What is logic?

 Module: Basic logic

 L00. Introduction
 L01. What is logic?
 L02. Statements
 L03. Logical connectives
 L04. Logical relations

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The term "logic" came from the Greek word logos, which is sometimes translated as
"sentence", "discourse", "reason", "rule", and "ratio". Of course, these translations are not
enough to help us understand the more specialized meaning of "logic" as it is used
today.
So what is logic? Briefly speaking, we might define logic as the study of the principles of
correct reasoning. This is a rough definition, because how logic should be properly
defined is actually quite a controversial matter. However, for the purpose of this tour, we
thought it would be useful to give you at least some rough idea as to the subject matter
that you will be studying. So this is what we shall try to do on this page.

§1. Logic is not the psychology of reasoning

One thing you should note about this definition is that logic is concerned with the
principles of correct reasoning. Studying the correct principles of reasoning is not the
same as studying the psychology of reasoning. Logic is the former discipline, and it tells
us how we ought to reason if we want to reason correctly. Whether people actually
follow these rules of correct reasoning is an empirical matter, something that is not the
concern of logic.

The psychology of reasoning, on the other hand, is an empirical science. It tells us about
the actual reasoning habits of people, including their mistakes. A psychologist studying
reasoning might be interested in how people's ability to reason varies with age. But such
empirical facts are of no concern to the logician.

§2. The principles of logic

So what are these principles of reasoning that are part of logic? There are many such
principles, but the main (not the only) thing that we study in logic are principles
governing the validity of arguments - whether certain conclusions follow from some
given assumptions. For example, consider the following three arguments :

If Tom is a philosopher, then Tom is poor.

Tom is a philosopher.
Therefore, Tom is poor.

If K>10, then K>2.

K>10.
Therefore, K>2.

If Tarragona is in Europe, then Tarragona is not in China.

Tarragona is in Europe.
Therefore, Tarragona is not in China.

These three arguments here are obviously good arguments in the sense that their
conclusions follow from the assumptions. If the assumptions of the argument are true,
the conclusion of the argument must also be true. A logician will tell us that they are all
cases of a particular form of argument known as "modus ponens" :

If P, then Q. P. Therefore, Q.
We shall be discussing validity again later on. It should be pointed out that logic is not
just concerned with the validity of arguments. Logic also studies consistency, and logical
truths, and properties of logical systems such as completeness and soundness. But we
shall see that these other concepts are also very much related to the concept of validity.

§3. Topic neutrality

Modus ponens might be used to illustrate two features about the rules of reasoing in
logic. The first feature is its topic-neutrality. As the four examples suggest, modus
ponens can be used in reasoning about diverse topics. This is true of all the principles of
reasoning in logic. The laws of biology might be true only of living creatures, and the
laws of economics are only applicable to collections of agents that enagage in financial
transactions. But the principles of logic are universal principles which are more general
than biology and economics. This is in part what is implied in the following definitions of
logic by two very famous logicians :

[Logic is] ... the name of a discipline which analyzes the

meaning of the concepts common to all the sciences, and
establishes the general laws governing the concepts.Alfred
Tarski (1901-1983). From his Introduction to logic and to the
methodology of deductive sciences, Dover, page xi.
To discover truths is the task of all sciences; it falls
to logic to discern the laws of truth. ... I assign to
logic the task of discovering the laws of truth, not
of assertion or thought.Gottlob Frege (1848-
1925). From his 1956 paper "The Thought : A Logical Inquiry" in Mind Vol.
65.

§4. Necessity in logic

A second feature of the principles of logic is that they are non-contingent, in
the sense that they do not depend on any particular accidental features of
the world. Physics and the other empirical sciences investigate the way the world actually
is. Physicists might tell us that no signal can travel faster than the speed of light, but if
the laws of physics have been different, then perhaps this would not have been true.
Similarly, biologists might study how dolphins communicate with each other, but if the
course of evolution had been different, then perhaps dolphins might not have existed.
So the theories in the empirical sciences are contingent in the sense that they could have
been otherwise. The principles of logic, on the other hand, are derived using reasoning
only, and their validity does not depend on any contingent features of the world.

For example, logic tells us that any statement of the form "If P then P." is necessarily true.
This is a principle of the second kind that logician study. This principle tells us that a
statement such as "if it is raining, then it is raining" must be true. We can easily see that
this is indeed the case, whether or not it is actually raining. Furthermore, even if the laws
of physics or weather patterns were to change, this statement will remain true. Thus we
say that scientific truths (mathematics aside) are contingent whereas logical truths
are necessary. Again this shows how logic is different from the empirical sciences like
physics, chemistry or biology.

§5. Formal and informal logic

Sometimes a distinction is made between informal logic and formal logic. The term
"informal logic" is often used to mean the same thing as critical thinking. Sometimes it is
used to refer to the study of reasoning and fallacies in the context of everyday life.
"Formal logic" is mainly concerned with formal systems of logic. These are specially
constructed systems for carrying out proofs, where the languages and rules of reasoning
are precisely and carefully defined. Sentential logic (also known as "Propositional logic")
and Predicate Logic are both examples of formal systems of logic.

There are many reasons for studying formal logic. One is that formal logic helps us
identify patterns of good reasoning and patterns of bad reasoning, so we know which to
follow and which to avoid. This is why studying basic formal logic can help improve
critical thinking. Formal systems of logic are also used by linguists to study natural
languages. Computer scientists also employ formal systems of logic in research relating
to Aritificial Intelligence. Finally, many philosophers also like to use formal logic when
dealing with complicated philosophical problems, in order to make their reasoning more
explicit and precise.

§6. Further readings

 Entries on logic in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. These are difficult
articles on the philosophy of logic.