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Evolution: Big-Bang Hypothesis of Cosmic Evolution
Evolution: Big-Bang Hypothesis of Cosmic Evolution
High tempreture
Molten mass (Volcanic lava) covered the earth surface and it released CH4, NH3, CO2, Water
Vapour
U.V . Rays
H2O from sun because of no O sheild
H2 O
3
All gases like H2, CH4, NH3 make primitive atmosphere reducing.
(4) By the passing of time, earth rotating speed and tempreture came down (below 100°C) and hydrosphere
formed after lithosphere and atmosphere.
Earth core – Contain heavy metals.
Earth crust (Lithosphere) – Si, Na, K, Mg, Ca, P, F, Cl, Ag
Atmosphere – H, He, Ar, N, O, C
Hydrosphere – Hot boiling water
He discovered pasturisation
Objection of special Creation Theory: It upholds that life is immutable and had not changed ever
since its origin.
Atomic phase
Due to formation of above organic compound it was become possible to originate life or it was first
step towards protoplasm synthesis.
Prebiotic Soup – Hot dilute mixture of simple organic compound in sea water termed as
prebiotic soup by Haldane.
Urey (Guru) and Miller (Pupil) made an experiment to proove operin and Haldane theory by Electrical
spark Chamber using CH4, NH3H2 (2 : 1 : 2) and water vapour in 800°C tem. for one week.
They had separate combinations of molecules from surrounding and can maintain their internal
environment but can’t reproduce
Origin of genes, Viruses, Autocatalytic system means premordial life (3.7 billion years
ago in precambrian Era) Eobiont. RNA were replicator as well as Enzyme.
There were chemoheterotrophic bacteria that used organic contents of premordial soup.
Fossil – Fossils of bacterium “ Eobacterium isolatum” found and aprox age was 3.5
billion year old.
First chemoautotrophs and then photo-autotrophs originated about 3.2 billion year
ago.
3O2 2O3
CH4 and NH3 disappeared because they reacted with O2 to form CO2 and N2
Eukaryotic cell formed about 1.5 billion (1500 Million) year ago due mutation in
prokaryotes (Roff and Mahler)
Some scientis explains that symbiotic association of different types of prokaryotes give
rise to Eukaryotes.
(1) Primitive environment was reducing because CH4, NH3, H2 (90% and highly reactive) gases were
present.
(2) Proper and sufficient Suply of energy for forcing chemical reaction from simple towards complex, were
for Ex. Sun, U.V. Rays. Earth heat itself
(3) No O3 sheild was formed so that U.V. Rays could reached easily on the earth surface that causes
mutation and initiated many chemical reaction.
(1) Anaximander - He was the first scientist who announced that "Human originated in the form of fish".
(2) Empedocles - He is the father of evolutionary ideas and according to him - "Incomplete, less devel-
oped, and errored species are replaced by developed and complete species".
(3) Aristotle - In nature, ladder like order or gradation is seen.
(4) Monophylentic genealogy - All various species are originated from a single and common ancestor.
So in other words all species are closely or fartherly related with one another.
"EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION"
Evidences from connective links
"An organism, having characteristics of two taxanomic groups is called as connective link. These connec-
tive links play an important role in systematic and stabilising monophylentic evolutionary line or in other
words, phylogenetic tree stand mainly on the basis of connective links."
(e) Prototheria – These are egg laying mammals and also called monotremata.
Proto = primitive
Theria = nipple
Mono = single
Trema = opening for all purpose means for urin, faecus, germinal matter.
:
(e) Archaeopterix – Archae = primitive
Pterix = Wing
(f) Seymouria –
It is "missing link" or fossil form and was present in permian period. Also called stem reptile.
(g) Ichthyostega –
It is "missing link" (fossil form) and was present in late devonian and early carboniferous period.
(h) Cynognathus – It is also a "missing link" or fossil connective link between reptiles and mammal's was
present in early triasic period.
(i) Lycaenops – It is "Missing Link" or fossil connective link between Reptiles and Mammals and discov
ered from the rocks of life Permain Period.
(j) Basilosaurus – Actually it was fossil whale with hind limbs and it is connective link between aquatic
and terrestrial mammals.
(ii) Petrified fossil – Only hard part of the body (teeth, bone, shell of mollusc, skeletun of
arthropod) present between layers of stratified rock.
Ex. Fossils of Apeman, Neanderthal, Cromagnon.
(iii) Printed fossil or moulded fossil – The print of animal or plant body in stratified rocks.
Ex. Archeopterix.
Living fossil: Only existing representative of a group means all the member of a group extincted but the
only surviving member of that group is called Living fossil.
Ex. – Limulus - King Crab (An Arthropod)
Latimeria - Coelocanths (Bony Fish)
Sphenodon - Tutuara (Belongs to order Rhyncophalia with pineal eye or third eye)
"The structure that have lost some or all of the functions that they used to perform earlier in their
ancestor" called vestigial organ.
Vestigial organ also offer on evolutionary explanation of such rudimentary vestiges (non-functioning
organ) by stating that adaptations to new environment of the organism have made these structures
redundant.
Residual and non-functional wings in Ostrich, Emu, Cassowary, Kiwi, Dodo (Recently
NEET - ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION - 11
extincted)
2nd and 4th digit of horse (1st and 5th digit completaly degenerated while 3rd digit devel-
oped in hoof)
Plica semiluneris
Body hairs
Tail vertibrae
Vermiform appendix
(i) Homology and Homologous organs – Organs which are similar in origin, structure, anatomy
but different in function called homologous organ and
study of such organ is called Homology.
Ex.
(1) Hands of man, fore limbs of horse, wings of birds, wings of bat, flippers of whale have similar
anatomy (Humerus, radius-ulna, carpels, metacarpels phalanges in their fore limb) but
adapted for different functions.
(2) Hearts and brain of all vertibrate (have same basis structural plan) or brain
Note – Molecular homology - Similarities in protein and genes, performing a given function among
diverse organism give clues of common ancestry (Homology)
(ii) Analogy and analogous organs – Organ which are different in origin, structure and anatomy
but similar in function are called analogous organs and
study of such organs is called Analogy
Convergent or parallel evolution – Represented by analogaus organ
Sweet potato (Modified root) and potato (Modified stem) but both are meant for
storage of food
NEET - ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION - 13
"Geographical distribution of species is called biogeography" or "Study of distribution of animals and plants
on the earth is biogeography"
Pangaea - Earth without realms or earth in single piece and at carboniferous period(palaeozaic era).
