Module 5: Ambiguous and Vague Terms.

There are two incorrect usages of terms: ambiguous terms and vague terms.
Ambiguous terms
Previously on past modules, you have learned that a term could have a myriad of uses
based on different language games. Most words in the natural language have more than one use
and because of these uses, you need to first recognize under what language game has the term
been used. This is also the only way in which you can understand the intensions or extensions of
that word. The problem of ambiguity arises from these definitions. The more uses a term
acquires, the more ambiguous it becomes, and if a term acquires excessive uses the term
becomes too ambiguous.
For example, the term good in philosophy could mean a multitude of things. If used in a
hedonistic manner, it could mean anything that promotes bodily pleasure. If used in a humanist
manner, the word good means anything that helps the develop all human potentials. If used in an
ordinary context, the word good could be used to describe anything, good dog, good boy, good
food, etc.
Vague Terms
On the other hand, a term is considered vague when the term's intension suffers from
obscurity. For example, the words few, some, many are vague terms. These words do not clarify
how many items are there. The solution to these problems is clarification. However, if a term is
still vague after clarification then it is too vague. In cases like obscenity and pornography, these
terms are considered vague terms because the divide between the two is hard to determine. A
nude model in a magazine is pornography, but a painting of the same nude model would be
considered art.

In sum, ambiguity and vagueness cause confusion and difficulty when using terms.
Terms that have collected too many definitions are ambiguous, and terms that are unclear in
intension are vague.
These terms also result in misunderstandings. The most common misunderstanding is
linguistic confusion. It is when the speaker and the hearer use the term in different ways. A good
rule to follow avoid linguistic confusion; "To never take part in any verbal dispute unless the
disputants are using the same word in the same way.
Fallacy of Equivocation
Confusion between the uses of terms can even originate in one's mind. This can happen
when you use a term in one way and use it again in another way in the same line of thinking.
Philosophers have called this the fallacy of equivocation.
 A great example of this is a quotation from Jean-Paul Sartre. "Consciousness is a being
such that in its being, its being is in question insofar as this being implies a being other than
itself."
Note that the only solution to these problems is defining ambiguous or vague terms. The
definition of these terms prevents confusion and provides the hearer or reader the proper
language game in which the term was used. By doing so, you are clarifying the term to the reader
but also in your thinking. The next module will discuss more about definitions and how to define
terms.

Module 6: On Definitions
Definition by Synonym
It is defining an unfamiliar term with a familiar term. A preparation for composing a
good definition. This technique could be the most rudimentary type of definition. But definition
by synonym is an error in definition called circular definitions.
Ostensive Definition
The use of a word can easily be specified by giving examples of the members of the
extension, either verbally or by a pointing gesture. This is the most common way of conveying
the use of a term, namely, pointing to the members of its extension. In fact, we learned how to
use most of the basic vocabulary of our native language through ostensive definition.
A concept learned through ostensive definition is incomplete. Will result to:
1. Discrimination
2. Generalization
Intension and Extension
To have complete understanding of the meaning of the concept, the intension must be
stated without vagueness and give some typical examples of the members of the extension.
To have full understanding and control of the use of the term, the intension of the concept
must be stated in simple, clear, and precise language (and avoid vagueness). Next would be
offering typical examples of the members of the extension.
How do you define the term ‘definition’?
A definition is a linguistic device that provides an explanation or demonstration about the
use of a term. The use of a term is highlighted in terms of its intension and extension in the
context of a language game. All definition must share this common feature. A definition is
complete if you are provided with a clear statement of the intension and some typical members
of its extension.
Reportive Definition
 To offer a reportive definition means to provide information about how a term is being
used in the same way in numerous language games. These are reports about standard use or
conventional use of the term.
Conventional use – how the term is used by actual people in numerous real-life
situations. This would ensure that the language game has a form of life.
Reportive definition is synonymous with lexical definition in the literature of logic.
(introducing an unfamiliar term with the familiar)
Again, we can say: In the literature in logic, a verbal definition is synonymous with the
statement of the intension of the concept.
Stipulative Definition
A stipulative definition
- Proposes to use a term in a unique way in a language game (the proposal must be
followed)
- Departs from conventional use
For many specialized purposes, such as conducting scientific research, enacting
legislation, coining a term in philosophy, or naming an invention, we can, according to
Wittgenstein, circumscribe the use of a term. We specify a precise use of the key terms.
The audience or reader must be warned about your stipulative definition, when you are
going to use a term in a specialized way that departs from conventional use.
The main technique for introducing technical terms is through stipulative definition.
(metaphysical terms)
Scientific terms, often, are introduced also through stipulative definition as well.
However, technical terms in the sciences tend to gain wide currency in ordinary language.
(examples: normal, introvert, extrovert, neurotic, psychotic)
Operational Definition
The method used in the sciences to bring in such concepts on the plane of observation is
called operational definition.
Dispositional concepts
- Do not exhibit directly observable characteristic of their intension, certain operations
must first be performed.
- Not empirical since both their intension and extension are not directly observable
The inventor of this technique is Percy W. Bridgman. He advocated that all scientific
concepts should be defined in terms of performable operations. This is the technique of
anchoring theoretical terms as well as dispositional terms on the plane of observation.
Two Types of Operations
1. Instrumental operations performed by various devices for observation and
measurement like microscope or telescope; and
2. Paper and pencil operations, verbal operations and thought experiments.
A typical operational definition of the term magnetic is as follows:
An object is magnetic if and only if you actually perform the following operation: you
put iron filings near the object and you observe that the iron filings cling or attach to the object.
A very good example of paper and pencil operation is the operational definition of the
term intelligent quotient or I Q.
The operation you have to perform to define a concept is the intension of the concept; in
fact, it is the necessary and sufficient condition for membership in the extension of the concept.
It does not cease to be an intension just because the trait or set of traits is observable only
by performing some operation. (Strict Intention)
If, after performing the operational definition, the expected observation of the trait or
characteristic did not occur, then it is not a member of the extension of the concept.

