Keeping in mind that language is for doing things (Clark, H.H.

, 1996),
discourse production can be understood as the planning and execution of actions
under specific social contexts. Here, actions refer to certain kinds of goal
Foriented events that establish or prevent changes in the world (van Dijk &
Kintsch, 1983). This planning and execution of a particular action in discourse is
called a speech act, i.e. doing something with language. Examples of speech acts
are promises, requests, congratulations, accusations, etc.

Before delving into a conversation with someone, the speaker (or actor) must
first evaluate the social context of the situation and set out a strategic plan of
discourse production accordingly. Say, for example, that someone is being located
to Afghanistan for work, and for whatever reason F be it you will miss them too
much or are concerned for their safety F you do not want them to go. In such a
case, you would use discourse to arrive at a desired outcome where the person
does not go to Afghanistan. To arrive at this outcome, you need to plan a strategy
and decide what kind of speech act to use. Assuming the person is your friend,
commands would seem mean, and requests might come across as selfish.
Warnings, advice, or suggestions might show your concern for the person, and
would likely be your best plan of action (van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983)

A. Speech Planning and Execution

Speaking and listening are two activities of human beings that are sometimes
included as basic activities in communication. These activities have become the
observation of psychologist purposed for mental activities. We can listen to
everyone’s ideas, get particular information to shape up our way of thinking, and
make up our ideas through the words, while in speaking, we can freely deliver our
ideas into words and expresses our feeling and way of thinking. These activities
have become two fundamental things in communication.

In speaking, people can convey some ides, knowledge, and information. That
is why speaking is a fundamentally instrumental act. Speaking, therefore, shows
up to be divided into two types of activityFFFplanning and execution.
 Speaker first plans what they want to say based on how they want to change
the mental state of their listeners. They then put their plan into execution, uttering
the segments, words, phrases, and sentence that make up plan. The division
between planning and execution, however, is not a clean one. At any moment
speakers are usually doing a little of both. They are planning what to say next
while executing what they had planned moments before. It is impossible to say
where planning leaves off and execution begins. Despite these problems, planning
and execution are convenient labels for the two end of speech production. The
considerations that come into planning an utterance can generally be distinguished
from those that go into execution. (Clark: 1977: 224).

Here are some processes of how speech is planned and executed as proposed
by Clark (1977: 224). In rough outline the process will simply look like this:

1. Discourse Plans.
The first step for the speakers is to decide what kind of discourse they are
participating in. It is the case that they are telling a story, conversing with
other people, giving instructions, describing an event, or making a pledge.
Each kind of discourse has a different structure, and they must plan their
utterances to fit. Each utterance must contribute to the discourse by
conveying the correct messages.
2. Sentence Plans.
Given the discourse and their intention to produce a sentence with the
correct message, speaker must select one that will do this. They must
secede on the speech act, what to put as subject, and given new
information, and what to subordinate. They must also decide how they
want to convey their messages directly, by means of the literal meaning of
a sentence, or directly, by means irony, understatement, or other indirect
rhetorical devices.
3. Constituent Plans.
Once the speakers decide on the global characteristics of a sentence, they
can begin planning its constituent and put them in the right order.
 Although they may have planned the global form of sentence, they
normally select specific words only phrase by phrase.
4. Articulatory Program.
As specific words are chosen , they are formed into an articulatory
program in a memory buffer capable on holding all the words of a plans
constituent at once. It contains a representation of the actual phonetic
segments, stresses, and intonation pattern that are to be executed at the
next step.

5. Articulation
The final step is to execute the contents of the articulatory program. This is
done by mechanism that adds sequence and timing to the articulory
program, telling the articulatory program, telling the articulatory muscles
what they should do them. This step results in audible sounds, the speech
the speaker intended to produce.

Planning and execution, so the evidence suggest, are interleaved in a complex

way so that extra planning may lead to delays of execution. In a talk, people
always think of what they want to convey and this process involves our
articulatory program. The first thing we do is to start the conversation, then pick
the correct words, which can express what we are thinking of. In this way, it is the
time how we start, what to get involved with, what to omit, and what words are
correct to use. When we pass through this process, we may hesitate a lot and get
into position of being anxious what to say next after the first utterance. Even
thought what we are going to say in our mind, but we may produce speech errors
in our speaking.

B. The Ideal Delivery

The ideal delivery is a term which is the opposite of Speech Errors. The ideal
delivery is defined as the correct way of executing a sentence. According to Clark
and Clark (1977:261), bwe can call one sentence as the ideal delivery when it is
executed in a single fluent speech train under one smooth intonation contourb.
Ideal delivery can be settled if the speakers know what they really want to say and
say it fluently except in what we call as Grammatical Juncture. This is because in
the ideal delivery speakers can breathe at juncture but not within clauses.

