery.

E. It is impossible to have side effects of Tablet F and is therefore safe.

Q17. Many people argue that the death penalty deters murder. However, the notorious killer Tom Hanks
deliberately moved to a state that imposes the death penalty just before embarking on a series of
ferocious murders. Thus, it seems clear that the existence of the death penalty does not serve as a
deterrent to murder.
The argument above may best be characterized as:

A. An appeal to emotion

B. A flawed analogy

C. A general conclusion based on a specific example

D. Circular reasoning
Q18. "It was AC Milan's success in Europe in the sixties that introduced the 'Iibero' as the Italian default
and, a quarter of a century later, it was AC Milan's success in Europe that killed it off."

Which of the following was not implied in the above sentence?

A. AC Milan was successful in Europe in the sixties with the help of a ‘Libero'

B. AC Milan was successful in Europe in the late eighties without a ‘Libero'

C. The ‘Libero' was an Italian default for almost a quarter of a century

D. AC Milan was not successful in Europe for almost a quarter of a century

E. The Italians seldom used a ‘Libero' since late eighties

Q19. Alfredo, Diego and Lionel are discussing Argentinean football.

Alfredo: Argentina was a football powerhouse. Diego: Argentina is a football powerhouse.
Lionel: Argentina will be a football powerhouse.
Which of the following cannot be inferred from the above conversation?

A. Lionel is optimistic about the future

B. Alfredo, Diego and Lionel may disagree on certain things

C. Diego views the present positively

D. Alfredo completely disagrees with Diego

E. Alfredo has positive feelings about the past

Q20. No national productivity measures are available for underground industries that may exist but remain
unreported. On the other hand, at least some industries that are run entirely by self-employed
industrialists are included in national productivity measures.

From the information given above, it can be validly concluded that

A. there are at least some industries run entirely by self-employed industrialists that are underground
industries

B. not all industries that are run entirely by self-employed industrialists operate underground

C. not all industries that are run entirely by self-employed industrialists are included in national
productivity measures

D. there are at least some industries run entirely by self-employed industrialists that are not
underground industries

Q21. In Noida, a political candidate who used radio advertising was found to get maximum name
recognition.

The statement above logically conveys which of the following ?

A. Radio advertising is the most important factor in political campaigns in Noida

 B. Maximum name recognition in Noida will help a candidate to win a higher percentage of votes cast
in the city

C. Radio advertising reaches every demographically distinct sector of the voting population of Noida

D. For maximum name recognition a candidate need not spend on media channels other than radio
advertising

Q22. Veganism is a type of vegetarian diet that excludes meat, eggs, dairy products and all other animal-
derived ingredients. Many vegans also do not eat foods that are processed using animal products, such as
refined white sugar and some wines. Most vegans also avoid the use of all products tested on animals, as
well as animal-derived non-food products, such as leather, fur and wool. A vegan diet will include all types
of grains, beans, legumes, vegetables and fruits and the nearly infinite number of dishes made by
combining them. Many vegan versions of familiar foods are available, so you can eat vegan hot dogs, ice
cream, cheese and vegan mayonnaise. Although there is some debate as to whether certain foods, such as
honey, fit into a vegan diet, if you are cooking for other vegans, it is best to err on the side of caution and
avoid them.

Q. Based on the text, which statement is definitely true?

A) Vegans do not eat honey
B) Some vegans eat honey
C) There is a vegan version of honey
D) There isn't a vegan version of honey

Q23. Drug addiction, like other habits such as smoking and drinking, almost always begins under peer
pressure with teenagers being influenced by those of their high school and college colleagues who are only
slightly older to join the “gang” and become adults, so to say. Even if in the initial stages, those youngsters
who have been induced to start taking drugs do not find it pleasurable, they are unwilling to break away
lest they offend seniors.