Realms - Due to various geographical changes huge single land mass (earth in single piece) broken in to
pieces (continents) and separated by seas, which prevent the migration of animal and forced them to remain
endemic (restricted area or continent). The earth is divided in to many continents by six major biogeographi-
cal region called realm.
(i) Palaearctic realm
(ii) Oriental realm
(iii) Australian realm
(iv) Ethopian realm
(v) Nearctic realm
(vi) Neotropical realm
Note– Adaptation and natural selection – Different habitat in different realm forced species
to adapt in that particular habitat and nature had
selected such adapted species.
(I) Adaptive radiation – This process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting
from a point and literally radiating to other areas of geography (habitat) is called
adaptive radiation.
Ex. 1- Darwin finches
Ex. 2- Marsupials of Australia
All varieties evolved and radiated by a single ancestral seed-eating ground finch (root
finch). Essense is ancestral seed eating ground finch radiated to different geographical area
(habitat) and underwent profound adaptive changes and specially in beak pattern.
A number of marsupials, each different from other evolved from an ancestral stock but all
with in the Australian island.
Ex.1- Placental mammals and Australian marsupials (placental wolf and Tasmanian marsupial wolf )
Reason – Convergent evolution is mainly due to similar adaption for survival in different groups of animals
inhabiting in a similar habitate.
Ex.1 Peperedmoth–
(1) Cryptic colouration of pepered moth (Biston bittularia) show best example of genetic basis of natural
selection
(2) Observation supporting evolution by adaptation and natural selection comes from England.
(3) Before industrialisation set (about 1850) – More white winged moths and few dark winged moth (Melanised
moths) on white licken covered tree bark.
(4) After industrialisation set (in 1920) – The proportion get reversed means more dark wing (Melanised)
moth and less white winged moths
Explanation – During post industrialisation period, the tree trunk become dark due to industrial smoke and
soots and it was easy to spot a moth by predator in a contrasting background under such environmental
condition the white winged moth did not survive due to predotors but dark winged may easily survive be
cause of cryptation or camouflage, and it was done by adaptation and natural selection at gene level,
(1) Excess use of herbicides, pesticides etc has only resulted in selection and development of new resistant
varieties of in sects, fungus microbes in a much lesser time scale.
(2) This is also true for other microbes against which we employ antibiotic or drugs in order to cure an
eukaryotic organism. Many antibiotic resistant varieties of schigella dysentry are found.
(4) Thyroxin hormone– Thyroxin hormone secreted in all vertibrates and thyroxin hormone of one
verbrate group show similar effect in the other vertibrate groups.
(5) Haemoglobin– Morphologically much closer and similar group shows more closeness in Hb crystal
shape and size, sequence of closeness in Hb crystal is as following order.
Pig Tree shrews Lemur Loris Monkey Ape Man
(6) Cytochrome-C –
It is a protein present in mitochondria that contain 104 to 112 amino acids.
NEET - ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION - 18
Examination or observation in amino acids sequence in cytc is almost similar
from 70 to 80 (11amino acid) in polypeptied chain in human, Rabbit, Birds, Rep
tiles, Amphibia, Fishes.
Polypeptide chain differ in single amino acid in chimpanzee and man.
(7) Metabolic ATP – In all organism ATP works as energy currency and energy carrier.
When reaction between serum and antiserum occures then a white precipitate is obtained and the amount
of precipitate is more in closely related species while less in fartherly related ones.
Amount of precipate with Lemur is least while maximum with Ape, it indicates that Ape is close relative of
Human than Lemur.
Present phylogenetic systems of classification are actually mixture of natural and phylogenetic.
Note - How ever, aquaitic mammals (Dolphins, Whale, Porppoise, Seals) do not contain gill slits because
their adaptation to aquaitic habitat is secondary.
Tadpole larva of frog recemble with adult fish and it indicates that amphibia directaly descended
from fishes.
Van Baer - He observed that the generalised feature such as brain, spinal cord, axial skeleton,
aortic arches are common to all vertibrates, means there are stage that related em
bryo do share.
Simplest character Simple character Complex character at the end of gestation, species
specific character develops like hairs
(found only in mammals) feath-
ers (Found only in birds)
(2) Tadpole larva of frog recemble with adult fishes in morphology. It indicates that amphibia
originated from fish like ancestors.
(3) Tadpole Larva of Herdmania (urochordate) shows chordate character like notochord,
dorsal hollow spinal card and tail. However adult herdmania does not posses above men
tioned chordate character hence adult shows ancestral character.
(4) Seedling of Acasia (Babool) tree initially develops simple leaves which later transform in
to compound leaves
Actual theory of Lamark- Inheritance of acquired character and was based on use and disuse of
organs.
(i) Exp. of Sumner on Rat- He reared and domesticated rats for many generation in two different
environmental condition-
Rat of Hot environment- Tail and ear pinnae enlarged and this acquired character passed in to
next generation (Inherited)
Rat of cold environment- Tail and ear pinnae shortened and this acquired character passed in
to next generation (Inherited)
(ii) Exp. of Kammerer on Salamander - Salamander is a tail less amphibia (Apoda) with black-
yellow patches on skin. Cammerer reared and domesticated
in two different environment.
Salamander of Dark environment- Black patches of skin enlarged and this aquaired character
passed on succeeding generation.
Specific- Once Kingsle Nobel visited to Kamerer lab and after inspection he found that Kamerer
injected yellow dye bellow the skin of salamander. That was the reason to enlarge
yellow patches. Because of shame and guilt he finally commit to suicide.
(iii) Exp. of Mc. Dougal on Rat- He trained rats to move through particular path and need of training
gradually become insignificant in succesive generation
2. Germplasm Theory given by Weismann in order to disprove the theory of use and disuse or Inherit
ance of acquired characters.
Somatoplasm (Mortal) – Either than gametic cells (Changes will not reach to next generation)
3. Experiment: Weisman experimented on white mouse he continued cutting the tail of new born mice
for many generations, yet there was no hereditary effect and even upon the length of tail.
Neo-Lamarkism
Some modification made in Lamarkism and represented as following –
“Genetic or chromosomal changes may occurs due to change in environment or use and disuse.
There changes effects some physical and chemical changes in germplasm means leads to change
in genes of germplasm and reaches to next generation.”
