Unit 3: JUDGMENT and PROPOSITION

3.1. On JUDGMENT

Judgment: Meaning and Nature

Judgment is the act of the mind, which expresses affirmation, or denial of relationships that
exists between the two ideas formed in the mind after the process of simple apprehension is
accomplished by the mind. This mental operation is designated as the second act of the mind.
However, it should not be misinterpreted that simple apprehension precedes judgment according to
the order of time for such assertion is beyond rational demonstration owing to the fact that the
complete reasoning process cannot be rationally broken into different units of actions. Yet, due to the
mind’s limited capacity, books in philosophy present the whole process by dividing it into three units
namely; simple apprehension, judgment, and reasoning.

1.2. On PROPOSITION
A proposition contains judgment. It is a judgment expressed in a sentence, or a sentence
pronouncing the agreement or disagreement between two ideas. However, not all kinds of sentence
are considered as proposition.

Elements of Proposition
1. Subject
It is the one which either affirms or denies something about the predicate.
2. Predicate
It is the one in which something is either affirmed or denied in whatever manner.
3. Copula
The copula (also known as verb in English grammar) is the one which causes the logical
connection when there is affirmation or separation (negation) or when there is a denial
expressed in the whole categorical proposition. The copula is expressed in the use of the
following ‘be’ verbs:
a. Is (am, are)
The copula “is” is appropriately applicable in a proposition which affirms the
relationship existing between the subject and the predicate.
b. Is (am, are) not
The copula “is not” is functional only in a categorical proposition which denies the
existence of any relationship between the subject and the predicate.

Constructing a Proposition
When constructing a proposition, one must consider and follow its logical form. The correct
form should be Subject, Copula and Predicate: “S c P”.
Example:
All men are rational.

Analysis:
Subject - All men
Copula - are
Predicate - rational

1.3. Main Division of Proposition

I. General Types of Proposition

a. Quality of Proposition
The quality of the proposition is based on the copula used in the proposition. The quality
can either be:
a. Affirmative
The quality is affirmative if the proposition affirms something. As a result, the
proposition itself is called an affirmative proposition (not positive proposition).

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 Examples: Money is a medium of exchange.

Analysis:
Money - the subject term
Is - the copula
Medium of exchange - the predicate
Quality - Affirmative

b. Negative
The quality is negative if the proposition denies or negates something. As a result, the
proposition itself is called a negative proposition.

Examples: Mr. Brown is not a brown person.

Analysis:
Mr. Brown - the subject term
Is not - the copula
A brown person - the predicate
Quality - Negative
b. Quantity of Proposition
The quantity or extension of a proposition is determined by the quantity or extension
of the subject term. Simply, it means that whatever is the quantity or extension of the subject
term is the quantity embraced by the whole proposition. Thus, it is safe to assume the following
formula for the convenience of the study:
Subject (Singular) = Proposition (Singular)
Subject (Particular) = Proposition (Particular)
Subject (Universal) = Proposition (Universal)

Note: The authors deemed it necessary to draw a distinction between the terms
“absolute extension” (the one which has an inverse relationship with comprehension)
and “functional extension” (the one referred to when a term is either functionally
representing singularly, particularly, or universally the subject and predicate in a
proposition). We are prompted to do so because in this textbook knowing that this will
make things clear and distinct in their understanding. Hence, from this part onwards,
the terms quantity and extension only mean one thing, i.e., FUNCTIONAL EXTENSION.
Examples:
a. Jose Rizal is a Filipino.
Analysis:
Jose Rizal (Singular Subject) = Singular Proposition

b. No non-believer has a religion.

Analysis:
Non-believer (Universal Subject) = Universal Proposition
c. Some politicians are lawyers.
Analysis:
Politicians (Particular Subject) = Particular Proposition

3. The Ordinary Propositions (A, E, I, and O)

Symbols: A, E, I, & O
To facilitate the study of the proposition in terms of its quality and quantity Aristotle, the
author of logic, has instituted the use of the four basic symbols A, E, I, and O. These four symbols
which are all vowels were derived from two Latin terms namely; affirmo and nego.
In this case, affirmo is the first person, singular, indicative mood, and in the active voice of
the infinitive verb “affirmare” which means “to affirm” in English. The first two vowels of affirmo
are A and I. Hence, A and I are properly designated here as affirmative symbols.

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 On the other hand, the Latin term nego is the first person, singular, indicative mood, and in
the active voice of the infinitive verb “negare” which means in English “to deny.” Hence, the
symbols E and O are clearly designated here as negative symbols, being derived from nego.
The following table can help us understand vividly the appropriate use and interpretation
of such use of the symbols in analyzing the quality and quantity of propositions.

Quality
Quantity Affirmative Negative
SINGULAR/ UNIVERSAL A E
PARTICULAR I O

From the table above, it is clear that the symbols for singular and universal propositions are
the same and the difference lies only in the quality. Always remember that these symbols are only
valid for the analysis of propositions.