Which of the following, if true, will most weaken the above argument?

a) Some teenagers could not break away from the habit of drug addiction in fear of offending their seniors.

b) Habit of drug addiction begins under pressure.

c) Teenagers are influenced to choose drugs by slightly older people to make them join the gang.

d) Teenagers willingly choose drugs for pleasure.

Q24. The fact of the matter is that there is a strong case for increasing the farm subsidies, at least
indirectly. The Indian farm sector is now passing through a difficult period, as underscored by the suicides
of farmers reported from states like Maharashtra and Andhra.

Which of the following would strengthen the above argument?

a) Increasing farm subsidies will put fiscal pressure on the government.

b) Increasing farm subsidies will reduce the incidences of farmer suicide.

c) Increasing farm subsidies is not the ultimate solution for reducing the incidences of farmer suicide.
d) Increasing farm subsidies will help the government to increase its revenue.

Q25. There has been a high incidence of death in Rajasthan due to tobacco eating last year”. Hence, the
Rajasthan’s Chief Minister suggested that tax rates on dangerous tobacco products like cigarette and gutka
should not to be reduced as planned by the government.

Which of the following, if true, will most weaken the above argument?

a) Rajasthan Government is trying to reduce the sale of tobacco in the country.

b) Incidences of death due to tobacco eating were high last year as compared to previous year.

c) The adults and teenagers have easy access to tobacco products.

d) Rajasthan is the only state where the sale of tobacco products is the lowest.

Q26. The increase in the number of reality shows on television channels bolsters the contention that
channels owners are more interested in boosting their revenues by pandering to voyeuristic tendencies of
viewers.

The premise behind the above argument is that

A. reality shows on television channels are a recent phenomenon.

B. everything that a channel broadcasts should be educational.

C. reality shows on television appeal to the basic instincts of viewers.

D. reality shows make more money than other types of programs.

E. the channel owners can influence what is watched by the viewers.

Q27. Unless you dedicate your whole life to it, you will never learn to speak the language of another
country to perfection; you will never know its people and its literature with complete intimacy.

Which of the following is likely to undermine the above argument?

A. I can speak 10 foreign languages already

B. I do not travel to foreign countries.

C. I am happy with the languages I know and do not need to learn any other language.

D. I should spend time to understand my own people and literature first, only then can I appreciate other
languages and cultures.

Q28. Read the below passage carefully and answer the questions:

Giving children computers in grade school is a waste of money and teachers time. These children are too
young to learn how to use computers effectively and need to spend time on learning the basics, like
arithmetic and reading. After all, a baby has to crawl before she can walk.

Which of the following, if true, would strengthen the speaker's argument?

A. studies showing computers are expensive

B. research on the effect of computer games on children

C. examples of high school students who use computers improperly

D. proof that the cost of computers is coming down

E. evidence that using computers makes learning to read difficult

Q29. Read the below passage carefully and answer the questions:

Giving children computers in grade school is a waste of money and teachers time. These children are too
young to learn how to use computers effectively and need to spend time on learning the basics, like
arithmetic and reading. After all, a baby has to crawl before she can walk.

Which of the following, if true, would weaken the speaker's argument?

A. a demonstration that computers can be used to teach reading and arithmetic

B. analysis of the cost-effectiveness of new computers versus repairing old computers

C. examples of adults who do not know how to use computers

D. recent grade reports of students in the computer classes

E. a visit to a classroom where computers are being used

Q30. If you're a fitness walker, there is no need for a commute to a health club. Your neighborhood can be
your health club. You don't need a lot of fancy equipment to get a good workout either. All you need is a
well-designed pair of athletic shoes.

This paragraph best supports the statement that

A. fitness walking is a better form of exercise than weight lifting.

B. a membership in a health club is a poor investment.

C. walking outdoors provides a better workout than walking indoors.

D. fitness walking is a convenient and valuable form of exercise.

E. poorly designed athletic shoes can cause major foot injuries.

Q31. In the past, consumers would rarely walk into an ice cream store and order low-fat ice cream. But
that isn't the case today. An increasing health consciousness combined with a much bigger selection of
tasty low-fat foods in all categories has made low-fat ice cream a very profitable item for ice cream store
owners.

