Unit 3: JUDGMENT and PROPOSITION

Introduction

This unit gives attention to the information about Judgment and Proposition. Judgment is the second act
of the mind under the division of logic. It declares an affirmation, or denial on the relationships that
exists between the two ideas. In declaring the affirmation and denial, Judgment uses a logical form of
proposition. Proposition serves as the instrument in the process of pronouncing and agreement or
disagreement between two ideas. Proposition

Unit learning outcomes

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

• perform the process of formulating valid forms of logical proposition

Timing

To have a comprehensive understanding of the unit topic, you need to devote five (5) hours of thorough
reading and analysis of the text. After which you will perform the third practice quiz or exercise to
measure your level of comprehension on the said unit topic. The third set of practice quiz or exercise is
located in the Exercises section.

3.1. On JUDGMENT

Judgment: Meaning and Nature

Judgment is the act of the mind, which expresses affirmation, or denial of relationships that exists
between the two ideas formed in the mind after the process of simple apprehension is accomplished by
the mind. This mental operation is designated as the second act of the mind. However, it should not be
misinterpreted that simple apprehension precedes judgment according to the order of time for such
assertion is beyond rational demonstration owing to the fact that the complete reasoning process
cannot be rationally broken into different units of actions. Yet, due to the mind’s limited capacity, books
in philosophy present the whole process by dividing it into three units namely; simple apprehension,
judgment, and reasoning.

3.2. On PROPOSITION
A proposition contains judgment. It is a judgment expressed in a sentence, or a sentence pronouncing
the agreement or disagreement between two ideas. However, not all kinds of sentence are considered
as proposition.

Elements of Proposition

1. Subject

It is the one which either affirms or denies something about the predicate.

2. Predicate

It is the one in which something is either affirmed or denied in whatever manner.

3. Copula

The copula (also known as verb in English grammar) is the one which causes the logical connection when
there is affirmation or separation (negation) or when there is a denial expressed in the whole categorical
proposition. The copula is expressed in the use of the following ‘be’ verbs:

a. Is (am, are)

The copula “is” is appropriately applicable in a proposition which affirms the relationship existing
between the subject and the predicate.

b. Is (am, are) not

The copula “is not” is functional only in a categorical proposition which denies the existence of any
relationship between the subject and the predicate.

Constructing a Proposition

When constructing a proposition, one must consider and follow its logical form. The correct form
should be Subject, Copula and Predicate: “S c P”.

Example:

All men are rational.

Analysis:

Subject - All men

Copula - are

Predicate - rational
3.3. Main Division of Proposition

I. General Types of Proposition

a. Quality of Proposition

The quality of the proposition is based on the copula used in the proposition. The quality can either be:

a. Affirmative

The quality is affirmative if the proposition affirms something. As a result, the proposition itself is called
an affirmative proposition (not positive proposition).

Examples: Money is a medium of exchange.

Analysis:

Money - the subject term

Is - the copula

Medium of exchange - the predicate

Quality - Affirmative

b. Negative

The quality is negative if the proposition denies or negates something. As a result, the proposition itself
is called a negative proposition.

Examples: Mr. Brown is not a brown person.

Analysis:

Mr. Brown - the subject term

Is not - the copula

A brown person - the predicate

Quality - Negative

b. Quantity of Proposition

The quantity or extension of a proposition is determined by the quantity or extension of the subject
term. Simply, it means that whatever is the quantity or extension of the subject term is the quantity
embraced by the whole proposition. Thus, it is safe to assume the following formula for the
convenience of the study:

Subject (Singular) = Proposition (Singular)

Subject (Particular) = Proposition (Particular)

Subject (Universal) = Proposition (Universal)

Examples:

a. Jose Rizal is a Filipino.

Analysis:

Jose Rizal (Singular Subject) = Singular Proposition

b. No non-believer has a religion.

Analysis:

Non-believer (Universal Subject) = Universal Proposition

c. Some politicians are lawyers.

Analysis:

Politicians (Particular Subject) = Particular Proposition

3. The Ordinary Propositions (A, E, I, and O)

Symbols: A, E, I, & O

To facilitate the study of the proposition in terms of its quality and quantity Aristotle, the author of logic,
has instituted the use of the four basic symbols A, E, I, and O. These four symbols which are all vowels
were derived from two Latin terms namely; affirmo and nego.

In this case, affirmo is the first person, singular, indicative mood, and in the active voice of the infinitive
verb “affirmare” which means “to affirm” in English. The first two vowels of affirmo are A and I. Hence,
A and I are properly designated here as affirmative symbols.

On the other hand, the Latin term nego is the first person, singular, indicative mood, and in the active
voice of the infinitive verb “negare” which means in English “to deny.” Hence, the symbols E and O are
clearly designated here as negative symbols, being derived from nego.

The following table can help us understand vividly the appropriate use and interpretation of such use of
the symbols in analyzing the quality and quantity of propositions.

Quality

Quantity Affirmative Negative

SINGULAR/ UNIVERSAL A E

PARTICULAR I O

From the table above, it is clear that the symbols for singular and universal propositions are the same
and the difference lies only in the quality. Always remember that these symbols are only valid for the
analysis of propositions.

