UNIT 2: LANGUAGE; MEANING AND

DEFINITION
2.1 VARIETIES OF MEANING
There are 2 kinds of terminologies that we use to convey our idea ;

1. Cognitive meaning; are terminology that convey a certain information

2. Emotive meaning; are terminology that express or evoke feeling

When we talk about these terminologies there is a concept that is called a value claim. A value claim is
something good, bad, right, wrong, better worse, more important or less important than some other thing 1.
By nature value claims need an evidence to support them. And when it is hard to find cognitive evidence
then it will be easy to use emotional statement because it will be easy to manipulate the value claim.
Although this method kills the logical reasoning of the listener to counter argument , it is used by
advertisement companies and pharmaceutical because of its manipulative nature.

Cognitive meaning can be defective by the following reasons;

1. Vague expression: it is when meanings are imprecise, obscure and hazy. In another word,
Vagueness refers to a lack of clarity in meaning. Some vague words are for example; thin or fat
don’t cause trouble. Trouble arises only when the language is not sufficiently precise for what the
situation demand.
2. Ambiguous expression: is the one that can be interpreted as having more than one clearly
distinct meaning in a given context.

The difference between ambiguity and vagueness;

1. vague terminology allows for a relatively continuous range of interpretations, whereas ambiguous
terminology allows for multiple discrete interpretations.
2. vague terminology allows for a relatively continuous range of interpretations, whereas ambiguous
terminology allow for multiple discrete interpretations.

In logic knowing vague and ambiguous expression is important because some arguments may
contain one of them. So before evaluation of a certain argument it is crucial to find the meaning
of a vague or an ambiguous words that is causing defect of clarity of the argument.

A dispute usually arises when a person A rejects as false an assertion made by another person B or else
makes a contrary assertion him.

There are 2 types of dispute in logic namely; verbal dispute and factual dispute. A dispute between two
parties is verbal when the two parties agree on the relevant facts about a domain of concern, and just
disagree about the language used to describe that domain. It is factual if it arises from one or both of the
disputing parties entertaining a mistaken belief about some (actual or possible) state of affairs. A factual

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dispute occurs when there is disagreement over matters involving facts. A verbal dispute occurs when
vague or ambiguous language results in linguistic misunderstanding.

2.2 INTENTION AND EXTENSION OF TERMS

A term is any word or arrangement of word that may serve as the subject of a statement. It includes;
proper and common names and descriptive phrase.

The cognitive meaning of terms comprises two kinds: intentional (connotation) and extensional
(denotation) meaning. Intension and extension, in logic, are correlative words that indicate the reference
of a term or concept: “intension” indicates the internal content of a term or concept that constitutes its
formal definition; and “extension” indicates its range of applicability by naming the particular objects that
it denotes.

By nature intentional (connotation) is subjective. So, to avoid this, we use attributes that the term is
commonly accepted by all i.e. conventional connotations.

Denotation might be affected by the passage of time because at some point of time the class might be
empty extension.

2.3 Definitions and Their Purposes

Over the years philosophers have held various conflicting views about the purpose of definitions.
However, In modern sense, definitions are a group of words that assigns a meaning to a word. A
definition consists of two parts:

1) Definiendum – is the word being defined.

2) Definiens – is the word or group of words defining it.

Thus, by understanding the definiens, we can understand the meaning of the definiendum.

There are also different views among philosophers regarding the role and significance of definition. As a
solution, many logicians adopt a pragmatic approach, which is the studying of actual usage and functions
of definitions.

Stipulative Definitions
These definitions assigns a meaning to a word for the first time. For this reason, there can not be truth
value. The purpose is to replace a complex expression with a simpler one.

Example: “Operation Sunset” – was the name that Ethiopian forces gave to invade Eritrea.

Lexical Definitions
It is used to report the meaning that a word already has in a language so as to avoid ambiguity.

It can be evaluated as true or false.

These definitions are kinds of definitions found in dictionaries.

 Precising Definitions
It has the purpose of reducing the vagueness of a term by sharpening its boundaries. It defines a term by
introducing additional criterion or limit. They are commonly found in the fields of law and science.

Words such as “fresh”, “rich”, “poor” and “love” are vague.

Theoretical Definitions
These definitions are designed to explain a theory that gives meaning to a word by describing its
characteristics. It can not be evaluated as true or false.

Example: “Right” means approved by the gods.

Persuasive Definitions
Persuasive definitions has an attempt to attach emotive meaning to the use of a term. It can be either true
or false. The purpose is to influence the attitude of the reader or listener.

Example: Abortion means the ruthless murdering of an innocent children.