This paragraph best supports the statement that

A. low-fat ice cream produces more revenue than other low-fat foods.

B. ice cream store owners would be better off carrying only low-fat ice cream.
C. ice cream store owners no longer think that low-fat ice cream is an unpopular item.

D. low-fat ice cream is more popular than other kinds of ice cream.

E. consumers are fickle and it is impossible to please them

Q32. Today's workforce has a new set of social values. Ten years ago, a manager who was offered a
promotion in a distant city would not have questioned the move. Today, a manager in that same situation
might choose family happiness instead of career advancement.

This paragraph best supports the statement that

A. most managers are not loyal to the corporations for which they work.

B. businesses today do not understand their employee’s needs.

C. employees social values have changed over the past ten years.

D. career advancement is not important to today's business managers.

E. companies should require their employees to accept promotions.

Q33. The program to control the entry of illegal drugs into the country was a failure in 1987. If the program
had been successful, the wholesale price of most illegal drugs would not have dropped substantially in
1987.

The argument in the passage depends on which of the following assumptions?

A. The supply of illegal drugs dropped substantially in 1987.

B. The price paid for most illegal drugs by the average consumer did not drop substantially in 1987.

C. Domestic production of illegal drugs increased at a higher rate than did the entry of such drugs into the
country.

D. The wholesale price of a few illegal drugs increased substantially in 1987.

E. A drop in demand for most illegal drugs in 1987 was not the sole cause of the drop in their wholesale
price.

Q34. A factory was trying out a new process for producing one of its products, with the goal of reducing
production costs. A trial production run using the new process showed a fifteen percent reduction in costs
compared with past performance using the standard process. The production managers therefore
concluded that the new process did produce a cost savings.

Which of the following, if true, casts most doubt on the production managers' conclusion?

A. In the cost reduction project that eventually led to the trial of the new process, production managers
had initially been seeking cost reductions of fifty percent.

B. Analysis of the trial of the new process showed that the cost reduction during the trial was entirely
attributable to a reduction in the number of finished products rejected by quality control.
C. While the trial was being conducted, production costs at the factory for a similar product, produced
without benefit of the new process, also showed a fifteen percent reduction.

D. Although some of the factory's managers have been arguing that the product is out dated and ought to
be redesigned, the use of the new production process does not involve any changes in the finished
product.

E. Since the new process differs from the standard process only in the way in which the stages of
production are organized and ordered, the cost of the materials used in the product is the same in both
processes.

Exercise 2

Directions - Cause and effect In each of the following questions, two statements numbered I and II are
given. There-may be cause and effect relationship between the two statements. These two Statements
may be the effect of the same cause or independent causes. These statements may be independent causes
without having any relationship. Read both the statements in each question and mark your answer as:

If statement I is the cause and statement II is its effect;

If Statement II is the cause and statement I is its effect;

If both the statements I-and II are independent causes;

If both the statements I and II are effects of independent causes; and

If both the statements I and II are-effects of some common cause.

1. I. The prices of vegetables have been increased considerably during this summer.
II. There is tremendous increase in the temperature during this summer thereby damaging crops
greatly.

2. I. Police; resorted to lathi-charge to disperse the unlawful gathering of large number of people.
II. The citizens' forum called a general strike in protest against the police atrocities.

3. I. It is the aim of the city's civic authority to get the air pollution reduced by 20% in the next two
months.
II. The number of asthma cases in the city is constantly increasing.

4. I. The police authority has recently caught a group of house breakers.

II. The citizens group in the locality have started night vigil in the area.

5. I. The university authority has instructed all the colleges under its jurisdiction to ban use of all
phones inside the college premises.
II. Majority, of the teachers of the colleges signed a joint petition to the university complaining the
disturbances caused by cell phone ring-tones inside the classrooms.

