Chapter 1' SociologyofEducation

regarding these and other questions affect schools, and what seems to be working to educate
y*"g people. While sociologists do not try to answer questions of right and wrong, good and
fud, ili.y do consider the state of education and the outcomes of certain policies and
practices.

SOCIOLOGY AND EDUCATION

Sociologists study people who are in interacting and in small to large group situations' Within
this broad general framework are many specialties; these can be divided into studies of insti-
tutions in iocieties (established aspects of society that address common needs of people),
studies of processes, and studies of interactions between individuals and groups' The struc-
ture of society (recurring patterns of behavior and ordered interrelationships to achieve the
needs of people) is represented by six major institutions that constitute some of the major
subject ur.u. in sociology: faglly, religion, education, politics, economics, and health' Formal,
complex organizationr, ,,r.h ur ..hoolr, u.a part of the institutional structures that carry out
the work of societies.
proce.sses, the action part of society, bring the structures alive. Through the process of
,
socialization, people learn how to fit into society and what roles are expected of them. The
process of stralification determines where people fit into the social structure and their resultant
iifestyle. Change is an ever-present process that constantly forces schools and other otganiza-
tions to adjusi to new demands. Learning takes place both formally in school settings and
informaly ty our family, peers, media, and other influences in our lives. Not all children in the
world receive a formal school education, but they all experience processes that prepare them
for adult roles.
The institution of education interacts and is interdependent u'ith each of the other institu-
tions. For instance, the family's involvement in education will affect the child's achievement in
school. Other examples throughout the book will make these connections apparent, as will the
open systems model diagrammed later in this chapter.
Sociology of education as a field is devoted to understanding educational systems; the
subject matter includes questions ranging from teacher and student interactions to large
educational systems of countries. By studying education s1'stematically, sociologists offer
insights to help guide policies for schools. Research on educational s1'stems is guided by socio-
logical theories and studied using sociological methods. Although sociology provides a

unique and powerful set of tools to objectiveiy explore the educational sYstems of societies' it
may disappoint those who have an axe to grind or whose goal is to proselytize rather than
objectively understand or explore. Sometimes simply raising certain questions is ideologically
uncomfortable for those who "know the right answer," but'rvhere there is a controversy about
educational policy, several different views emerge and proponents feel their view is the right
answer. The goal of sociology of education is to objectivell'consider educational practices,
sometimes controversial topics, and even unpopular beliefs to gain understanding of a system
that affects us all.
Please approach this book and its subject matter with an open mind. Ask questions'
Challenge ideas. Explore findings-but do so with the intent of opening new avenues for
thought, discussion, and research. The purpose of this introducton'chapter is to acquaint you
with the unique perspective of the sociology of education: the questions it addresses' the the-
oretical approaches it uses, the methods used to study educational svstems, and the open
 Chapter I . Sociologyof Education
systems approach used in this book. We begin our discussion with an overview of sociology
of education.

Why Study Sociology of Education?

There are several answers to this question. Someday you may be a professional in the field of
education or in a related field; you will be ataxpayer, if you aren't aheady; or you may be a parent
with children in the school system. Right now you are a student involved in higher or continuing
education. Why are you taking this class? If you are a sociology majoS you are studying education
as one of the major institutions of society; if you are an education major, sociology may give you
a new or different perspective on your field. You may be at college in pursuit of knowledge; or this
course may be required, you may need the credit, perhaps the teacher is supposed to be good, or
it simply may fit into your schedule. Let's consider some of these reasons for studying sociology
of education.

TEACHERS AND OTHER PROFESSIONALS. Study findings indicate that between 2008 and
2018, the most job openings, 597,000, for those with a bachelor's degree will be in elementary
education (The College Board,20l0). In the United States in 2003-2004, more than 106,000
college students graduated with majors in the field of education, and many went on to hold
teaching positions. An estimated 3.5 million teachers are involved in public school education
(Bureau ofLabor Statistics,2010-2011). Other college graduates teach in their respective aca-
demic fields or become involved with policy matters in the schools. Professionals in such
fields as social work and business have regular contact with schools when dealing with clients
and employees.

