CHAPTER THREE

LOGIC AND LANGUAGE

Philosophy of language is the reasoned inquiry into
the nature, origins, and usage of language.
As a topic, the philosophy of language, particularly
for analytic Philosophers, has been concerned with
the following four central problems:
The nature of meaning
Language use
Language cognition and
The relationship between language, logic and
reality.
Conti…
 The nature of meaning
The nature of meaning can be described as the content
carried by the words or signs exchanged by people when
communicating through language.
There are two essentially different types of linguistic
meaning these are as follows:
Conceptual meaning
Associative meaning
Conceptual meaning refers to the definitions of words
themselves, and the features of those definitions, which
can be treated using semantic feature analysis.
Associative meaning refers to the individual mental
understandings of the speaker.
Conti…

 Language is a body of standard meanings of words and

the form of speech used as a means of expressing the
feeling, emotion, desire, thought etc in a consistent
pattern of communication.
 Language requires symbol such as words, sounds,
gestures, signs that are patterned and related in a
certain way for the purpose of communicating meanings.
We use language in many different ways.
For example:
 It is the tool of communication and the means of
expressing ideas.
 It is the way of conveying information and evoking
feelings.
Conti…

Functions of Language
Ordinary language serves various functions in our
day-to-day life.
 Individuals use language for the following purpose:
To ask questions
To tell stories
To tell lies
To tell jokes
To give directions
To sing songs
To greet someone and so on.
Conti…
In general, language has three linguistic
functions namely,
Expressive (emotive)
Directive and
Cognitive (informative) function.
Of these functions of language, the
cognitive function of language is a relevant
and an important for logic.
Conti…

Expressive (Emotive) Function

Emotive or expressive function of language is a
function of language which is important for
individuals to express their feelings or emotions.
This function of language helps us to express our
negative or positive feelings in hopes of evoking a
particular emotional response.
Examples:
 She is smart.
 I like my logic teacher
 I hate him.
 I dislike banana.
Conti…

Directive Function
Directive function of language gives
direction to the speaker or writer in order
to pass orders, commands or instructions to
others.
 Examples:
 What is your name?
 Leave me alone!
 Do not close that door!
 Give me your pen! etc…
Conti…
A directive function of language has
significant linguistic function, but it does
not convey information that could be
evaluated as true or false.
Therefore, directive use of language is not
significant to logic.
 A terminology that expresses direction is
said to have directive meaning.
Conti…

Cognitive (Informative) Function

Cognitive or informative function of
language is used to convey information
about the world’s objective realities.
The cognitive aspect of language includes
such functions as conveying information
and communicating meanings.
 Moreover, it is used to describe and to
reason about the world and to deny or
affirm truth propositions.
Conti…

For Example:
Ethiopia has its own prestigious
airlines of its own. (True)
 The capital city of the regional state of
Afar is Hawassa. (False)
Lake Tana is found in Amhara region.
(True)
Conti…
A cognitive or informative function of
language can be used to evaluate an
argument as true or false. Hence, the
sentences of cognitive function can serve as
premise or conclusion of an argument.
As a result, it is only this function of language
which is relevant for science of arguments.
A terminology that conveys information or
communicating meaning is said to have
cognitive meaning.
Conti…
The Intension and Extension of Terms
A term is any word or arrangement of
words that may serve as the subject of
a statement.
Terms consist of the following.
Proper names
Common names and
Descriptive phrases.
Conti…
Example:
 Proper Names
Abdu
Zemzem
North Ethiopia
 Common Names
House
Person
Animal
Descriptive Phrases
The first president of Ethiopia
The king of Kaffa
Those who study hard etc…
Conti…

Terms have two meanings. These are as

follows:
1. Intensional and
2. Extensional meanings.
The intensional meaning, is also known as
connotation, refers to the qualities or
attributes that the term connotes.
The extensional meaning, is also called
denotation, consists of the members of the
class that the term denotes.
Conti…