X rays
Ex. Potato Beetle Cosmicrays Change in genetic material of germplasm such changes
passes to next generation
1. T.R. Malthus: Wrote essay on population and it influenced Darwin to postulate the theory of
natural selection.
Survival of fittest: After the study of Malthus essay Wallace gone the Idea of survival of fittest
and also wrote on essay by using a title – “On tendency of varieties to
depart indefinitely, from their original type.” And send it to Darwin.
3. Darwin:
Birth: Shrewsbury (England) Feb. 12, 1809.
World Survey: By small ship (voyage) H.M.S. Beagle and main place of visit was
Galapagos Island. Finch bird was the main fauna of his interest.
Analysis of Visit: He started to think about origin and evolution of life and clearly understood
that struggle for existence occurs in nature and through struggle, Natural
selection is possible.
Book: After receiving the reading Wallace latter Darwin published a book with common name of
Darwin and Wallace- “On the origin of species by means of natural selection” and was rated
next to Bible or was second famous book after Bible.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Speciation
Formation of one or more new species from pre-existing species.
Mayer defined this term as following “biological properties of individuals which prevent the interbreeding
of naturally sympatric population.” There are many natural intrinsic barrier which prevent interbreeding be-
tween two species, means no genetic exchange between two different species occurs.
Exception of Reproductive Isolation : “Tigons” a hybrid of African Lioness and Asian Tiger which is fertile
and no barrier to hybridisation between these species has evolved during their long isolation from each other.
Criticism of Darwinism
Great criticiser Hugo De Vries.
(1) Greatest weakness: He was unable to explain the cause, origin and inheritance of variations.
(2) Raw Material for evolution: He regarded all small and continuous variations, which may be acquired
by organism during their life time due to environmental effect but somatic ones never play this role.
(3) Theory of pangenesis: As it is cleared that Darwin was failed to explain the origin of variations at
genetic level as well as their transmission to next generation. In 1868 Darwin put forward his own theory
of inheritance, the Theory of pangenesis. According to this theory every organ of the body produce
minute hereditary particles, called Pangenes or Gemmules for example live Gemmules from liver, leg
Gemmules from leg, and so forth. He thought the Gemmules were carried through the blood form every
organ of the body and were collected together into the gametes.
(4) Certain useful or harmful variations are brought about by mutation (Sudden changes in genetic material)
and Darwin knew about these sudden changes (Mutation) and called these sports, but Darwin either
ignored these observations or kept silence.
(5) The variations of Darwin originated by natural selection are gradual (not in single step) and certain varia
tions such as electric organ of Torpedoes, light producing organs of luminescent organism (Glow
worm) etc., are functional and useful only in their perfected state (in fully developed state not in under
developed state) and could not be originate through natural selection while only possible through muta-
tion.
(6) There are some examples of overgrowth of useful variations beyond the limit of usefulness and bring
down extinction of some species rather than evolution, and it is said clearly that it is not possible through
adaptation and natural selection. Ex. Antlers of Iris elk, teeth of Sweedolon.
(7) Darwin was also unable to explain how does set of coordinated organ evolved through natural selection.
(1) In 1901 Dutch Botanist Hugo De Vries rediscovered Mendalian law with two other scientists and put
forward his views regarding the evolution and formation of new species.
(4) Key concept of Mutation theory: Hugo De Vries believed that mutation causes origin of new species
and hence he used the term Saltation.
(5) Saltation means single step large mutation (Variation originates in single steps and in full form.) and just
opposite to adaptation and natural selection of Darwin (Variations are small and gradual, directional.
(6) Useful mutations are selected by natural white Lethal and harmful mutations are eliminated.
(1) Mutations are one of the sources of variations and become the cause of evolution.
(2) This theory explains both progressive and retrogressive evolution (as seen in Herdmania).
(3) Ancon sheep is a short-legged variety which appeared suddenly in Massachusetts in 1791 was due to
first natural mutation.
(4) Hornless cattle developed as sudden (Mutation) from the horned cattle first in 1989.
(1) T.H. Morgan (Father of experimental genetics), experimented on fruit fly (Drossophila) and Defined
Mutation as following–
“Heritable chemical changes in genetic material are mutation”.
(2) Different Varieties of Oenothera obtained by De Vries were the result of numerical changes in chromo-
some that is not chemical change hence these varieties was not the result of mutation.
(3) Most of the mutations are harmful and lethal then how do they help an organism to develop in progressive
direction. They will only help in retrogressive development. That is completely against the evolution.
(4) Mutations are generally recessive while traits participating in evolution are usually dominant.
(5) It can not explains mimicry and living fossils.
q = frequency of recessive gene of first trait that is expressed by p or frequency of recessive allele
of gene p
If the above equation with its components compared with albanic trait-
p = A (Frequency of Dominant gene)
Note: To calculate of frequency of a gene or individual it is necessary to have at least one data (value)
among two-
(1) Frequency of Homozygous individuals either Homozygous dominant or recessive homozygous.
Problem 1 – If the frequency of gene A is 4% then find out the frequency of – Individual with genotype – AA,
aa, Aa
Solution: First it is necessary to find out frequency of both allelic genes otherwise the problem will not be
solved.
p+q =1 or A+a=1
A = 4% means A 0.4% because sum total of all alleles frequency is always 1
A+a=1
0.4 + a = 1
a = 1 – 0.4
a = 0.6
AA = A2 = (4)2 = 16 %
Aa = a2 = (6)2 = 36%
Aa = 2Aa = 2x4x6 = 48%
Problem 2 – If we try to go reversely means if the frequency of Homozygous dominant individuals in a large
sized population is 16% the calculate or find out –
Frequency of Homozygous recessive individuals (aa) and Heterozygous individuals (Aa)
Solution: We had already discussed that to find out the frequency of any genotype individuals it is neces
sary to have the frequency of at least of one of the both genes –
Given AA = A2 = 16%
A= 16
A = 4%
Problem 3 – If the frequency of Heterozygous individuals in a large size population is 48% then find out –
Solution – Through easy mathematical way it is not possible to find out the frequencies of both allelic genes
A and a separately through the frequency of Heterozygous individual means if we try to look at
the given mathematical data –
2pq = 48% or 2Aa =48
There is no simple way to find out the value of p(A) or q(a) hence first question could not be solved.