6. I. The government has recently fixed the fees for professional courses offered by the unaided
institutions which are much lower than the fees charged last year.
II. The parents of the, aspiring students launched a severe agitation last year protesting against the
high fees charged by the unaided institutions.
 7. I. Large number of people living in the low-lying areas have been evacuated during the last few days
to safer places.
II. The Government has rushed in relief supplies to the people living in the affected areas.

8. The performance of most of the students in final exam of class X in the schools run by the
Government was excellent.
II Many teachers of the Government schools left the school and joined private schools.

9. I. Majority of the citizens in the locality belong to higher income group.

II. if The sales in the local super market are comparatively much higher than in other localities.

10. I. There is considerable reduction in the number of people affected by water-borne diseases in City
A during this rainy season.
II. The government has opened four new civil hospitals in City A in the beginning of the year.

11. I. The literacy rate in the district has been increasing for the last four years.
II. The district administration has conducted extensive training programme for the S workers
involved in the literacy drive.

12. I. Most of the steel producing companies in the country have made considerable profit during the
last financial year.

II. Many Asian countries have been importing huge quantities of steel from India

13. I. Rural and semi-urban areas in the country have been suffering due to load shedding for quite
some time.

II. If the Government is not able to overcome the power crisis, load shedding will be extended
even to the urban areas.

14. I. The employees of the biggest bank in the country have given an indefinite strike call starting from
third of the next month.

II. The employees of the Central Government have withdrawn their week long demonstrations.

15. I. The school authority has asked the X Std. students to attend special classes to be conducted on
Sundays.

II. The parents of the X Std. students have withdrawn their wards from attending private tuitions
conducted on Sundays.

16. I. The farmers have decided against selling their kharif crops to the Government agencies.

II. The Government has reduced the procurement price of kharif crops starting from last month to the
next six months.

17. I. The government has decided to make all the information related to primary education available
to the general public.

II. In the past, the general public did not have access to all these information t elated to primary
education.
 18 I. There is sharp decline in the production of oil seeds this year.

II. The Government has decided to increase the import quantum of edible oil.

19. I. The life today is too fast, demanding and full of variety in all aspects which at times beads to
stressful situations.

II. Number of suicide cases among teenagers is on increase.

20. I. There is unprecedented increase in the number of young unemployed in comparison to the
previous year.

II. A large number of candidates submitted applications against an advertisement for the post of
manager issued by a bank

Exercise 3

Q1. The Americans with disabilities act (ADA) was designed to ensure that there is no discrimination
against and unfair termination of differently-abled workers in the workplace. However, after the act was
introduced, there has been a marked increase in unemployment among the differently-abled.

Which of the following best explains this seeming discrepancy?

A. A number of differently-abled people chose not to work

B. Not willing to deal with the issues of workplace discrimination of the differently-abled, several
companies recruited fewer of them in the first place
C. Knowing that the act was about to be enforced, companies terminated some of the differently-
abled while they had a chance
D. There was no act introduced that would guarantee a job for the differently-abled
E. The unemployment among the able-bodied has remained consistently high

Q2. In an effort to curb drug abuse, the government has imposed strict laws to prosecute the dealers.
However, such an initiative is unlikely to be effective. Prosecuting dealers will lead to a shortage of drugs.
At the same time, because no efforts are being taken to curb demand, drugs will be sold at a premium,
attracting more people to the very remunerative job of drug dealing. Therefore, to effectively reduce drug
abuse, the government will have to prosecute the drug users and not dealers.

Which of the following is the most relevant information in evaluating the credibility of the argument?