Examples:
1. “Inventor” means a person who is, clever,
intuitive, creative and imaginative.
(intentional meaning)
2. “Inventor” means such as Thomas Edison,
Alexander Graham Bell, and Samuel F.B.
Mors.( Extentional meaning)
 The first example is the meaning of the
term inventor based on its attributes,
qualities or essential characteristics.
Conti…
This is owing to the fact that concepts
like “clever” “intuitive”, and
“imaginative” implies the attributes or
essential features of the term being
defined- inventor.
Therefore, this term has an in
tensional meaning.
Conti…
The second example is the meaning of the
term inventor based on its class members.
This is because this sentence provides lists of
individuals who are the member of the class
of the term being defined - inventor.
The denotation of a term remains the same
from person to person.
For example
The denotation (extensional meaning) of
human being refers to all human being in the
universe, on which everybody agrees.
Conti…

An empty extension is said to denote: the empty

or “null” class - the class that has no members or
do not have empty intension.
 For example:
 Think of the term, ‘’The current king of Ethiopia’’.
 Is there any king in Ethiopia now? No.
 Therefore, this term denotes an empty extension.
However, the fact that some terms have empty
extension leads us to an important connection
between extension and intension, namely, that
intension determines extension.
Conti…
Therefore, the intentional meaning of a term
serves as the criteria for deciding what the
extension consists of.
That is why intentional meaning determines
extensional meaning.
Example:
1. Satan is an evil sprit that causes people to suffer.
(empty extentions) but has intentional meaning.
2. Dinosaur is an extinct reptile of the Mesozoic
era. (empty extentions) but has intentional
meaning.
Conti…