But second one is easily solved because. If 2Aa are 48% then remaining rest two genotype will be =
100 – 48 = 52%
Note: Free gene flow of 3rd point explains the free movement (passing) of all genes of a gene pool to
next generation from present generation, while gene flow or gene migration of 4th point explains
emigration or immigration.
Source of Variation
(Five Factors affect Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium)
(i) Gene Migration or Gene flow
(ii) Genetic Drift
(iii) Mutation
(iv) Genetic Recombination
(v) Natural Selection
(3) Genetic drift: If the same changes occurs by chance then called genetic drift. The original drifted popula
tion (changed from original type) becomes founders for preceding generation and the effect is called
founder effect.
Note: Although genetic drift is second another factor then after short discussion is done together with gene
migration because it will be quite easy to understand it along with gene migration.
(ii) Genetic Drift: (Sewall wright effect) – “Drift is a binomial sampling errors of the gene pool.” Sampling errors
(error in gene pool of next generation mean gametic error) by chance often lead to the elimination of
certain alleles and fixation of other and it ultimately cause the loss of genetic diversity.
Or
The random changes in the allele frequency occurring by chance alone are called genetic drift.
Founders and Founder effect: Genetic drift can cause dramatic changes in allele frequencies in a
population derived from small band of colonizers and become a different species, called founders to next
generation and the effect is called founder effect.
Founder and Founder effect = Change in allele frequency in some members of a population that they
appear as new species (original drifted population)
(iii) Mutation:
(1) Mutation according to Hugo De Vries: Sudden heritable changes. Single step large mutation (saltation)
brings speciation according to Hugo De Vries.
(2) Mutation according to Morgan: Chemical change in genetic material which are heritable.
(3) Mutation according to Darwin: Darwin used the term sports for mutation.
(5) Mutations are non-directional, random originate during adaptation and environmental impact with little
adaptive value. Mutations are –
Replica Plate Exp. of J.Lederberg and E.Lederberg : According to J.Lederberg and E. Lederberg muta-
tion are preadaptive, means they appear without exposure to the environment in which they would be
advantageous to the organism. Actually the preadapted mutations express themselves only after expo-
sure to the new environment to which the organism is to adapt themselves. The new environment does
not induce their formation.
“Genetics and evolution of species” – book was written by Dobzhansky while title of the book given by
Huxley and modern synthetic theory developed from this book.
Note
Geological revolution:
(1) 1st and 2nd great revolution: After Archeozoic and Proterozoic era.
(2) Appalachian revolution: Happened after Paleozoic era that leads the formation of Appalachian
mountain chain.
(3) Rocky Mountain Revolution: Happened after Mesozoic era that lead the formation of Himalaya, Alps
and Andes mountain chain.
2. Dinosaurs:
i. Ichthyosaurs: Fish like and aquatic
ii. Tyrannosaurus rex: Biggest dinosaur with 20 feet height and huge dagger like
teeth.
(9) Golden age of Reptiles extinction of Dinosaurs: Jurassic period was the golden age reptile and after
that dinosaur an extincted because of two probable reasons –
i. Climatic changes killed them
ii. Most of them evolved in birds.
(10) Origin of Birds: Birds originated from reptiles and evidences comes from Archaeopteryx (Connective
link b/w reptiles and birds)
(11) Origin of mammals and their domination upon others: Mammals also originated from reptiles
(therapsid) with separate line of birds. Mammals dominated over others because of following reason-
i. They were viviparous and protected their unborn young inside the mother’s body.
ii. They (mammals) were mare intelligent in sensing and avoiding danger at least.
(12) Mammals with interest of evolutionary history: Horse, elephant, dog with special stories of
evolution.
(13) Most success full story of Human evolution: With language skills and self consciousness.
3. Linnaeus:
i. Father of Taxonomy
ii. Used the term “Homo sapiens” Human. Sapience = Man who is wise
iii. He placed man between Monkey and Apes.
4. Molecular Evidence: Molecular evidence comes from similarities in the sequence of protein
and nucleic acids
7. Closest relative of Human: Chimpanzee and Gorilla re similar to Human in Behavior, Anatomy,
Body chemistry, Susceptibility to infectious disease.
8. Place of origin of a man Central Asia, China, Java and India (Shivalic Hills)
9. Dryopithecus: Oldest fossil which in Turn evolved in to Ape and Man.
10. Australopithecus africanus:
i. Supposed to be First ape Man
ii. Supposed to be most immediate ancestor of Man among the primates.
11. Homo habilis (Handy Man): Considered as Early free Man commonly called fool maker
13. Brachiation: Swinging of Apes from the tree branches with the Arms.
(2) Ramapithecus – Arose about 15 million yr ago, walked like apes. It was more man-like hence called
oldest human ancestor and direct line towards human evolution.
(3) Few Hominids fossils of Ethiopia and Tanzania – Few fossils of man like bones have been discov
ered (excavated) in Ethiopia and Tanzania. These revealed hominid features leading to the
belief that about 3-4 million yr ago, man like primates walked in eastern Africa. Similarity and
difference in fossil bones, possibly they were two types
1st type – Australopithecines
2nd type – Homo habilis
(4) Australopithecines –
They were Man like primates walked in east African grassland about 2 million yr ago.
They were probably not taller than 4 feet but walked up right.
Many evidences reflects that they hunted with stone weapons but essentially ate fruit means
hunting was their way to entertain and amusement but they actually were veg etarian.
(5) Homo habilis – It was first human being the hominid with 650-800 cc brain capacity. It was first tool
maker or Handy man but after being hunter it probably did not eat meat.
(6) Homo erectus –
Arose about 1.5 million yr ago with cranial capacity 900 - 950 cc (Java ape man).
Homo erectus used fire and probably eat meat.
(7) Neanderthal-
Arose about 1, 00,000 - 40,000 year back, near east and central Asia.
Cranial capacity-1400 cc
Neanderthal used hides to protect their domestic animals and himself.
First burial funeral of their dead started by Neanderthal.
(8) Homo sapiens-
Arose during ice age between 75,000-10,000 year back near Caspian Sea.
3. Cranial Capacity :
4. Other Information: First civilized man, cave dweller and also used
hides for themselves and domesticated animals. Believes in
mortality of soul, burial funeral started first.
9. Man of future
Homo sapiens futuralis. A prediction by American anthropologist Dr. Saprio.
