LESSON 5 JUDGEMENT AND PROPOSITION (For Classroom purposes only) JUDGMENT A.

. MEANING Although we have learned that ideas or concepts are the basic elements of knowledge, we should remember that ideas by themselves are neither true or false. There can be truthfulness or falsity in a statement only if we take 2 or more terms, compare them and eventually state an agreement or disagreement between them. Only then can we validate their truth or falsity. In our previous discussions, we have tackled that concepts signified by terms is achieved through a process called simple apprehension. However, concepts alone is not sufficient for us to claim that we have knowledge. Knowledge is attained only when we validly affirm or deny something about a thing through the enunciation of complete sentences. Only when we identify and recognize the truth in a statement could we say that we have knowledge of a thing. This act of recognizing the truth in statements fall within the mental act that we call JUDGEMENT. JUDGMENT is defined as THE SECOND ACT OF THE INTELLECT BY WHICH IT PRONOUNCES THE AGREEMENT OR DISAGREEMENT BETWEEN TERMS OR IDEAS. It is the act by which the intellect compares and

expresses the objective identity or non-identity between ideas. For example: when we say that the apple is red, the intellect either affirms or denies the truth claim of the statement about the individual object apple that is red. B. NATURE OF JUDGMENT Before judgment can be performed, certain acts should be observed: 1. Apprehension of the two concepts ( one must at least explicitly show a conceptual feature not present to the other) 2. Mental comparison of the two concepts by which the mind comprehends them together 3. Perception of the objective identity or non-identity of the two concepts. 4. Pronouncements of the identity or non identity of one concept with another. When the pronouncement is in agreement with reality, it is called formal truth. When the pronouncement disagrees with reality, it is called formal falsehood. Either way, the end product of judgment is called ENUNCIATION. NOTE: Logic primarily deals with the validity of an argument and not really on the truth of an argument. Strictly speaking, the truthfulness and falsity of judgment falls within the realm of Epistemology and not logic.

PROPOSITION A. MEANING A Proposition is defined as judgment expressed in a sentence. It is the sign or representation of a mental pronouncement (enunciation). As a representation of judgment, every proposition must enunciate either a truth or falsity. A proposition becomes categorical when it directly declares a characteristic of a thing unconditionally. B. NATURE OF A PROPOSITION Ideas are mental concepts expressed in words which we call terms Judgments are mental comparison expressed in sentences which we call propositions

1. A sentence is a proposition when it is in the indicative mood (declarative) and must always be express in the present tense according to the real order. 2. A sentence is not a proposition when it is expressed in interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences. C. PARTS OF A PROPOSITION A proposition is always comprised of three elements: the subject, the predicate, and the copula. 1. The Subject term is a term designating the idea about which the pronouncement is made. It is the object to which something is affirmed or

All propositions are sentences but not all sentences are propositions denied. It refers to the WHO and the WHAT of the statement. NOTE: 1.) caution should be practice in cases of inversion of subject and predicate. 2.) Impersonal subjects should be rearranged to show the real subject. 3.) In a proposition, the presence of subject and predicate must always be observed despite their arrangement. 2. The Predicate term is the term designating the idea that is affirmed or denied about subject. NOTE: when it happens that the grammatical predicate conceals the logical predicate, the grammatical predicate must be analyze to reveal the logical predicate. If however, the verb use as

predicate in pronounced in the negative then the quality of the resulting logical proposition could either be positive or negative. 3. The Copula is the term expressing the mental act, which pronounces the agreement or disagreement between the subject and predicate. The copula is usually expressed as a linking verb i.e. is, are, am, is not, are not, am not. The copula is considered as the soul of the proposition because it is responsible in expressing the affirmation of negation contained in the proposition. NOTE: 1.) The copula should always be used in the present indicative mood of the verb to be. If propositions are stated in a manner referring to To illustrate: All men are Copula

past or future event, the proposition should be reduced to its present tense. Like in hidden predicates, copulas when hidden in a proposition should be re-stated to reveal them nut caution should be maintained not change the meaning of the proposition. 2.) Sometimes a single proposition could have two copulas, one in the main proposition and another in a qualifying clause. E.g. A man [who is strong] is healthy. 4. QUANTIFIERS are not considered as a part of a proposition but are important because they determine the quantity of the subject class. Unlike in grammar whereas the subject would include the quantifier, the subject- term in logic is considered as distinct from the quantifier.

rational. predicate term a.) Singular proposition when the subject applies to a single individual only. b.) Particular proposition when the subject is a universal term used partly and indeterminately. The subject is quantified by indefinite modifiers and articles. c.) Universal proposition when the subject is a universal term applied distributively to each and all of the class. d.) Collective proposition when the subject is a collective term, applying to all taken together as a class, but not to the individuals composing the class. e.) indefinite proposition when the proposition has no definite quantifier assigned to the subject. The quantity of the proposition falls on the general sense of the statement and the manner to which it was used. NOTE: i.) Singular and collective propositions are treated as universal propositions. ii.) The quantity of the proposition should not be confused with the quantity of the predicate term unless the predicate term is singular, then, regardless of the quality of the proposition, its quantity becomes singular. iii.) if the predicate term is not singular and the proposition is affirmative, then the predicate term must be particular. iv.)if the predicate term is not singular and the proposition is negative, then the predicate term must be universal.