Terms may be put in order the order

of:
 Increasing intention
Increasing extension
Decreasing intention and decreasing
extension
Depending on the increase or decrease
of attributes and set of things added to
the term being defined.
Conti….
A series of terms is in the order of
increasing intention when each term in the
series has more attributes than the one
which comes before it. b/c each term in the
series has more specific than the one
before it.
The order of decreasing intention is the
reverse of that of increasing intention but
not always.
Conti…
A series of terms is in the order of increasing extension
when each term in the series indicates a class having
more attributes than the class denoted by the term
before it.
If the member of a class size gets larger with each
consecutive term, then the attributes of the particular
object decrease. Decreasing extention is the reverse of
this order.
Example:
Increasing Intention: Africa, East Africa, Ethiopia, Addis
Ababa.
Increasing Extension: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, East
Africa, Africa.
Conti…
Decreasing intention: Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, East Africa, Africa.
Decreasing Extension: Africa, East Africa,
Ethiopia, Addis Ababa.
The order of increasing intention is usually
the same as the decreasing extension.
The order of decreasing intention is usually
the same as that of increasing extension.
Conti…
Terms in the series has empty extension.
 The series exhibits the order of increasing
intention, it does not exhibits the order of
decreasing extensions.
Example:
Living human being, living human being
with a genetic code, living human being
with a genetic code and a brain, living
human being with a genetic code, a brain,
and a height of less than 100 feet's.
Conti…
In the above series none of the terms
has empty extension, but each term
has exactly the same extension as the
others.
Thus while the intention increase with
each successive term, once a gain the
extension does not decrease.
Conti…
Logic and Definition
Meaning, Types, and Purposes of
Definitions
Many logicians define the term ‘definition’
as a group of words that assigns a meaning
to some words or group of words.
Accordingly, every definition consists of
two parts:
1. The definiendum
2. The definiens
Conti…
The Latin term definiendum is the word or group of
words that is supposed to be defined, and
The Latin term definiens is the word or group of
words that does the defining or gives a meaning to
the definiendum.
Example:
The definition ‘‘diffident’’ means lacking confidence
in oneself; characterized by modest reserve.
In this definition, the term ‘‘diffident’’ is the
definiendum, and everything that comes the word
“means” (lacking confidence in oneself;
characterized by modest reserve) is the definiens.
Conti…
The most important objective of definition is to
provide meaning for the terms that are not clearly
understood in the context of other terms.
Definitions have many important purposes in logic.
To mention among others, definition helps us
 To avoid confusion or misleading use of words and
phrases
 To avoid obscurity, unintelligibility, subjectivity,
and complexity of words
 To introduce new words and
 To persuade others
Conti…
Types of definition and their purpose
There are five different types of
definitions namely:-
1. Stipulative definitions
2. Lexical “ ”
3. Précising “ ”
4. Theoretical and
5. Persuasive definitions
Conti…
Stipulative definitions
A stipulative definition assigns a meaning
to a word for the first time. This may
involve either creating a new word or
giving a new meaning to an old word.
The purpose unusual or unfamiliar of a
stipulative definition is to introduce words,
which have no pervious meaning in the
language.
Conti…
Stipulative definition is used to introduce
new meanings to some new discovered
phenomenon or things in the area of:-
Archeologist findings
Scientific invitations, and new creations
such as new modes of behaviors, new kinds
of fashion clothes, new dances, new food
inventions, etc are being used to introduce
names for these things.
Conti…
 It is also :
 Assign meaning for the first time
 Names are assigned arbitrarily & caused by
new phenomena and developments
 Definition/statements doesn’t have truth value
 Purpose : simplifying complex expressions
 used to set up new secret codes.
 Example of Stipulative definition are:
 Logphobia” means fear of taking logic course.
 A male tiger + female lion =tigon
 Operation Barbarossa – Nazi invasion of USSR
 Operation sunset – Ethio-Eritrea war(1998)
Conti…
Example:
A few years ago the attempt was made at a
certain zoo to crossbreed male tiger and
female lion by biologists.
As a result of this, the offspring was born
from male tiger and female lion.
Thus, this suggests a need for assigning a new
name. So, they may call the new offspring
‘‘Tigon’’ taking the first three letters from
tiger (tig) and the last two letters from lion
(on).
Conti…
Lexical definitions
A lexical definition is used to report the meaning
that a word already has in a language.
 Dictionary definitions are all the best examples
of lexical definitions.
For instance, the Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary defines “imminent” means ‘about to
occur’. Accordingly, this is the meaning of
‘imminent’, as it is actually used by people who
speak English.
Purpose: to avoid ambiguity .
Conti…
Some words that are subjected to
ambiguous usage are: “light”, “bank”, etc…
Examples:
‘‘Light,’’ can mean light in weight or radiant
energy.
‘‘Bank’’ can mean a finical institution or the
edge of river.
Conti…
Précising definition
A précising definition is a definition which
provides a more precise, specific, exact and
restricting meaning to a term.
The purpose of a précising definition is to reduce
vagueness of the term.
By doing so, they enable one to apply the word
in a given context.
 Intended to reduce vagueness
 Definition should be appropriate and legitimate
to the context in which the term is employed.
Conti…
For example:
The word ‘poor’ is a vague word.
Suppose you are an administrator of one
humanitarian organization and want to give a direct
financial assistance to the poor.
Who is considered as poor and who is not? How
much a person should need to have in terms of
material possession in order to be counted as poor?
Therefore, for your practical purpose you may
define Poor as: “Poor” means a person having a
monthly income of less than Birr 150 is an example of
a précising definition.
Conti…