(1) Common ancestry as well as closest relative of man and Ape comes through Similarities in -
i. Chromosome number 46 and 48
ii. Banding pattern of chromosome (3 and 6 chromosome of Human and Ape are apparently
same in Banding pattern)
iii. D.N.A. content
(2) Total amount of DNA in human and Apes is not much different. This proves that Apes are more closer to
human than monkeys.
(3) Some other evidences that support common ancestry of great apes and man-
i. Presence of nearly similar types of blood protein
ii. About 99% homology in Hb of man and apes.
iii. Presence of two A and B blood groups in Apes but not in monkeys and M, N, Rh+, Protein also.
iv. Amino Acid sequence of cytochrome C is similar in man and chimpanzee.
(4) DNA – DNA Hybridization done by Billhoyer between Apes and Man and showed that there exist 2.5%
difference between the chimpanzee and man while about 10% in monkey and man.
Man is presumed to have originated with 48 chromosome by centric fusion (Fusion of two pair of chromo
somes to form two chromosomes)
Proconsal: Gave Rise to chimpanzee and Gorilla and considered the direct ancestor of these two apes.
It moved upon 4 limbs and hence is not considered among the direct ancestor of man.
Ramapithecus: Shivapithecus Ramapithecus Man line of human evolution was widely accepted.
How ever this theory was propounded when our fossil records of Ramapithecus included very few bone
fragments. Recently a skull of this fossil has been excavated from china. The molar of this fossil closely
resembles those of Dryopithecus. Naturally, this discovery has rendered the theory of Shivapithecus
Ramapithecus Man genealogy very doubtfull. It has indicated that both Shivapithecus and Ramapithecus
were more likely to be ancestor of Ape line which led to the evolution of modern orangutan. After this discov-
ery Ramapithecus shifted from hominid family to ape family.
Phylum : Chordata
Sub-phylum : Vertibrata
Class : Mammalia
Order : Primates
Sub-order : Anthropoidea
Super-family : Hominoidea
Family : Hominidae
Genus : Homo
The random changes in the allele frequency occurring by chance alone are called genetic drift.
Type (II) : Short Answer Type Questions : [02 Marks Each]
4. What is meant by analogous organ? Taking a suitable example, explain how they support the theory of
organic evolution.
5. What is speciation?
6. Explain Disruptive Nature of selection ?
Type (III) : Long Answer Type Questions : [03 Mark Each]
7. How does industrial melanism explain Darwin's theory of Natural Selection?
8. What are fossils? Mention any two way in which the study of fossils support biological evolution of an
organism.
9. Explain Evidence from fossils for Evolution
Type (IV) : Very Long Answer Type Questions: [05 Mark Each]
10. Explain Darwinism and criticism
11. Explain in brief regarding origin of source of variation.
12. Explain in brief regarding human evolution.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Origin of Life
1. Earth originated in the past period of about
(1) 4· 5 billion years (2) 8·0 billion years (3) 3 billion years (4) 1 billion years
2. Atmosphere of earth just before the origin of life consisted of
(1) Water vapours, CH4, NH3 and Oxygen (2) CO2, NH3 and CH4
(3) CH4, NH3, H2 and water vapours (4) CH4, 03, O2 and water vapours
3. Life originated in
(1) Air (2) Soil (3) Mountains (4) Water
4. Spontaneous generation theory of origin of life was disproved through experiment involving swan-neck
flasks by
(1) Van Helmont (2) Reddi (3) Louis Pasteur (4) Spallanzani
Evidences of Evolution
33. Correct order is
(1) Palaeozoic Archaeozoic Coenozoic
(2) Archaeozoic Palaeozoic Proterozoic
(3) Palaeozoic Mesozoic Coenozoic
(4) Mesozoic Archaeozoic Proterozoic
34. Haeckel’s biogenetic law or recapitulation theory states that
(1) Life history of an animal reflects evolutionary history of the same species
(2) Progeny resembles parents
(3) Mutilations are acquired characters
(4) All organisms begin their life from zygote
Human evolution
85. Cranial capacity was highest in
(1) Cro-Magnon Man (2) Neanderthal Man (3) Java Man (4) Peking Man
86. Which one is the closest to modern man?
(1) Peking Man (2) Cro-Magnon Man (3) Java Ape Man (4) African Man
87. Peking Man was known as
(1) Australopithecus (2) Pithecanthropus (3) Homo sapiens (4) Sinanthropus
88. Which one of the following is closest relative of man?
(1) Sinanthropus / Chimpanzee (2) Orang Utan
(3) Gorilla (4) Gibbon
89. Evolution of Man is believed to have taken place in
(1) Central America (2) Australia (3) Asia (4) Africa
90. Cro-Magnon Man was
(1) Sanguivorous (2) Frugivorous (3) Carnivorous (4) Herbivorous
91. Primate closest to humans in evolution is
(1) Lemur (2) New World Monkey (3) Gorilla (4) Tree Shrew
92. Which one of the following was the first to stand erect/show bipedal movement,?
(1) Peking Man (2) Australopithecus (3) Java man (4) Cro-Magnon Man
93. Fossil man expert in making cave paintings and tools was
(1) Cro-Magnon Man (2) Peking Man (3) Java Man (4) Neanderthal man
94. Pithecanthropus was discovered in
(1) China (2) Germany (3) Java (4) Africa.
95. Fire was used possibly for cooking and protection first by
(1) Peking man (2) Cro-Magnon Man (3) Neanderthal Man (4) Modern Man
96. Direct ancestral race of Modern Man was possibly
(1) Neanderthal Man (2) Cro-Magnon Man (3) Peking Man (4) Java Man.
97. Java Ape Man was discovered by
(1) Dubois (2) Leakey (3) Cuvier (4) Black
Theories of Evolution
118. For its entry into gene pool a mutation must occur in
(1) Centriole (3) Somatic RNA (2) Plasma proteins (4) Germplasm DNA.
119. 'Survival of Fittest' was used by
(1) Charles Darwin (2) Herbert Spencer (3) Jean Baptiste Lamarck (4) Hugo de Vries
120. Who believed that an organ in disuse will become vestigial ?
(1) Lamarck (2) De Vries (3) Mendel (4) Darwin.
121. Neo-Darwinism believes that new species develop through
(1) Mutations with natural selection (2) Continuous variations with natural selection
(3) Hybridisation (4) Mutations.
122. Some organisms, escape detection from enemies by resembling other organisms. The phenomenon is-
(1) Homology (2) Mimicry (3) Artificial selection (4) Natural selection.