A. Whether efforts have been successfully taken in any other country to regulate drug users.

B. Whether the payoff from selling drugs outweighs the severity of the punishment

C. Whether drugs will continue to be sold at a premium when there are dealers in the market again

D. Whether the majority of the users will be willing to pay a premium to continue to use the drugs

E. Whether the government will be able to keep track of new dealers as and when they enter the
market
Q3. Alan: In the last 15 years, most of the criminals who were convicted of theft or murder were from the
lower income classes and had not completed high school. Therefore, the government has to spend more
money on reducing poverty and increase funding to education. Because terrorism is the most severe of all
crimes, such measures would bring down overall crime rate and reduce threat from terrorism.

Dylan: A study that was conducted in a country known to produce a number of terrorists showed that on
average the terrorists were better educated than the overall population and that they did not necessarily
come from lower income classes. This is probably because crimes such as theft are committed for personal
gain while terrorism is for political or religious gain.

Which of the following best describes Dylan's response to Alan?

A. Dylan changes the direction of the argument entirely by discussing the scenario in a different
country

B. Dylan partially agrees with Alan's reasoning but refutes his recommendation to the government

C. Dylan converts a causal argument made by Alan into a generalization applicable universally

D. Dylan challenges Alan's reasoning by explaining why two situations that Alan perceives as similar
are not

E. While Alan arrives at a conclusion by drawing an analogy, Dylan arrives at the same conclusion by
refuting the analogy

Q4. During the last 50 years in England, the national football team has had at least 60℅ of its players born
during the months January to March. Similarly, in Germany, at least 50℅ of the team has been born during
the first three months of the year. In fact, this statistic holds true for most European countries. This shows
that in most European countries, parents with kids born early in the year are more likely to encourage a
football career.

Which of the following best explains why the conclusion need not be the best explanation for the
statistic?

A. Of the remaining members, 60℅ or more tend to be born between the months of April and June.

B. Parents of kids born in the second half of the year have displayed a measurable intent to promote
scholarly careers

C. The age cut-off for kids to try out for a team in most European countries is calculated as on
December 31 of any year and older the kid during trials, greater the chances of getting the right
opportunities.

D. The school year usually begins in April in most European countries and many parents are known to
encourage students to work on their academics and not sports during the school year.

E. During the last 50 years, on average 30℅ of the kids have been born during the first three months
of the year.

Q5. During medieval times, the administrative system was organized such that jobs were traditionally held
within the same family. The eldest son of the village's blacksmith will take up his father’s business and
become the next blacksmith. The other sons would join the army or serve the king in some fashion while
the daughters did what their mother did. Although the world has undergone innumerable changes, the
dynastic system has not undergone any change whatsoever. Children who have fathers who played major
league baseball are 800 times more likely than other kids to become major league players themselves.

Which of the following best refutes the author's reasoning?

A. In countries with a royal family, the eldest son of the king is destined to be the next king.

B. The blacksmith's eldest son in a mediaeval village could not choose any other profession even if he
wanted to.

C. A major baseball player will have better knowledge and skills and will be able to guide his son
better.

D. 60℅ of the country's doctors have at least one parent who is a doctor.

E. It is a proven fact that success in any career is determined more by skill and practice rather than by
genetic makeup.

Q6. Terrorist attacks invariably lead to tremendous losses in life, property, and morale of a country. The
effects of a terrorist attack are not just immediate and can have long-lasting, trickle-down effects as well.
The fear, for example, takes a long time to die down. However, some of these repercussions can be
beneficial to the country. Take for instance, the recent terrorist attack on our capital city. In the weeks
following the attack, the crime rate in the city came down significantly from what it was just before the
attack. This must primarily be due to the increased presence of police resources that were moved to the
area and is thus an indirect effect of the attack.

Which of the following options gives one more option as to why the crime rate decreased because of the
terrorist attacks?

A. The capital city is under increased monitoring leading to quick detection of crimes - many times
while the crime is still underway.

B. A number of people are frightened because of the terrorist attacks and have fled the capital city.

C. There was a recorded decrease in crime rate right after the terrorist attack in almost all cities of the
country.

D. Intel reports show that the terrorists who pulled off the attack had been committing various other
smaller crimes regularly to distract law enforcement from their true purposes.