Theoretical definition
A theoretical definition assigns a meaning to a
word by suggesting a theory that gives a certain
characterization to the entities that the term
denotes.
 In other words, it gives us the way of seeing or
conceiving (imagining) theoretical (that is, non-
experimental or non- practical) entity.
Example : ‘’Heat” means the energy associated
with the random motion of molecules .
Conti…
Persuasive definition
A Persuasive definition assigns to different terms
using emotively charged words or phrases to
create a favorable or unfavorable attitude
towards what is designated by the definiendum.
Persuasive definition has the following purposes:
 persuading or convincing listeners or readers
over a certain issue;
 changing or influencing the attitude of others
towards one’s own point of view and to win the
acceptance of audience.
Conti…
Purpose of persuasive definitions:
 To influence attitude of reader/ listeners
 Use value laden[emotively charged] words.
Example:
 ‘‘Abortion’’ means the ruthless murdering of
innocent human beings.
 ‘‘Abortion’’ means a safe and established
surgical procedure whereby a woman is
relieved of an unwanted burden.
Conti…
Definitional Techniques and Their Relation with
Kinds of Definitions
Techniques of Extension (Denotative)
Definitions
 An extensional definition is one that assigns a
meaning to a term by indicating the members
of the class that the definiendum denotes.
 In other words, extensional definitions provide
meaning to a term by listing examples to the
term which is being defined - definiendum.
Conti…
There are at least three ways of indicating the
members of a class:
First, we can point the members of the class by
pointing physically to them,
Second by naming them individually, and
 Third, by naming them in groups.
Conti…
 There are three different kinds of Extensional
definition techniques namely,
1. Demonstrative or ostensive definitions.
2. Enumerative definitions and
3. Definition by subclass respectively.
Conti…
Demonstrative or ostensive definitions.
Demonstrative (Ostensive) definition assigns a meaning to a
term by pointing physically to the thing or object to be defined.
Demonstrative definition is probably the most primitive form of
definition.
Therefore, ostensive definition attempts to define a term
showing the object, which is designated by a certain term or
word, physically. This way of providing meaning to a term is
called demonstration.
Examples:
 ‘‘Chair’’ means this and this and this—as you point to a number
of chairs, one after the other.
 ‘‘House’’ means this one — using a picture demonstrating a
house.
Conti…
Enumerative definition
Enumerative definition assigns a meaning to a term by
naming individually the members of the class the
term denotes.
Enumerative definition is, therefore, carried out
through listing some or all of the objects or entities
symbolized by the definiendum.
If an extensional definition names the members of the
class that the definiendum denotes individually, it is
enumerative definition.
 Assign meaning by naming members individually
 It can be partial or complete
Conti…
Examples:
‘‘Actor’’ means a person such as Nick Nolte, Al Pacino,
or Richard Gere.
“Atlete” means a person such as Hail G/sillassie,
Kenensia Bekele, Derartu Tulu, etc.
Definition by subclass
A definition by subclass assigns a meaning to a term by
naming subclasses of the class denoted by the term.
In other words, definition by subclass assigns a
meaning to a term by naming either the subclass (a
smaller part of something) or the subset of the class
denoted by the term.
Conti…
Examples:
‘‘Tree’’ means an oak, pine, elm, spruce, maple,
and the like.
‘‘Flower’’ means a rose, lily, daisy, geranium,
zinnia, and the like.
“Professional person” means a person such as a
doctor, or an architect.
Conti…
Techniques of Intensional (Connotative)
Definitions
An intensional definition is one that assigns a
meaning to a word by indicating the qualities or
attributes that the word connotes.
In other words, an intensional or connotative
definition provides a meaning to a term by
describing the essential characteristics or
features possessed by the term being defined.
Conti…
At least four strategies may be used to indicate
the attributes a word connotes.
These four ways of indicating the essential
feature that the word connotes in turn provide
us the four kinds of in tensional definitions:
Synonymous definition
 Etymological definition
 Operational definition
Definition by genus and difference.
Conti…
Synonymous definition
A synonymous definition is one in which the
definiens is a single word that connotes the same
attributes as the definiendum.
 In other words, it is the one in which the
definiens connotes exactly the same attributes as
the definiendum.
Examples:
 ‘‘Physician’’ means doctor.
 ‘‘Intentional” means willful.
 ‘‘Observe’’ means see.
Conti…
Etymological definition
An etymological definition assigns a meaning to a word by
revealing the word’s root or ancestry in both its own language
and other languages.
 That is why most ordinary English words have ancestors
either in Old or Middle English as well as are derived or come
from some other language such as Greek, Latin, or French,
etc.
 Example:
The word “Democracy” is derived from the two Greek words,