123. Galapagos Islands were visited by
(1) Wallace (2) Darwin (3) Lamarck (4) De Vries
124. A very important factor in evolution of a new species is
(1) Extensive inbreeding (2) Extensive outbreeding (3) Reproductive isolation (4) Immigration.
125. Theory of inheritance of acquired characters was given by
(1) Wallace (2) Lamarck (3) Darwin (4) De Vries
126. 'Origin of Species' was written by
(1) Oparin (2) Weismann (3) Lamarck (4) Darwin
127. "Continuity of gerrnplasm" theory was given by
(1) De Vries (2) Weismann (3) Darwin (4) Lamarck
128. 'Philosophie Zooligique' was written by
(1) De Vries (2) Lamarck (3) Mendel (4) Spencer
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Along the length of a river exists a species of Catla fish. In order to provide electricity to the adjoining
villages, a hydroelectric dam is built that separates the lower river area from a newly formed lake above.
After many, many years, the Catla fish in the river and lake are sampled and found to be phenotypically
very different. Which of the scenarios listed below is the best hypothesis to explain the observed changes?
(1) The presence of the dam increased the amount of random mating that occurred between the river and
lake fish, and natural selection selected for the best-fit organisms in both the populations.
(2) The newly built dam caused a genetic drift and the two different founder populations diverged exten-
sively leading to the appearance of two different species
(3) The electricity produced in the dam caused mutations in the river fish, and natural selection selected
for the best-fit organisms in both locations.
(4) The dam caused different environmental conditions to be formed in the lake versus the river, populations
accumulated mutations, and natural selection selected for the best-fit organisms, which survived in both
environments.
2. Which are actual evidence supporting the endosymbiotic theory for the origin of eukaryotes?
(1) fossil evidence suggest early eukaryotes ate proteobacteria
(2) free-living mitochondria still exist in some environments
(3) mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA
(4) all of the above are true
(5) none of the above are true
AIIMS CORNER
1. A compound important in prebiotic evolution was (AIIMS 1997, Har. PMT 2000)
(1) SO2 (2) CH4 (3) SO3 (4) NO
2. Which ones are the most essential for origin of life? (AIIMS-2001)
(1) Enzymes (2) Proteins (3) Carbohydrates (4) Nucleic acids
3. Which is a pair of vestigial organs? (AIIMS-2002)
(1) Coccyx and intercostal muscles (2) Coccyx and auricular muscles
(3) Facial hairs in ladies (4) Coccyx and premolars
4. The early stage human embryo distinctly possesses (AIIMS-2003)
(1) Gills (2) Gill slits (3) External ear (Pinna) (4) Eye brows
5. Age of fossils in the past was generally determined by ratio-carbon method and other methods involving
radioactive elements found in the rocks. More precise methods, which were used recently and led to the
revision of the evolutionary period for different groups of organisms, includes [AIIMS 2007]
(1) Study of carbohydrates/protein in fossils
(2) Study of the conditions of fossilization
(3) Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) and fossil DNA
(4) Study of carbohydrates/protein in rocks.
6. During development mammalian heart is initially two chambered, then three chambered and finally four
chambered. It is explained by (CBSE-1998, AlIMS 2007)
(1) Biogenetic law (2) Hardy-Weinberg law (3) Mendelism (4) Lamarckism
7. Age of fossils was previously determined by radioactive elements. More precise recent method which has
led to revision of evolutionary periods is (CBSE-2004, AIIMS 2007)
(1) Study of carbohydrate and protein in fossils
(2) Study of conditions of fossilisation
(3) Electrons spin resonance and fossil DNA
(4) Presence of carbohydrate and protein in rocks
8. Potato and Sweet Potato have edible parts which are (AIIMS-2004, DPMT-2008)
(1) Homologous (2) Analogous
(3) Recent introductions (4) Two species of the same genus
Evidences of Evolution
83. Phylogeny is (MPPMT-1998, MBTCET-
2007)
(1) Development stages of an individual (2) Castes of flies
(3) Development of an organ (4) Developmental history of race
84. Human hand, wing of bat and flipper of whale represent (BHU-1998)
(1) Analogous organs (2) Vestigial organs (3) Homologous organs (4) Evolutionary organs
85. Existence of marsupials in Australia and New Zealand proves (CPMT-1998)
(1) Continental drift (2) Geological period (3) New evolution (4) Both A and B
86. Evolution is (CPMT-1998)
(1) Development of DNA from nucleotides (2) Development of organism through time
(3) Development of a cell from chemicals (4) Cloning
87. Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany is located in (CPMT-1998, BBU-2002)
(1) Lucknow (2) Delhi (3) Calcutta (4) Jodhpur
88. A connecting link between two phyla is (RPMT-1998)
(1) Archaeopteryx-Aves and Mammalia (2) Amphioxus - Echinodermata and Chordata
(3) Peripetus - Annelida and Arthropoda (4) Orninthorhyncus - Aves and Reptilia
89. A vestigial organ in humans is (CPMT-1999, BV-2006, JKCMEE-
2008)
(1) Ear Pinna (2) Nictitating membrane
(3) Mammary glands in males (4) Knee bone
90. In which era had life not originated (AFMC-1999)
(1) Palaeozoic (2) Archaeozoic (3) Azoic (4) Mesozoic
91. Branch of botany dealing with distribution of plants is (EAMCET-1999)
(1) Ecology (2) Phytogeography (3) Phytology (4) Phytoecology
90. Wings of Bat, Locust and Pigeon are (EAMCET-1999)
(1) Vestigial organs (2) Exoskeletal structures
(3) Homologous organs (4) Analogous organs
93. A vestigial tooth is (DPMT-1999)
(1) Incisor (2) Molar (3) Premolar (4) Canine
(1) Brachiasm (2) Smaller jaws (3) Larger jaws (4) Cannibalism.
227. Taung baby is (AMU-2003)
(1) Dryopithecus (2) Australopithecus (3) Peking Man (4) Piltdown man
228. Centre of human evolution was (AMU-2003)
(1) Ethiopian realm (2) Oriental realm (3) Palaearctic realm (4) Neotropical realm.