Examples:
1. Every Economic Resource Used in Business Is an Asset.
Analysis:
Proposition’s Quantity (Universal) + Quality (Affirmative)= A

2. A Lot of Businesses Are Not Illiquid.

Analysis:
Proposition’s Quantity (Particular) + Quality (Negative)= O

3. No Internal Control Can Perfectly Prevent Fraud.

Analysis:
Proposition’s Quantity (Universal) + Quality (Negative)= E

4. Many Filipino Artists Are Still Unrecognized.

Analysis:
Proposition’s Quantity (Particular) + Quality (Affirmative)= I

5. This Book Is Affordable.

Analysis:
Proposition’s Quantity (Singular) + Quality (Affirmative)= A

Quantity and/or Extension of the Predicate

The quantity or extension of the predicate term is determined according to a proposition’s
quality or the predicate’s immediate quantifier that precedes it. Thus, it is wrong to say that a
predicate is automatically singular because the subject is singular as most students might think that
way. Simply, the predicate depends on the quality of the proposition or the predicates immediate
quantifier.
For this purpose, there are two basic rules regarding the determination of predicate’s quantity or
extension; namely:
1. Rule for Affirmative Proposition
2. Rule for Negative Proposition

Rule for Affirmative Proposition

The general rule is “the predicate of an affirmative proposition is particular, unless it is singular.”
As such, the determinant of the predicate is the proposition’s quality. However, an exception to the
rule is validly invoked every time the predicate’s quantifier is proven to be singular which causes it to
be singular as well.
Examples:
Human souls are immaterial substances.
Analysis:
Proposition’s Quality (Affirmative) = Predicate (Particular)-General rule applies

The lowest returns to the business this year is also the lowest in the company’s history.
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 Analysis:
Proposition’s Quality (Affirmative)
Immediate Quantifier of The Predicate (Singular)=Predicate (Singular)-An exception to the
general rule

As a rule, the determinant of the predicate is the proposition’s quality. However, an exception to
the rule is validly invoked every time the predicate’s quantifier is proven singular which causes it to
be singular as well.

Rule for Negative Proposition

The general rule states that “The predicate of a negative proposition is universal, unless it is
singular.” Thus, it holds that negative propositions use a universal predicate, except if the predicate
has an immediate singular quantifier, which also causes it to be singular.

Examples:
No money economy is spared from inflation.
Analysis:
Proposition’s Quality (Negative) = Predicate (Universal)-General rule applies

Baroque is not the oldest style of architecture.

Analysis:
Proposition’s Quality (Negative)
Predicate’s Immediate Quantifier (Singular) = Predicate (Singular)-An exception to the general
rule.

II. Special Types of Proposition

A. The Categorical Proposition
A categorical proposition is a declarative statement which either affirms or denies something
about another thing. It is important to note that only a declarative statement is considered a
categorical proposition because it is the only type of statement that can either affirm or deny
relationships that might exist between two ideas.
A categorical proposition is constituted by three important elements such as the following:

Kinds of Categorical Proposition

1. Single Proposition
It consists of one subject and one predicate. The subject is linked by the copula “is” or its
negation “is not”.
Example: Man is a rational animal.
2. Multiple Proposition
It consists of two or more proposition united into one.
Example: St. Paul is an apostle and a martyr.
3. Modal Propositions
This is a proposition that uses a modified copula.
Example: This man is always late.
a. Necessary Proposition is one in which the subject and predicate belong to each other in
such a way that it cannot be otherwise.
Example: The circle must be round.
b. Contingent Proposition. In this proposition, the predicate actually belongs to subject, but
it can be absent.
Example: The students are writing (just incidentally).
c. Possible Proposition. The predicate in this proposition actually does not belong to the
subject, but it can belong to it.
Example: Mr. Go can sing (actually he does not sing at the moment).
d. Impossible Proposition. The predicate cannot belong to the subject. Example: Nobody
can jump two miles.

B. The Hypothetical Proposition

This is a compound or complex proposition in which the clauses themselves are neither
affirmed nor denied but only the relation between them. The term hypothetical is derived from
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 “hypo” which means under and “tetheka” which means I have put; hence it is a statement put under
another, one statement depending on the other.
The proposition does not assert unqualified denial or affirmation but states the
dependence of one affirmation or denial on another. This statement is also known as sequential
propositions because they assert a certain sequence between two or more propositions.
Kinds of Hypothetical Propositions
A) Conditional Proposition.
It expresses together two propositions, one as a prerequisite and the other as the result. This
is also called “If-then proposition” or simply “If proposition”. The prerequisite is the antecedent
while the result is the consequent.
Example: a) If it rains, then the ground gets wet.
b) If you will study, you will pass.
B) Disjunctive Proposition.
It states that either the one or the other member of a disjunction is true. This is the “either-or
statement”.
Example: a) Gloria is either a teacher or a doctor.
b) Erap is either an artist or a nurse.
C) Conjunctive Proposition.
It states that two certain predicates cannot be simultaneously affirmed or denied of one
subject.
Example: a) Gringo is not both in Japan and Brunei.
b) One cannot dance and sleep at the same time.