’demos’ and ‘crates’, which means people and power
respectively.
The English word ‘‘License’’ is derived from the Latin verb
licere, which means to be permitted
Conti…
Operational definition
An operational definition assigns a meaning to a
word by specifying certain experimental
procedures that determine whether or not the
word applies to a certain thing.
Operational definition, thus, carried out by
performing the actions, operations, activities and
procedures that the word implies and when
these actions, operations, and activities
performed use as its meaning.
Conti…
 An operational definition can be identified by
words “if and only if” which is equivalent to
‘necessary and sufficient condition.’
Examples:
 One substance is ‘‘Harder than’’ another if and
only if one scratches the other when the two are
rubbed together.
 A solution is an ‘‘Acid’’ if and only if litmus paper
turns red when dipped into it.
Conti…
Definition by genus and difference
A definition by genus and difference assigns a
meaning to a term by identifying two things: one
‘genus’ term and one or more ‘difference’ words.
When these terms are combined, they convey
the meaning of the term being defined.
In logic, ‘‘genus’’ means a relatively larger class,
and ‘‘species’’ means a relatively smaller
subclass or smaller of the genus.
Conti…
Examples:
Species Difference Genus
 “Ice” means frozen water.
 “Father” means a male head of the
family
Conti…
Rule for Lexical definitions
The rule governing the way lexical definitions are
constructed is undoubtedly essential for effective
communication.
The following rule certainly helps to formulate
our own and evaluate the definition of others as
it is being used in the language.
Rule 1. A lexical definition should conform to the
standard of proper grammar.
Conti…
Expression must grammatically correct. Incorrect expression
may leads to misunderstanding.
Example:
 vacation is when you don’t have to go to work or school.
(incorrect grammar)
 Vacation means a period during which activities is suspended
for work or school.( correct grammar)
Rule 2: A lexical definition should convey the essential
meaning of the word being defined.
Example:
‘’state’’ is an entity that contains people, sovereignty.
Government and territory.
Instead state can be defined as ‘’ a politically organized
society’’, which convey the essential meaning.
Conti…
Rule 3: A lexical definition should be neither too
broad nor narrow. Definition should not be vague.
Example:
‘’bird’’ is defined as any warm- blooded animals
having wings.(Too broad) b/c it includes bats, and
bats are not birds.
‘’bird’’ is defined as any warm-blooded, feathered
animal that can fly.( Too narrow) b/c it would
exclude ostriches, which can not fly.
Definition by genus and difference is the most
appropriate techniques of definition to convey
proportionate definition to the term being defined.
Conti…
Rule 4: A lexical definition should avoid circularity.
 A circular definition presents the meaning of a word
either by using the same word with the same meaning
in the definiens, or by using grammatical variations of
the same word (the definiendum) in the definiens.
Example:
‘’politician’’ means any one who engages in politics.
‘’Teachers’’ means any one who engages in teaching.
 The above definitican not provide any useful
additional information to the word being defined ons
are incorrect definition because they or the
definiendum becomes visible in the definiens.
Conti…
Rule 5 : A lexical definitions should not be negative
when it can be affirmatives.
Definition required to covey what the term does
mean rather than what it does not mean.
Example:
‘’peace’’ means the absence of conflict.
(negative)
‘’peace‘’ means stability. ( affirmatives)
 The first definitions is one of the possibilities of
defining the term peace but the definition should
not be negative when it can be affirmative , as in
the second case.
Conti…
Rule 6 : A lexical definition should not be
expressed in Figurative, vague or ambiguous
language.
Example:
Camel as ship of the desert.(Figurative)
‘’Democracy’’ means a kind of government
where the people are in control. ( Vague) this
definition fails to identify the people who are in
control, how they exercise their control and what
they are in control of.
Conti…
Rule7: A lexical definitions should avoid affective
terminology.
Affective terminology is any kind of word usage that
plays up on the emotion of the reader or listener. It is an
expressions influences others positively or negatively.
Example :
 ‘’communism’’ means that ‘’brilliant’’ invention of Karl
Max and other foolish political visionaries.
For the above example, the intended meaning is the
opposite of what is mean by brilliant .
The objective is to be unpleasant to Marxist idea and to
make fun of them.
Conti…
Rule 8: A lexical definitions should indicate the
context to which the definies pertains.
 This rule apply to any definitions that the context
of the definies is important to the meaning of the
definiendum.
Example:
‘’race ‘’ means a group of people who belong to
the same genetic stock.
 ‘’ race ‘’ means any type of competitions .
 ( political race between Clinton and Trump for
whit house was held on November 2016 indicate
the context of ‘’race’’ as competitions.
THANK YOU !!