229. Which one is correct (JKMEE-2003)
(1) Australopithecus is real ancestor of man
(2) Homo erectus is real ancestor of man
(3) Neanderthal man is direct ancestor Homo sapiens
(4) None of the above
230. What evidence suggests that Chimpanzee is more closely related to humans than other hominoid apes
(1) DNA from sex chromosomes only (CBSE-2004)
(2) Chromosome morphology only
(3) Fossil remains
(4) DNA of both autosomes and sex chromosomes
231. Which one is closer to man? (MP PMT-2004)
(1) Dryopithecus (2) Orangutan (3) Gibbon (4) Proconsul
232. There are two opposing views about origin of modern man. According to one view Homo erectus in Asia
was ancestor of modern man. A study of variations of DNA , however suggested African origin of modern
man. What kind of observation on DNA variations could suggest this (CBSE-2005)
(1) Greater variation in Asia than in Africa (2)Greater variation in Africa than in Asia
(3) Similar variation in Africa and Asia (4) Variation only in Asia and no variation in Africa.
233. Name given to fossil hominid or Shivalik hills in India is (Orissa 2005)
(1) Ramapithecus (2) Australopithecus (3) Pithecanthropus (4) lndratherium
234. Which of the following statement is correct about Cro-Magnon Man? (Wardha 2005)
(1) Cro-Magnon man is an advanced stage of man’s evolution more advanced than Homo erectus
(2) Predecessor of Homo neanderthalensis.
(3) Direct ancestor of modern man
(4) Cro-Magnon man lived during last ice age
235. Which is correct? (AMUPMDC-2006, BHU-2007)
(1) Homo erectus is the immediate ancestor of man
(2) Cro-Magnon man’s fossil has been found in Ethiopia
(3) Australopithecus is the real ancestor of man
(4) Cro-Magnon man is the most recent ancestor of Homo sapiens
Theories of Evolution
243. Individuals of a species which occur in a particular area constitute
(CPMT-1983, 1984, BHU-1998, JIPMER-1997, Kerala 2002)
(1) Flora (2) Fauna (3) Community (4) Population.
244. Darwin wrote "Origin of Species" in (ManipaI1999, CPMT-2002, Har. PMT-2005)
(1) 1530 (2) 1795 (3) 1859 (4) 1895.
245. Which is related to reproductive isolation? (E.A.M.C.E.T. 1999)
(1) Genetic isolation (2) Behavioural isolation (3) Temporal isolation (4)All the above
246. Gene pool of a population tends to remain stable if the population is large,' without large scale mutations,
without migration and with (B.H.U.2000)
(1) Random mating (2) Moderate environmental changes
(3) Natural selection (4) Reduction in predators
247. Naturalist who sailed round the world in ship Beagle was (A.M.U. 2000, Orissa 2008)
(1) CharIes Lyell (2) Charles Darwin (3) Alfred Wallace (4) Lamarck
248. The theory that environment can bring about changes in individuals was proposed by (A.M.U. 2000)
(1) Mendel (2) Darwin (3) Lamarck (4) Lyell
249. Darwin's theory states that (C.E.T. Chd. 2000, Pb. P.M.T. 2002)
(1) Characters are acquired through inheritance
(2) Species change morphologically with time
(3) Nature selects organisms which can adapt
(4) Evolution is due to effect of environment.
250. The animal that explains industrial melanism is (K.C.E.T. 2000)
(1) Lizard (2) Peppered Moth (3) Monkey (4) Frog
251. Lederberg's replica experiment explains (Pb. P.M.T. 2000)
(1) Lamarck's theory (2) Mutation theory (3) Darwin's theory (4) None of the above
307. To Cuvier, the differences in fossils from different strata were evidences for (Pb. PMT-2005)
(1) Divine creation (2) Evolution by natural selection
(3) Local catastrophic events (4) Continental drift.
308. Reproduction can occur within members (AMU 2005)
(1) Genus (2) Species (3) Family (4) Order.
309. Which of these cells are immortal? (AMU-2005, MPPMT-2007)
(1) Germ cells (2) Liver cells (3) Kidney cells (4) Neurons.
310. According to Darwin which one is not of much importance in formation of species. (Manipur 2006)
(1) Over-production (2) Survival of the fittest
(3) Struggle for existence and variations (4) Inheritance of acquired characters
311. Which cannot be explained by Lamarckism (Orissa 2006)
(1) Loss of tail by humans (2) Elongation of neck in Giraffe
(3) Weak progeny of a Nobel laureate (4) None of the above.
312. Nondirectional force altering Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is (Orissa 2006)
(1) Genetic drift (2) Gene flow (3) Gene recombination (4) Mutation
313. Struggle for existence and survival of the fittest theories were proposed hy (C.P.M.T. 2007)
(1) Darwin (2) Lamarck (3) Wallace (4) None of the above
314. Which is related to evolution (C.P.M.T. 2007)
(1) Reproduction (2) Competition (3) Variations (4) Extinction.
315. Which is not a concept of Lamarckism (C.P.M.T. 2007)
(1) Rate and survival of organisms are different due to variations
(2) Environmental pressure produces variations
(3) An organ in constant use will grow ill size
(4) lnheritance of acquired characters
316. Species are differentiated on the basis of (MP-PMT-2007)
(1) Interbreeding (2) Reproductive isolation
(3) Species diversity (4) None of the above
317. Two related populations occupying geographically separate area are (Keraia 2007)
(1) Allopatrie populations (2) Parapatrie populations
(3) Quantum populations (4) Saltational populations
(5) Sympatric populations.
(1) a-4, b-3, c-1, d-5, e-2 (2) a-4, b-3, c-5, d-1, e-6
(3) a-4, b-2, c-5, d-3, e-1 (4) a-2, 6-3, c-1, d-5, e-6
(5) a-3, 6-4, c-1, a-5, e-2
327. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is influenced by gene flow, genetic drift, mutation, genetic recombination and
(1) Evolution (2) Limiting factor (3) Over-production (4) 'Natural selection
(5) Saltation (Keraia 2008)
328. What is correct formulation Hardy-Weinberg law?
(1) p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 (2) p2 +pq + q2 = 1 (3) p2 + 2pq + q2 = 0 (4) p2 + pq + q2 = 0
329. Industrial melanism is connected with (DPMT-2009)
(1) Defence against UV radiations (2) Skin darkening due to smoke
(3) Protective resemblance to surroundings (4) Drug resistance
PART- 2
1. Fossils are preserved remains, traceces or prints of organism that lived in past.
2. (i) Vermiform appendix (ii) Tail vertibrae
3. (ii) Genetic Drift: (Sewall wright effect) – “Drift is a binomial sampling errors of the gene pool.” Sampling errors
(error in gene pool of next generation mean gametic error) by chance often lead to the elimination of certain
alleles and fixation of other and it ultimately cause the loss of genetic diversity.