E. The government had initiated schemes to decrease poverty and provide better livelihood for the
people just before the terrorist attack.

Q7. It seems that medical care is constantly improving and is far better today than it was a few years ago.
New medicines are being developed, and at a lower cost. Technological advancements are being made and
new treatments are devised. However, hospital care has not improved as much as expected. Most
hospitals do not have a large enough ER that can handle a sudden influx of patients and the number of
people who die in a hospital due to reasons other than what they got admitted for is staggeringly high.

All of the following underscore the author’s argument EXCEPT

 A. Most hospitals require doctors to do so much paperwork that they spend insufficient time on direct
patient care.

B. Most hospitals recirculate air and therefore, it is very easy for diseases such as anthrax to spread
through the hospital.

C. In smaller cities, the ambulance service is on a voluntary basis and the response time for calls is
much lower than the national average, leading to a higher loss of life.

D. A number of doctors in private hospitals are not held accountable by the administration for the loss
of patients.

E. Doctors in most private hospitals have performance appraisals based on how much money they
have brought in for the hospital rather than based on how effectively they treated patients.

Q8. Industrial and automobile pollution have long been thought to contribute to global warming. However,
researchers have identified that the carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide released into the atmosphere
are not as potent as the methane emitted by cud-chewing animals such as cows when they fart or belch.
Therefore, if you drive a hybrid electric car to the grocery, any favor that you would do to the environment
would be offset if you end up buying beef.

Which of the following best describes the author's reasoning?

A. The author establishes a point by drawing an analogy

B. The author disproves a popular notion by providing evidence that is contrary to it

C. The author presents a new theory in response to an existing well-established theory

D. The author uses an illustration to support a new school of thought that is contrary to a popular
school of thought

E. The author makes a comparison between two theories by providing an example

Q9. There are several scientific studies and research findings that are constantly discussed and publicized
in the news media. Some of these are contrary to other research studies that are published. This conflict in
information makes people believe that either science is inaccurate or that they can ‘choose’ which
scientific result they want to believe in. However, neither of these beliefs is accurate. Science is not
inaccurate or subjective. Most of the time, scientific studies show inconsistent results either because of
inaccuracies in methodology adopted or because of misrepresentation of actual results by the news media.
For example, a recent study done on just 15 women showed that eating chocolate was not necessarily
harmful during pregnancy and the media reported that chocolate was actually beneficial to the foetus.

Which of the following best further corroborate the author’s argument?

A. A study result that shows that the effect of automobile pollution on global warming is marginal.

B. An unverified study gaining popularity because it seemingly showed that red wine reduces the risk
of cancer on a very small control group.

C. A new study that further collaborates an earlier finding that the consumption of some types of
berries lower the risk of heart failure.
 D. The news media highlighting the fact that a study had clearly proven that effects of certain drugs on
rats need not be the same as on humans.

E. People not knowing what to believe because one study shows that a certain disease is caused by
genetic factors, while another shows that it also caused by lifestyle factors.

Q10. John: A study has identified that many soldiers received less-than-honorable discharges from the
army due to charges of misconduct that can actually be attributed to conditions such as PTSD and
traumatic brain injury. This is a military practice that is unfair and must be avoided. The army must take
responsibility for the same and stop discharging their soldiers dishonorably.

Christy: While it is true that it is unfair to the soldiers to be discharged so from the army, it has also been
found that there are no sufficient measures or systems that have been created to identify whether the
misconduct was due to trauma or due to other reasons. Moreover, to enforce discipline in the ranks, it is
important for the army to follow a uniform rule for all the soldiers.

Which of the following statements can Christy further add to her argument?

A. If there is no proper system, then the army should have developed a proper system by now.

B. Complete elimination of dishonorable discharges would make it more difficult for the army to
monitor and evaluate the soldiers.