TAXPAYERS. Taxpayers play a major role in financing schools at the elementary-, secondary-, and
higher-education levels. Almost 100 percent of the money used to pay for physical Plants, materials,
salaries, and other essentials in the U. S. public educational system comes from taxes. Revenues for
schools come from three main sources: local, state, and federal funds from sales, income, and prop-
erty taxes. Considering variations in U.S. school districts with high and low parental incomes, and
differences among states and districts, the local district contribution ranges from 28 to 56 percent,
and the federal contribution from 3 to 12 percent. In 2008, the total education budget in the United
States was $581.1 billion, with local contributions making up 43.7 percent, state 48.3 percent, and
federal 8.1 percent of the total (U.S. Census Bureau,2010). Average per pupil expenditures in K-12
public schools increased from $7,365 in 1990 to $10,04i in2006-2007 (in constant dollars) (NCES'
2010), with low-income areas receiving significantly less than high-income areas. Sociology helps
taxpayers understand the school system for which they are paylng'

PARENTS. A large percentage of adults in the United States are parents; the average size of a
household in 2006 was 2.6 members (Whipps, 2006). According to the Gallup polls on adult atti-
tudes toward education, adults expect schools to teach basic skills, discipline children, and instill
values and a sense of responsibility. The concerns of the American public regarding schools have
shown a high level of consistency from year to year (See Table 1.1) (Bushaw and McNee, 2009).
Lack of financial support and lack of discipline topped the list of problems seen by the public in
2009, with overcrowding being the third. Drugs and violence were number 4 and 5 on the list.
Chapter 1' SociologYof Education

National Totals Public School Parents

2008 2007 2009 2008 2007

2009
(%) (o/ol (%l
(%l %l (V")

17 22 30 19 26
Lack of funding 32
10 8 3 5
Lack of discipline 10 10
6 7 10 11 9
Overcrowding 9
5 4 4 5 4 3
Drugs
6 6 8 8
Fighting 4 6
3 4 2 2 4
Lack of standards 3
4 5 2 3 4
Lack of good teachers 3

to make decisions regarding their

Parents'rankings differed somewhat, in part because they need
children s education.

High school level education

STUDENTS. Grade school education is mandatory in most countries'
developing countries' According to a
is mandatory in developed countries, and available in some
Bank, only 6'7 percent of the world's
new studyby Harvard University and the Asian Development
United Slates,27 '2 percent have
population has a college degree (Th. Huffington Post, ZbtO).In the
college degrees,8.9 percenimurt.r, d"g'"t',-and 3 percent
PhDs (U'S' Census Bureau' 2002)'
incentives and goals for their
College attracts a wide variety-of students with numerous
goals will help you get the most
educational experience. Understaniing your own and others'
provides a unique look at
from your education. For sociology majors, sociology of education
institutions in society' For
educational systems and their intJidependerr." u*ottg other major
the dynamic interactions both
education majors, new insights .un be gained by looking-into
and other institutions in
within educational settings ind betweeri the institution of education
to deal with complex organiza-
society. These insights shJuld give education majors the ability
tional and interpersonal issues that confront teachers and administrators'

how tax dollars are spent' and

oTHER REASONS. Being an informed citizen, understanding
is to learn-are among the
gaining knowledge for the"sake of knowledge-learning what there
other reasons to study sociology of education'

Questions Asked by Sociologists of Education

issues constantly'
As students, parents, and members of a community, we face educational
Consider the following examPles.
school problems according to
ARE ouR GHILDREN 5AFE lN scHools? Among the most serious
of drugs; and fighting' violence' and gangs
surveys of the American public are lack of discipline; use
school shootings, 90 percent of the
in schools (Bushaw and McNee, 2009). Yet, even with the recent
studies indicate that most students do not
public believe school discipline is satisfactory. National
more likely to experience propertycrimes'
ixp.rierrce criminal victim^ization, and those that do are
more conc€rn about safety' In addition'
Students in schools with gang members Present exPress
drugs are availabie and one-fifth that alcohol is available at their
one-third of students indilate that
 Chapter I . SociologyofEducation
school (Addington et al', 2002).Are our students
safer in schools than out of school? Most studies
conclude that schools are safe.

SHOULD MINIMUM COMPETENCY IN

KEY SUBJECTS SUCH AS READING AND MATH
REQUIRED FoR HIGH scHoot GRADUATION? BE
In many countries and in some parts of the
United States, students are required to take reading
urrd mut'h exams in order to enter high school
and be graduated from it. The"No child Left
nehind" and "Race to the Top,,federal policies in
united States require all students be tested at various the
times throughout their school years.
Increasingly' states hold schools and teachers
responsible for the academic competence of students
who move through the system (Borman and
cotner, 201l). This is what got Joyce in vermont
(opening scenario) fired. Thus, tests
are viewed by many as one *r/a. rrora schools
accountable for
students' progress' Yet, some educators and researchers
question the value of requiring competency
tests because they have little benefit for
students who pass them and can harm students who
pass (warren and Grodsky, 2009). do not
what are some implications of requiring tests? This question
be discussed in later chapters. will

How sHouLD EDUCATIoN BE FUNDED? Many countries

have centralized governmental edu-
cational funding and decision making' Across
the United States, however, local taxpayers vote on
local school levies, and.some schools-are being
forced to c,r.tuil f.ogrums and cut the number
teachers because there is no money' The federil of
government hu, utto"tt.a funds from the stimulus
money to help districts retain some teachers whose jobs
are threatenld. Is failure of school levies
a protest against the job schools are doing?
Is it a demand for the development of other
sources? Is it a bid for,more community funding
control? Is it rebellion ugui";, any higher taxes? Some
aspects of these difficult issues will be addressed.