According to Clark and Clark (1977:297), there are three hesitations points at
which speakers are liable to stop for planning:

1. Grammatical Junctures
It is the logical place to stop and to plan the sentence’s skeleton and the
first constituent of the upcoming sentence. Pause at these junctures tend to
be long and frequent.
2. Other constituent boundaries
Within sentences these boundaries are the appropriate place to stop and to
plan details of the next major constituent. This stopping place typically
marked by a filled pause.
3. Before the first content word within a constituent
This stopping place, like the previous kind, gives speakers time to plan the
very next major constituent. It is typically marked by a silent pause or by a
repeat of the beginning of the constituent. From the three hesitation points
above, we can find that in ideal delivery Grammatical Juncture is the only
place in sentences where speakers may pause to take a breath before
continuing the sentence without interrupting fluent speech. Besides, there
is another obligatory pause that is called conventional pauses and serves a
specific linguistics purpose

For example :
1. Her brother the dentist is as ugly as a mule.
2. Her brother, the dentist, is as ugly as a mule.

From the examples above, we can see that the bcomma pausesb in 2 give a
different interpretation from 1 and must therefore be present to signal this
 interpretation. So, Ideal delivery has these characteristics. In speaking
activity, everyone wants to make that ideal delivery. One of the reasons is
to make them better understood because if there are so many breaks in
speech, and not in constituent boundaries, speech is very difficult to
understand ( Clark& Clark 1977:261). This is because, in ideal delivery all
breaks will be at grammatical junctures not within clauses.

Other reason is that people who speak fluently are very likely judged
cleverer, abler, and more effective than the people without the same
fluency. So, it is natural, in most circumstances, to strive for the ideal
delivery although it is very difficult to make it in the process of speaking.
So even if they should run into difficulty planning a constituent, they
should try to execute it as much as a single unit as they can.

C. Articulatory Program Speech

Consists of a sequence of articulatory gestures, a coordiatedsuccession of

muscular construction in and around the mouth. Then Lashley in1951 argued
that speech execution requires a plan, this plan direct the order andtiming of
these articulatory gestures, a plan to command what muscles to move on
when. The articulatory program deal with the formation of words, syllables,
and sounds. In addition Lashley state that the articulatory program is formed
and executed by part in an extraordinary source of evidence that is called slips
tongue.

For each we shall give a sample target (T), which is the utterance intended,
and a possible slip (S), which might besaid in place of what was intended.
There are a some commonest types of tongue slips, those are:

1. Anticipations
A unit in the stream of speech appears too soon, possibly replacing the
unit that should have appeared.
 T: Bad sack.
S: Sad sack.
2. Perseverations.
A unit that has already occurred in the stream of speech recurs later,
possibly replacing the unit that should have occurred.
T: Bad sack.
S: Bad back.
3. Transpositions.
Two units in the stream of speech are produced, each where the other
one should have been.
T: Bad sack.
S: Sad back.
4. Substitutions.
Some unit replaces another unit, but the origin of the unit that actually
appears is unknown.
T: Bad sack.
S: Bad lack.
5. Blends.
When two words are both possible at a particular position in the stream
of speech, occasionally a blend of the two words will appear instead of
either.
TI: Don't yell so loud.
TI: Don't shout so loud.
S: Don't shell so loud.
6. Counterblends.
This relatively rare phenomenon was noted by Hockett (1967). After a
person produces a blend, he or she may, on a second attempt to
produce the intended utterance, produce a second blend that uses the
elements left over from the first blend.
TI: Can we afford it?
Tz: Can we avoid it?
 S: Can we avord it? I mean, Can we affoid it?
7. Haplologies.
Also noted by Hockett (1967), this phenomenon involves skipping part
of the target utterance.
T: Listened to Dorothy's story with attention.
S: Listened to Dory with attention.

From the commonest types of tounge slips, there is the suggestion the
articulatory program is planned and formed at several levels. The first
suggestion is to examine the evidence for these different levels. Second is
about the words are inserted in order of articulation, in order of importance.
Third is about the articulatory program which is completed with the rhythm
and timing and adjusted to the speed of the speech.

preference

Neves, D. M. & Anderson, J. R. (1981). Knowledge compilation: mechanisms

for the automatization of cognitive skills. In J. R. Anderson (Ed.),
Cognitive skills and their acquisition (pp. 57-84). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Newell, A. & Rosenbloom, P. S. (1981). Mechanisms of skill acquisition and

the law of practice. In J. R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their
acquisition (pp. 1-56). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Newell, A. & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.