C. It is not the army’s fault that there has been no system developed to help those with PTSD

D. Studies have also found that showing consideration for some soldiers has led to others taking
advantage, indirectly promoting misconduct.

E. There have been instances when the army has been able to identify the reasons for the misconduct
and acted accordingly.

Q11. Technological improvements and reduced equipment costs have made converting solar energy
directly into electricity far more cost-efficient in the last decade. However, the threshold of economic
viability for solar power (that is, the price per barrel to which oil would have to rise in order for new solar
power plants to be more economical than new oil-fired power plants) is unchanged at thirty-five dollars.

Which of the following, if true, does most to help explain why the increased cost-efficiency of solar
power has not decreased its threshold of economic viability?

(A) The cost of oil has fallen dramatically.

(B) The reduction in the cost of solar-power equipment has occurred despite increased raw material costs
for that equipment.

(C) Technological changes have increased the efficiency of oil-fired power plants.

(D) Most electricity is generated by coal-fired or nuclear, rather than oil-fired, power plants.

(E) When the price of oil increases, reserves of oil not previously worth exploiting become economically
viable.
Q12. A recent archeological expedition in Northern Asia revealed a great number of skeletons of animals that died
about 1000 years ago. Further research indicated that all the skeletons had been subjected to temperatures in
excess of 300 degrees Celsius. This fact provided grounds for speculation that they were killed and cooked by tribes
that lived in Northern Asia at that time. However, some of the skeletons belonged to animals that were considered
sacred by those tribes and were never hunted or eaten.

Which of the following best explains the apparent discrepancy above?

A) Some of the skeletons found during the expedition belonged to animals that no longer inhabit the area.

B) Skeletons of most animals did not have damages typical of the skeletons of animals that had been killed,
cut, and cooked.

C) Tribes that inhabited Northern Asia 1000 years ago used fire to cook food.

D) Another study indicated that there was a great famine in Northern Asia at that time, which forced local
tribes to look for alternative sources of food.

E) A further study indicated evidence of a large fire that had occurred in Northern Asia approximately 1000
years ago.

Q13. Humidity refers to the presence of water vapour in the atmosphere around us. It is surprising that the higher
the humidity at a place, the more the people sweat.

Which of the following if true, can be a logical explanation for the above phenomenon?

A. A higher temperature evaporates the water vapours in the atmosphere

B. People sweat only when they exert themselves physically

C. Presence of water vapour in the atmosphere is always negligible

D. People sweat even when the humidity is low

E. The pressure of water vapour at a saturation level in the atmosphere prevents sweat from human
bodies from evaporating

Q14. Only a member of the progressive party would oppose the bill to stop with all the testing of nuclear bombs.
Maria cannot be a member of the progressive party as she supports the bill.

Which of the following would show that the conclusion is not validly drawn?

A. All the parties other than the progressive party support the bill

B. The progressive party generally opposes all efforts at war preparation

C. Maria has, on an earlier occasion supported a bill introduced by a member belonging to a different party

D. It is possible that some members of the progressive party may not oppose the bill to stop testing of
nuclear bombs

E. Maria is not known to take a view independent of her party’s on critical issues

Q15. Despite the efforts of a small minority of graduate students at one university to unionize, the majority of
graduate students there remain unaware of the attempt. Most of those who are aware believe that a union would
not represent their interests or that, if it did, it would not effectively pursue them. Thus, the graduate students at the
university should not unionize, since the majority of them obviously disapprove of the attempt.

The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument:

A. tries to establish a conclusion simply on the premise that the conclusion agrees with long-standing
practice.

B. fails to exclude alternative explanations for why some graduate students disapprove of unionising

C. presumes that simply because a majority of a population is unaware of something, it must not be a good
idea

D. Ignores the possibility that although a union might not effectively pursue graduate student interests,
there are other reasons for unionizing

E. blurs the distinction between active disapproval and mere lack of approval