WHAT ryPE OF TEACHERS AND CLASSROOM

ENVIRONMENTS PROVIDE THE BEST LEARNINC
EXPERIENCE FoR GHILDREN? Educators debate lecture
versus experiential learning, and
cooperative learning versus individualized
instruction. studies (e.g., pescosolido and Aminzade,
1999) of effective teaching strategies provide
information a rr.rp lir*tors carry out their roles
effectively' For example, research on the most
effective size of classes urri ,.rroot, attempts to pro-
vide poliry makers with data to inform
decision making (larling-uammond, 2010). what
classroom factors influence teaching and other
learning?
A review of the titles of.articles_in the preliere journal,
sociology of Education,provides an
overview of current topics being studied
in ihe fiela. For example, ii'roos and 2010 researchers
explored immigrant education, causes of academic
failure and dr.oo*, out, social class differ-
ences in college expectations and entrance,
interracial friendships, ,u.iut ,.gr.gution in schools,
educational attainment and attitudes toward
schooling, higher education aspirations and enroll-
ments' and females and males in different
academic fielis. LIok th."rgf irri, book and
logy of education resources to add to the other socio-
list of questions asked by sJciologists of education;
cover a fascinating array of topics..sociological they
research knowledge sheds light on educational
issues' and thus helps teachers, citizens,
ani policy makers with iire Jecision-making process.
Multitudes of questions arise, and many of
them are being studied around the world.

Applying sociology to Education: From what

you have read so far, what topics in socio_
logy of education interest you?
Chapter I ' SociologyofEducation

BOX 1.1
C"tt""tR"t""t.h lntheSocio|ogyof
The following sampling of current research questions gives an idea of the rvide range of subject matter:

l. If parentsare involved in their children's schooling, are children more successful in school?
2. How effective are different teaching techniques, styles of learning, classroom organizations,
and school and classroom size in teaching students ofvarious tlpes and abilities?
3. What are some community influences on the school, and hou'do these affect decision making in
schools, especialiy as it relates to the school curriculum and socialization of the young?
4, Do teacher proficiency exams increase teaching quaiity?
5. Can minority students learn better or more in an integrated school?
6. Do schools perpetuate inequality?
7. Should religion be allowed in schools? What are the practices around the world?
8. Does tracking (ability grouping) help or hurt student learning?
9. Is the U.S. government policy "No Child Left Behind" and "Race to the Top" having a positive or
negative effect overall?
10. Do schools prepare students for the transition to work?
l l. Who are the world's most prepared students according to international tests, and why?
12. Are some students overeducated for the employment opportunities that are available to them?
13. How does education affect income potential?

U.S. SCHOOLS IN THE EARLY TWENTY.FIRST CENTURY

When several prominent sociologists of education were asked about their predictions for the field in
the years ahead, most predicted that the problems facing American schools '"vou1d see little improve-
ment in the near future. The problems facing our schools reflect the problems in our society. They
suggested that sociological theories and methods will make a major contribution to understanding
the societal forces and the school dlmamics that underlie the problems schools will face; this knowl-
edge is essential to tackle the problems of the twenty-first century. The number of children living
in
poverty and "at risk" educationally is increasing, especially in urban areas. Books such as Kozol's
and Macleod's Ain't No Makin' It (2009) document the inequalities
Savage Ineclualities ( 1991)
between rich and poor school districts and life in poor neighborhoods and schools.
An example of information collected by sociologists, other social scientists, and educators
provides an overview of schools in the twenty-first century and samples of predictions for the
future based on research data. Planning for change assumes knowledge of educational systems
and future trends. Demographers provide us with relevant information: population projections,
migration patterns, and social trends. Other social scientists also study educational systems'
Proposals ior reform and innovation come both from within the educational organization and
from its environment-political, economic, and technological dimensions as well as national and
world trends. In this section, we provide examples of some trends and projections that affect
education, and some policy implications to lead us into the study of education.

Demographic Trends
The rapid growth of education through the 1960s in the United States and many other countries
created a boom mentality: There was an expansion of teacher training programs in public schools
and universitiesl new facilities were built; and when monies became available, innovations were