2.4 DEFINITIONAL TECHNIQUES

Extensional definition
There is 3 kinds of this definition;

i. Demonstrative (ostensive): is a primitive way of defining things by pointing at them. Its

shortcoming is that there must be the existence of the thing in the vicinity to be defined. But it is
effective to learn new language. This definition is different from other definitions because it use
gesture.
ii. Enumerative definition: assigns a meaning to a term by naming the member of the class that the
denotes. Example football player is like Ronaldinho.
iii. Definition by sub class: assigns a meaning to a term by naming subclass of the term that is
denoted.

Extensional definition is used as technique for producing lexical and Stipulative definition. But it is not
usual when extensional definition produce precise and theoretical definition

All intentional definitions are extensional definition but the reverse is not true.

INTENSIONAL DEFINITION

There are 4 techniques to show the attribute of a word denotes;

 i. Synonyms definition; it is one of the technique which the definiens is a single word that
connotes the same attributes as the definiendum by being synonym. It usually used lexical
definitions.
ii. Etymological definition; assigns a meaning to a word by disclosing the word’s ancestry in both
it’s own language and other language, example; The word "psychology" is derived from two
Greek words 'psyche' and ‘logos'. Psyche refers to mind, soul or sprit while logos means study,
knowledge or discourse.
iii. Operational definition; assigns a meaning after some procedural experiment. They only convey
only part of intentional meaning of the term.
iv. Definition by genus and difference; consists of combining a term denoting a genus with a word
or group of words connoting a specific difference so that the combination identifies the meaning
of the term denoting the species. This method is the most effective.

2.5 CRITERIA FOR LEXICAL DEFINITION

In the previous subtopic we have seen that lexical definition is a type of definition that explains the
meaning of a word or phrase by providing its literal or dictionary definition and this are commonly used
to establish a common understanding of words in a particular language. To bring the common particular
definition of a term, laws that govern lexical definition is needed. The rules are mentioned as follows;

1. Lexical definition should conform to the standard of proper grammar

When lexical definition gives any definitions they should respect grammar and punctuation.

Example; "The dog is a type of mammal that barks and have four legs."

Correction: "The dog is a type of mammal that barks and has four legs."

2. Lexical Definition Should Convey The Essential Meaning Of The Word Being Defined
It should provide accurate information about the word's characteristics, properties, or qualities. A
definition cannot be helpful if it fails to convey the essential meaning of the definiendum.

Defining the word "freedom" as "the state of being free from restraint or confinement." While this
definition provides a basic understanding of freedom, it fails to encompass the deeper philosophical,
political, and personal dimensions of the concept. Freedom goes beyond physical constraints and includes
the ability to exercise one's rights, make choices, and pursue individual autonomy. It also involves
societal and political freedoms such as freedom of speech, expression, and assembly. Therefore, a more
comprehensive definition would be needed to accurately convey the essential meaning of the word
"freedom."

3. A Lexical Definition Should Be Neither Too Broad Nor Too Narrow

Among the kinds of lexical definition synonym definition and genus and difference are highly affected by
this. A lexical definition should strike a balance between being too broad and too narrow. It should
provide enough detail to accurately convey the essential meaning of a word, but not be so specific that it
excludes important aspects or variations of the concept. A comprehensive definition should consider
different perspectives and interpretations, capturing the core essence of the word while allowing for some
flexibility and context-dependent understanding.

4. A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Circularity

In this rule circularity means defining a term using the term itself.

Example; “Animal” is a word used to show all animals

5. A Lexical Definition Should Not Be Negative When It Can Be Affirmative

If there is an affirmative definition for a word no need of using the negative meaning.

Example; peace is absence conflict or war.

The above definition is not correct because peace can be expressed as;

Peace is a state of tranquility, harmony and it is a condition in which individuals, communities, or nations
coexist peacefully, respecting each other's rights and differences.

6. A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Figurative, Obscure, Vague And Ambiguous

Language
A definition is figurative if it involves metaphors or tends to paint a picture instead of exposing the
essential meaning of a term.

Example: sadness is having heavy heart (heavy heart by itself is a metaphor which needs to be defined by
itself)

A definition is obscure if its meaning is hidden as a result of defective or inappropriate language. One
source of obscurity is overly technical language.

Example; kitten is a domestic species of small carnivorous mammal.( instead of mentioning needless
words it can be defined as a juvenile cat)

A definition is vague when it is defined in the manner of uncertain, indefinite, or unclear character.

A definition is ambiguous if it lends itself to more than one distinct interpretation.

7. A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Affective Terminologies

Affective terminologies are any kinds of word that can play on the emotion of the reader of listener. They
intended to create love or hate in the heart of the reader.

8. A Lexical Definition Should Indicate The Context To Which The Defines Pertains
Citation to the reference of the word is mandatory because sometimes there might be some words that
have different meaning with different context.
 REFERENCES

 A Concise Introduction to Logic, the 13th Edition Patrick J. Hurley, Lori

Watson

 A Concise Introduction to Logic,7th Edition Patrick J. Hurley

 Logic: A Brief Introduction Ronald L. Hall, Stetson University