Examples:

1. Every Economic Resource Used in Business Is an Asset.

Analysis:

Proposition’s Quantity (Universal) + Quality (Affirmative)= A

2. A Lot of Businesses Are Not Illiquid.

Analysis:

Proposition’s Quantity (Particular) + Quality (Negative)= O

3. No Internal Control Can Perfectly Prevent Fraud.

Analysis:

Proposition’s Quantity (Universal) + Quality (Negative)= E

4. Many Filipino Artists Are Still Unrecognized.

Analysis:

Proposition’s Quantity (Particular) + Quality (Affirmative)= I

5. This Book Is Affordable.

Analysis:

Proposition’s Quantity (Singular) + Quality (Affirmative)= A

Quantity and/or Extension of the Predicate

The quantity or extension of the predicate term is determined according to a proposition’s quality or the
predicate’s immediate quantifier that precedes it. Thus, it is wrong to say that a predicate is
automatically singular because the subject is singular as most students might think that way. Simply, the
predicate depends on the quality of the proposition or the predicates immediate quantifier.

For this purpose, there are two basic rules regarding the determination of predicate’s quantity or
extension; namely:

1. Rule for Affirmative Proposition

2. Rule for Negative Proposition

Rule for Affirmative Proposition

The general rule is “the predicate of an affirmative proposition is particular, unless it is singular.”

As such, the determinant of the predicate is the proposition’s quality. However, an exception to the rule
is validly invoked every time the predicate’s quantifier is proven to be singular which causes it to be
singular as well.

Examples:

Human souls are immaterial substances.

Analysis:
Proposition’s Quality (Affirmative) = Predicate (Particular)-General rule applies

The lowest returns to the business this year is also the lowest in the company’s history.

Analysis:

Proposition’s Quality (Affirmative)

Immediate Quantifier of The Predicate (Singular)=Predicate (Singular)-An exception to the general rule

As a rule, the determinant of the predicate is the proposition’s quality. However, an exception
to the rule is validly invoked every time the predicate’s quantifier is proven singular which causes it to
be singular as well.

Rule for Negative Proposition

The general rule states that “The predicate of a negative proposition is universal, unless it is singular.”
Thus, it holds that negative propositions use a universal predicate, except if the predicate has an
immediate singular quantifier, which also causes it to be singular.

Examples:

No money economy is spared from inflation.

Analysis:

Proposition’s Quality (Negative) = Predicate (Universal)-General rule applies

Baroque is not the oldest style of architecture.

Analysis:

Proposition’s Quality (Negative)

Predicate’s Immediate Quantifier (Singular) = Predicate (Singular)-An exception to the general rule.

II. Special Types of Proposition

A. The Categorical Proposition

A categorical proposition is a declarative statement which either affirms or denies something about
another thing. It is important to note that only a declarative statement is considered a categorical
proposition because it is the only type of statement that can either affirm or deny relationships that
might exist between two ideas.

A categorical proposition is constituted by three important elements such as the following:

Kinds of Categorical Proposition

1. Single Proposition

It consists of one subject and one predicate. The subject is linked by the copula “is” or its negation “is
not”.

Example: Man is a rational animal.

2. Multiple Proposition

It consists of two or more proposition united into one.

Example: St. Paul is an apostle and a martyr.

3. Modal Propositions

This is a proposition that uses a modified copula.

Example: This man is always late.

a. Necessary Proposition is one in which the subject and predicate belong to each other in such a
way that it cannot be otherwise.

Example: The circle must be round.

b. Contingent Proposition. In this proposition, the predicate actually belongs to subject, but it can
be absent.

Example: The students are writing (just incidentally).

c. Possible Proposition. The predicate in this proposition actually does not belong to the subject,
but it can belong to it.

Example: Mr. Go can sing (actually he does not sing at the moment).

d. Impossible Proposition. The predicate cannot belong to the subject. Example: Nobody can jump
two miles.

B. The Hypothetical Proposition

This is a compound or complex proposition in which the clauses themselves are neither affirmed nor
denied but only the relation between them. The term hypothetical is derived from “hypo” which means
under and “tetheka” which means I have put; hence it is a statement put under another, one statement
depending on the other.
The proposition does not assert unqualified denial or affirmation but states the dependence of one
affirmation or denial on another. This statement is also known as sequential propositions because they
assert a certain sequence between two or more propositions.

Kinds of Hypothetical Propositions

A) Conditional Proposition.

It expresses together two propositions, one as a prerequisite and the other as the result. This is also
called “If-then proposition” or simply “If proposition”. The prerequisite is the antecedent while the
result is the consequent.

Example: a) If it rains, then the ground gets wet.

b) If you will study, you will pass.

B) Disjunctive Proposition.

It states that either the one or the other member of a disjunction is true. This is the “either-or
statement”.

Example: a) Gloria is either a teacher or a doctor.

b) Erap is either an artist or a nurse.

C) Conjunctive Proposition.

It states that two certain predicates cannot be simultaneously affirmed or denied of one subject.

Example: a) Gringo is not both in Japan and Brunei.

b) One cannot dance and sleep at the same time.