Quantifier subject term

D. KINDS OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS 1.) QUALITY OF A PROPOSITION a.) it is an affirmative proposition if the class designated by its subject term is included, either as a whole or only in part, within the class designated by its predicate term. Rules to observe: i. The predicate is always affirmed of the subject according to the whole of its comprehension and according to a part of its extension. ii. The predicate should not be disturbed and use as particular, never as a universal. b.) it is a negative proposition if it wholly or partially excludes members of the subject class from the predicate class Rules to observe: i. The predicate is always denied of its subject according to only a part of its extension. ii. The whole of the comprehension of the predicate never applies to the subject, but a part of the comprehension does. iii. The predicate is always taken according to its whole extension as a universal and then denied of the subject. Both subject and predicate belong to totally different classes and neither one belongs to the class of the other NOTE: The quality of a proposition affects the copula, making the proposition either affirmative or negative. If a proposition has a positive copula, then the proposition is affirmative. If a proposition has a negative copula, then it is negative.

2.) QUANTITY OF A PROPOSITION E. FOUR STANDARD FORMS OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS The letters A, E, I, and O are the traditional symbols for the four standard forms of categorical propositions. To illustrate: A E I O All No Some Some S S S S Are Are Are Are not P P P P Quantity Universal Universal Particular Particular Quality Affirmative Negative Affirmative Negative

A propositions it is a universal affirmative proposition, which asserts that every member of a class designated by the subject term is also included in the class designated by the predicate term. Its standard form is : All S are P. E propositions it is a universal negative proposition, which asserts that nothing is a member both of the class designated by the subject term and of the class designated by the predicate term. Its standard form is: No S are P.

I propositions it is a proposition, which asserts that there is at least one thing, which is a member of the class, designated by the subject term but not a member of the class designated by the predicate term. Its standard form is: Some S are P. O propositions it is a proposition, which asserts that there is at least one thing, which is a member of the class, designated by the subject term but not a member of the class designated by the predicate term. Its standard form is: Some S are not P.

F. DISTRIBUTION OF TEMRS IN A CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION The technical term distribution is used to characterize the ways in which terms can occur in categorical propositions. A distributed term is a term of the categorical proposition that is used with reference to every member of a class. If the term is not being use to refer to each and every member of the class, then the term is considered as undistributed. Letter Form A E I O Proposition All S are P No S are P Some S are P Some S are not P Distribution Subject Distributed Distributed Undistributed Undistributed Predicate Undistributed Distributed Undistributed Distributed

NOTE: The quantity of a standard form categorical proposition determined the distribution of the subject (such that if the quantity is universal), the subject is distributed and if the quantity is particular, the subject is undistributed. To help y memorize the rule of distribution: Universal distributes Subjects Negatives distributes Predicates

LESSON 6 EQUIVALENT PROPOSITIONS (For Classroom purposes only) EQUIVALENT PROPOSITIONS -It means saying the same thing in 2 or more different ways; it is also known as EDUCTION TWO TYPES OF EDUCTION 1. FORMAL - validity of the statement is based on the quality of the proposition 2. MATERIAL validity of the statement is base on the meaning of terms or the thoughtcontent of the sentence. PURPOSE OF EDUCTION: Is to transform sentences used in an argument that is not in a strict syllogistic form into a valid syllogism. FORMS OF EDUCTION: CONVERSION 1. SIMPLE CONVERSION proceeds by simply interchanging the subject term and predicate term while retaining the quality and quantity of the proposition. Note: only E and I are subject to simple conversion (E is converted to E; I is converted to I) except in singular propositions whose predicates are singular. Ex. E men are not angels E angels are not men I some students are leaders I some leaders are students

Exception ex. My Brother is my only friend ----to----- My only friend is my brother. 2. CONVERSION BY LIMITATION proceeds by interchanging the subject and predicate terms and changing the quantity of the proposition from universal to particular. Note: only A and E can be partially converted (A is converted to I; E is converted to O) Ex. A Every dog is a mammal I some mammals are dogs E Filipinos are not stupid O Some stupid people are not Filipinos

OBVERSION the subject term and the quantity of the original proposition is retained. ONLY THE QUALITY IS CHANGED. Note: 1. Only (A and E ) ; (I and O) can be interchanged 2. Requires an understanding of the class complement of terms Such as: CONTRADICTORY 1. Good and bad 2. Black and White 3. Introvert and extrovert 4. Human and non-human Illustration of obversion: A E I O OBVERTEND All A are B No A are B Some A are B Some A are notB to to to to A E I O OBVERSE No A are non-B All A are non-B Some A are not non B Some A are non B CONTRARY 1. Coward and hero 2. winner and loser 3. high and low 4. hot and cold

CONTRAPOSITION proceeds by replacing the subject term by the compliment of the predicate term and replacing the predicate term by the compliment of its subject term. STEPS: STEP 1. OBVERT - All men are rational beings STEP 2. CONVERT - No non-rational beings are men STEP 3. OBVERT - All non-rational beings are non-men Note: Contraposition is valid on A and O only, otherwise its educted form would be committing the fallacy of illicit contraposition. INVERSION formulation of a new proposition whose subject is the contradictory of the original subject. TYPES: PARTIAL quality is changed, but the predicate is the same as in the original proposition. Note: only A and E are subject to partial inversion (A to O; E to I) COMPLETE quality is unchanged but the predicate is the contradictory of the original predicate. Note: only A and E are subject to complete inversion (A to I; E to O) PROCEDURE TO FOLLOW: Complete (COCO); (OCOCO) O C O C O 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. E E A I O No S is non P No non P is S All non P is non S Some non S is non P Some non S is not P

Important note: there is no official rule as to when a particular eduction should be used but as a help to students, the following tips could be observe. 1. 2. 3. 4. If If If If there are 2 complementary class diff, use contraposition there is only 1 complementary class difference, use obversion classes are simply reverse, use conversion classes matched, use table of opposition