OR
The random changes in the allele frequency occurring by chance alone are called genetic drift.
4. The organs which have different developmental origin and structural design but perform similar functions are
called analogus organs. The wings of birds and insects are analogous organs indicating that they have
different ancestors but show a convergent evolution.
5. Formation of one or more new species from pre-existing species.
EXERCISE - 1
1. (1) 2. (3) 3. (4) 4. (3) 5. (1)
6. (4) 7. (1) 8. (3) 9. (4) 10. (2)
11. (4) 12. (4) 13. (3) 14. (2) 15. (1)
16. (2) 17. (3) 18. (3) 19. (1) 20. (1)
21. (2) 22. (3) 23. (2) 24. (2) 25. (3)
26. (3) 27. (1) 28. (1) 29. (2) 30. (2)
31. (1) 32. (4) 33. (3) 34. (1) 35. (3)
36. (2) 37. (1) 38. (4) 39. (4) 40. (2)
41. (2) 42. (3) 43. (4) 44. (3) 45. (3)
46. (1) 47. (1) 48. (4) 49. (2) 50. (3)
51. (2) 52. (1) 53. (4) 54. (1) 55. (2)
56. (1) 57. (2) 58. (1) 59. (3) 60. (2)
61. (3) 62. (3) 63. (2) 64. (1) 65. (1)
66. (3) 67. (3) 68. (1) 69. (1) 70. (3)
71. (2) 72. (3) 73. (2) 74. (4) 75. (3)
76. (3) 77. (2) 78. (3) 79. (1) 80. (2)
81. (2) 82. (2) 83. (1) 84. (4) 85. (1)
86. (2) 87. (4) 88. (1) 89. (4) 90. (3)
91. (3) 92. (2) 93. (1) 94. (3) 95. (1)
96. (2) 97. (1) 98. (2) 99. (3) 100. (3)
101. (3) 102. (4) 103. (3) 104. (1) 105. (3)
106. (2) 107. (4) 108. (2) 109. (1) 110. (3)
111. (2) 112. (4) 113. (1) 114. (1) 115. (2)
116. (1) 117. (4) 118. (4) 119. '(2) 120. (1)
121. (1) 122. (2) 123. (2) 124. (3) 125. (2)
126. '(4) 127. (2) 128. '(2) 129. (2) 130. (4)
131. (2) 132. (4) 133. (2) 134. (4) 135. (1)
136. (3) 137. (2) 138. (3) 139. (4) 140. (4)
141. (3) 142. (4) 143. (4) 144. (4) 145. (1)
EXERCISE - 2
1. (4) 2. (3) 3. (3) 4. (4) 5. (2)
6. (5) 7. (3) 8. (1) 9. (5) 10. (2)
11. (2)
EXERCISE - 3
1. (2) 2. (4) 3. (2) 4. (2) 5. (3)
6. (1) 7. (3) 8. (2) 9. (4) 10. (2)
11. (4) 12. (4) 13. (1) 14. (1) 15. (1)
16. (4) 17. (1) 18. (1) 19. (1) 20. (2)
21. (2) 22. (2) 23. (2) 24. (1) 25. (2)
26. (3) 27. (3) 28. (1) 29. (3) 30. (4)
31. (2) 32. (1) 33. (2) 34. (4) 35. (1)
36. (2) 37. (2) 38. (1)
EXERCISE - 4
PART- 1
1. (3) 2. (4) 3. (4) 4. (4) 5. (3)
6. (2) 7. (1) 8. (1) 9. (4) 10. (1)
11. (1) 12. (2) 13. (4) 14. (1) 15. (1)
16. (2) 17. (1) 18. (3) 19. (4) 20. (2)
21. (1) 22. (3) 23. (2) 24. (4) 25. (3)
26. (3) 27. (4) 28. (2) 29. (1) 30. (3)
31. (2) 32. (1) 33. (2) 34. (1) 35. (4)
36. (4) 37. (2) 38. (2) 39. (3) 40. (4)
41. (4) 42. (3) 43. (1) 44. (4) 45. (3)
46. (2) 47. (2) 48. (2) 49. (2) 50. (4)
51. (3) 52. (1) 53. (2) 54. (3) 55. (1)
56. (2) 57. (2) 58. (3) 59. (4) 60. (2)
61. (3) 62. (1) 63. (3) 64. (4) 65. (4)
66. (3) 67. (2) 68. (3) 69. (4) 70. (3)
71. (4) 72. (1) 73. (3) 74. (1) 75. (3)
76. (1) 77. (3) 78. (3) 79. (2) 80. (4)
81. (4) 82. (3) 83. (4) 84. (3) 85. (4)
86. (2) 87. (1) 88. (3) 89. (2) 90. (3)
91. (2) 92. (4) 93. (2) 94. (3) 95. (1)
96. (2 97. (2) 98. (1) 99. (3) 100. (4)
101. (3) 102. (3) 103. (3) 104. (2) 105. (3)
106. (4) 107. (1) 108. (1) 109. (2) 110. (3)
111. (3) 112. (3) 113. (2) 114. (1) 115. (3)
From the original seed-eating features, many other forms with altered beaks arose, enabling them to
become insectivorous and vegetarian finches.
This process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from a point and
literally radiating to other areas of geography (habitats) is called adaptive radiation.
3. (a) Gene frequencies in a population are stable, constant from generation to generation, until some
change in frequency happens, due to some factor
(b) gene migration / gene flow / gene drift / mutation / genetic recombination / natural selection
4. They are similar in function. Thus we infer that these organs are analogous which has resulted in conver-
gent evolution.
5. Before industrial revolution the environment was unpolluted. The lichens on the barks of trees were pale.
The white-winged moths could easily camouflage, while the dark-winged were spotted out by the birds for
food. Hence, they could not survive. After industrial revolution the lichens became dark (due to soot de-
posit).
This favoured the dark-winged moths while the white-winged were picked by birds. The population of the
former which was naturally selected increased.
6. Hugo de Vries based his work on evening primrose, brought forth the idea of mutations - differences arising
suddenly in a population, He believed large single step mutation called saltation, caused speciation.