Module 7: Analytic Definition

Is there an easy and practical technique in defining a term?
Acuña modified logical definition and devised a new technique called analytic definition.
Analytic Definition:
Three categories:
1. Definiendum- the term to be defined.
Example: If you are trying to define the term "mammal," then this is the Definiendum.
2. Definiens-provides the intension or the defining property.
3. Denotata- provides samples of the members of the extension of the definiendum.
* Denotata is often neglected in defining terms in literature of logic and philosophy of language.
Analytic definition emphasizes the use of denotata.
2 parts of definiens:
1) genus-wider concept in which definiendum is a member.
2)differentia-states the set of traits, characteristics or functions that distinguishes the
definiendum(term) from other species in the genus.
Figure 1
triangle(genus)
equilateral
triangle(species)
non-equilateral
triangle (species)
*The differentia of equilateral
triangles that differs them from
non-equilateral triangles is the
property of having all sides
equal.
Analytic definition examples:
definiendum definiens
Genus Differentia
denotata
mammals animals with mammary
glands
monotremes,
marsupials and
placentals
Figure 2
definiendum definiens
Genus Differentia
denotata
monotremes egg laying mammals platypus,spiny anteater
marsupials carry their young in
abdominal pouches
kangaroo, koala, possum
placentals nourish their embryos through
internal placenta in the womb
man, dog cat, elephants
Figure 3
Mammary glands is the necessary and sufficient condition for an animal to be called a
mammal. Mammals are subdivided into three genuses namely: monotremes, marsupials,
placentals.
Figure 2 illustrates the definiendum (term) mammal are animals that have mammary
glands, examples of which are the genuses monotremes, marsupials and placentals.
While figure 3 illustrates the genuses as definiendum or the term being defined. The set of
traits, characteristics or functions that distinguishes the definiendum(term) from other genuses is
found in the second column. While examples of each genus is found in the third column.
definiendum definiens
Genus Differentia
denotata
A bird is an animal with feathers ostrich, chicken, pelican
*All animals that have feathers are considered birds.
"Epistemology is a sub discipline of Philosophy dealing with the source, nature and validity of
knowledge. Empiricism and rationalism are the two types of epistemologies."
definiendum definiens
Genus Differentia
denotata
Epistemology sub discipline
of Philosophy
Empiricism and
rationalism.
more examples:
definiendum definiens
Genus Differentia
denotata
chair furniture stool,sofa,rocking chair
table furniture conference table, bar
table, computer desk
Common errors in definition:
• too broad or too narrow statement of the definiens, especially differentia.
Examples:
definiendum definiens
Genus Differentia
denotata
A bird is an animal that flies bats, dove, eagle
A bird is an animal that lays eggs platypus, owl, swallow
A bird is an animal that sings/talks parrot, canary,
Rules in Composing a Definition:
1. There should be an essential trait that is a necessary and sufficient condition for membership.
• not to broad and not too narrow
dealing with the
source, nature
and validity of
knowledge.
primary function
is for sitting
surface on
which
objects may be
placed.
2. Definitions must not be circular or defined by a synonym that is a rough approximation of a
definition by using familiar terms.
Ex: An alien is a foreigner.
An effect is an event that has a cause.
3. Definition should not be stated in the negative if it can be stated in the affirmative.
Ex: Mind as an entity that is neither tangible nor visible; it has no weight, mass or location
There are exceptions: bald, widow or atheism.
4.Should not use figurative, obscure and metaphorical language
Ex: Love is like a rosary, full of mystery.
Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
5. Avoid defining by ostensive definitions or by giving examples of the members of extension.
Ex: Pointing to a real cat to define what cat is.